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HL IB Physics Your notes

Gravitational Fields
Contents
Newton's Law of Gravitation
Gravitational Field Strength
Gravitational Field Lines
Gravitational Potential (HL)
Gravitational Potential Energy in a Non-Uniform Field (HL)
Gravitational Potential Energy Equation (HL)
Gravitational Potential Gradient (HL)
Gravitational Equipotential Surfaces (HL)
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion
Escape Speed (HL)
Orbital Motion, Speed & Energy (HL)
Effects of Drag on Orbital Motion (HL)

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Newton's Law of Gravitation

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Newton's Law of Gravitation
The gravitational force between two bodies outside a uniform field, e.g. between the Earth and the
Sun, is defined by Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Newton’s Law of Gravitation states that:
The gravitational force between two point masses is proportional to the product of the
masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation
All planets and stars are assumed to be point masses
In equation form, this can be written as:
Gm 1 m 2
F=
r2
Where:
F = gravitational force between two masses (N)
G = Newton's Gravitational Constant
m1 and m2 = mass of body 1 and mass of body 2 (kg)
r = distance between the centre of the two masses (m)

The gravitational force between two masses outside a uniform field is defined by Newton’s Law of
Gravitation
Although planets are not point masses, their separation is much larger than their radius
Therefore, Newton’s law of gravitation applies to planets orbiting the Sun

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1
The F ∝ 2 relation is called the inverse square law
r Your notes
This means that when a mass is twice as far away from another, its force due to gravity reduces by (½)2 =
¼

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Worked example
Your notes
A satellite of mass 6500 kg orbits at 2000 km above the Earth's surface. The gravitational force
between the Earth and the satellite is 37 kN.
Calculate the mass of the Earth.
Radius of the Earth = 6400 km
Answer:

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
A common mistake in exams is to forget to add together the distance from the surface of the planet
and its radius to obtain the value of r. The distance r is measured from the centre of the mass, which is
from the centre of the planet.
Make sure to square the separation r in the equation!

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Gravitational Field Strength

Your notes
Gravitational Field Strength
There is a universal force of attraction between all matter with mass
This force is known as the ‘force due to gravity’ or the weight
The Earth’s gravitational field is responsible for the weight of all objects on Earth
A gravitational field is defined as:
A region of space where a test mass experiences a force due to the gravitational
attraction of another mass
The direction of the gravitational field is always towards the centre of the mass causing the field
Gravitational forces are always attractive
Gravity has an infinite range, meaning it affects all objects in the universe
There is a greater gravitational force around objects with a large mass (such as planets)
There is a smaller gravitational force around objects with a small mass (almost negligible for
atoms)

The Earth's gravitational field produces an attractive force. The force of gravity is always attractive
The gravitational field strength at a point is defined as:
The force per unit mass experienced by a test mass at that point
This can be written in equation form as:

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F
g=
m Your notes
Where:
g = gravitational field strength (N kg−1)
F = force due to gravity, or weight (N)
m = mass of test mass in the field (kg)
This equation shows that:
On planets with a large value of g, the gravitational force per unit mass is greater than on planets
with a smaller value of g
An object's mass remains the same at all points in space
However, on planets such as Jupiter, the weight of an object will be greater than on a less massive
planet, such as Earth
This means the gravitational force would be so high that humans, for example, would not be able to
fully stand up

A person’s weight on Jupiter would be so large that a human would be unable to fully stand up
Factors that affect the gravitational field strength at the surface of a planet are:
The radius r (or diameter) of the planet
The mass M (or density) of the planet
This can be shown by equating the equation F = mg with Newton's law of gravitation:

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GMm
F=
r2 Your notes
Substituting the force F with the gravitational force mg leads to:
GMm
mg =
r2
Cancelling the mass of the test mass m leads to the equation:
GM
g=
r2
Where:
G = Newton's Gravitational Constant
M = mass of the body causing the field (kg)
r = distance from the mass where you are calculating the field strength (m)
This equation shows that:
The gravitational field strength g depends only on the mass of the body M causing the field
Hence, objects with any mass m in that field will experience the same gravitational field strength
The gravitational field strength g is inversely proportional to the square of the radial distance, r2

Worked example
Calculate the mass of an object with weight 10 N on Earth.
Answer:

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Worked example
Your notes
3
The mean density of the Moon is times the mean density of the Earth. The gravitational field
5
1
strength on the Moon is the gravitational field strength on Earth.
6
Determine the ratio of the Moon's radius r to the Earth's radius r .
M E

Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities

g M = gravitational field strength on the Moon, ρ M = mean density of the Moon

g E = gravitational field strength on the Earth, ρ E = mean density of the Earth
3
ρM = ρ
5 E
1
gM = g
6 E
Step 2: Write down the equations for the gravitational field strength, volume and density

GM
Gravitational field strength: g =
r2
4 3
Volume of a sphere: V = πr ⇒ V ∝ r3
3
M 4
Density: ρ = ⇒ M = ρV = πρr 3 ⇒ M ∝ ρr 3
V 3
Step 3: Substitute the relationship between M and r into the equation for g

( r 3)
g ∝ρ ⇒ g ∝ ρr
r2
Step 4: Find the ratio of the gravitational field strength

g M ∝ ρ MrM

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g E ∝ ρ ErE
Your notes
1 1
gM = gE ⇒ ρ MrM = ρ ErE
6 6
Step 5: Substitute the ratio of the densities into the equation

⎛⎜ 3 ⎞⎟ 1
⎜ ρ E ⎟ rM = ρ ErE
⎝5 ⎠ 6
3 1
rM = rE
5 6
Step 6: Calculate the ratio of the radii

rM 1 3 5
= ÷ = = 0 . 28
rE 6 5 18

Examiner Tip
There is a big difference between g and G (sometimes referred to as ‘little g’ and ‘big G’ respectively),
g is the gravitational field strength and G is Newton’s gravitational constant. Make sure not to use these
interchangeably!

Remember the equation , which may come in handy with some calculations.
The equation for the volume of common shapes is in your data booklet.

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Gravitational Field Lines

Your notes
Point Mass Approximation
For a point outside a uniform sphere, the mass of the sphere may be considered to be a point mass at
its centre
A uniform sphere is one where its mass is distributed evenly
The gravitational field lines around a uniform sphere are therefore identical to those around a point
mass
An object can be regarded as a point mass when:
A body covers a very large distance compared to its size, so, to study its motion, its size or
dimensions can be neglected
An example of this is field lines around planets

Gravitational field lines around a uniform sphere are identical to those on a point mass
Radial fields are considered non-uniform fields
So, the gravitational field strength g is different depending on how far an object is from the centre
of mass of the sphere
Newton’s universal law of gravitation is extended to spherical masses of uniform density by assuming
that their mass is concentrated at their centre i.e point masses

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Representing Gravitational Fields

Gravitational fields represent the action of gravitational forces between masses, the direction of these Your notes
forces can be shown using vectors
The direction of the vector shows the direction of the gravitational force that would be exerted on
a mass if it was placed at that position in the field
These vectors are known as field lines (or 'lines of force')
The direction of a gravitational field is represented by gravitational field lines
Therefore, gravitational field lines also show the direction of acceleration of a mass placed in the
field
Gravitational field lines are always directed toward the centre of mass of a body
This is because gravitational forces are attractive only (they are never repulsive)
Therefore, masses always attract each other via the gravitational force
The gravitational field around a point mass will be radial in shape and the field lines will always point
towards the centre of mass

The direction of the gravitational field is shown by the vector field lines
The gravitational field lines around a point mass are radially inwards
The gravitational field lines of a uniform field, where the field strength is the same at all points, is
represented by equally spaced parallel lines
For example, the fields lines on the Earth’s surface

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Your notes

Gravitational field lines for a point mass and a uniform gravitational field
Radial fields are considered non-uniform fields
The gravitational field strength g is different depending on how far you are from the centre
Parallel field lines on the Earth’s surface are considered a uniform field
The gravitational field strength g is the same throughout

Examiner Tip
Always label the arrows on the field lines! Gravitational forces are attractive only. Remember:
For a radial field: it is towards the centre of the sphere or point charge
For a uniform field: towards the surface of the object e.g. Earth

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Gravitational Potential (HL)

Your notes
Gravitational Potential
The gravitational potential V at a point can, therefore, be defined as:
The work done per unit mass in bringing a test mass from infinity to a defined point
Gravitational potential is measured in J kg−1
It is always has a negative value because:
It is defined as having a value of zero at infinity
Since the gravitational force is attractive, work must be done on a mass to reach infinity
On the surface of a mass (such as a planet), gravitational potential has a negative value
The value becomes less negative, i.e. it increases, with distance from that mass
Work has to be done against the gravitational pull of the planet to take a unit mass away from the
planet
The gravitational potential at a point depends on:
The mass of the object
The distance from the centre of mass of the object to the point

Gravitational potential decreases as the satellite moves closer to the Earth

Calculating Gravitational Potential
The equation for gravitational potential V is defined by the mass M and distance r:

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GM
Vg = −
r Your notes
Where:
Vg = gravitational potential (J kg−1)
G = Newton’s gravitational constant
M = mass of the body producing the gravitational field (kg)
r = distance from the centre of the mass to the point mass (m)
The gravitational potential always is negative near an isolated mass, such as a planet, because:
The potential when r is at infinity (∞) is defined as zero
Work must be done to move a mass away from a planet (V becomes less negative)
It is also a scalar quantity, unlike the gravitational field strength which is a vector quantity
Gravitational forces are always attractive, this means as r decreases, positive work is done by the mass
when moving from infinity to that point
When a mass is closer to a planet, its gravitational potential becomes smaller (more negative)
As a mass moves away from a planet, its gravitational potential becomes larger (less negative) until
it reaches 0 at infinity
This means when the distance r becomes very large, the gravitational force tends rapidly towards zero
the further away the point is from a planet

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Your notes

Gravitational potential increases and decreases depending on whether the object is travelling towards
or against the field lines from infinity

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Worked example
Your notes
A planet has a diameter of 7600 km and a mass of 3.5 × 1023 kg. A meteor of mass 6000 kg accelerates
towards the planet from infinity.
Calculate the gravitational potential of the rock at a distance of 400 km above the planet's surface.
Answer:
The gravitational potential at a point is
GM
Vg = −
r
Where r is the distance from the centre of the planet to the point i.e. the radius of the planet + the
height above the planet's surface
7600
r= + 400 = 4200 km
2
And M is the mass of the larger mass, i.e. the planet (not the meteor)
(6 . 67 × 10−11 ) × (3 . 5 × 1023 )
Vg = − = − 5 . 6 × 106 J kg−1
4200 × 103

Examiner Tip
Notice the red herring in the worked example. You do not need the mass m of the meteor, as M in the
equation for gravitational potential is only the mass of the object creating the gravitational field. m will
come into play with gravitational potential energy.

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Gravitational Potential Energy in a Non-Uniform Field (HL)

Your notes
Gravitational Potential Energy in a Non-Uniform Field
In a radial field, gravitational potential energy (GPE) describes the energy an object possesses due to
its position in a gravitational field
The gravitational potential energy of a system is defined as:
The work done to assemble the system from infinite separation of the components of the
system
Similarly, the gravitational potential energy of a point mass is defined as:
The work done in bringing a mass from infinity to a point

Near the Earth's Surface

The gravitational potential energy near the Earth's surface is equal to
E = mg ∆ h
p

The GPE on the surface of the Earth is taken to be zero

This means work is done to lift the object
This equation can only be used for objects that are near the Earth's surface
This is because, near Earth's surface, the gravitational field is approximated to be uniform
Far away from the Earth's surface, the gravitational field is radial because the Earth is a sphere

Examiner Tip
You should be able to interpret areas under curves by thinking about what the product of the
quantities on the axes would represent. Since, in this case, force × distance = work done, then it
follows that the area under the curve represents the change in energy between two points.
Specifically, this would be a change in gravitational potential energy.
The equation GPE = mgΔh is very rarely used in this topic. This is only relevant for objects on a planet's
surface.
The only difference between GPE and g is GPE = mg where m is the mass of the object in the
gravitational field of mass M.
This equation is not given on your data booklet, but you must understand its significance

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Gravitational Potential Energy Equation (HL)

Your notes
Work Done on a Mass
When a mass is moved against the force of gravity, work is required
This is because gravity is attractive, therefore, energy is needed to work against this attractive
force
The work done in moving a mass m is given by:
∆W = m ∆V g

Where:
ΔW = change in work done (J)
m = mass (kg)
ΔVg = change in gravitational potential (J kg−1)

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Worked example
Your notes
A particle of mass 50 g is moved vertically from point A to point B, as shown in the diagram.
Take the gravitational field strength to be 10 N kg−1.

Determine
(a) the potential difference between A and B
(b) the work done in moving the mass from A to B

Answer:
(a)
The work done in moving a mass in a gravitational field is:
W = m ∆ V and W = mg ∆ h (close to the Earth's surface)
m ∆ V = mg ∆ h ⇒ ∆V = g ∆h

Where the change in height is ∆ h = 35 − 10 = 25 m

Therefore, the potential difference between A and B is:
∆ V = 10 × 25 = 250 J kg−1
(b)
The work done in moving the mass from A to B is:
W = m ∆V
W = ( 50 × 10−3) × 250 = 12. 5 J

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Gravitational Potential Energy Equation

In a radial field, gravitational potential energy (GPE) describes the energy an object possesses due to Your notes
its position in a gravitational field
The gravitational potential energy of a system is defined as:
The work done to assemble the system from infinite separation of the components of the
system
Similarly, the gravitational potential energy of a point mass is defined as:
The work done in bringing a mass from infinity to a point
The equation for GPE of two point masses m and M at a distance r is:
Gm 1 m 2
Ep = −
r
Where:
G = universal gravitational constant (N m2 kg–2)
m1 = larger mass producing the field (kg)
m2 = mass moving within the field of M (kg)
r = distance between the centre of m and M (m)

Gravitational potential energy increases as a satellite leaves the surface of the Moon (of mass M)
Recall that Newton's Law of Gravitation relates the magnitude of the force F between two masses M
and m:
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Gm 1 m 2
F=
r2 Your notes
Therefore, a force-distance graph would be a curve, because F is inversely proportional to r2, or:
1
F∝
r2
The product of force and distance is equal to work done (or energy transferred)
Therefore, the area under the force-distance graph for gravitational fields is equal to the work done
In the case of a mass m moving further away from a mass M, the potential increases
Since gravity is attractive, this requires work to be done on the mass m
The area between two points under the force-distance curve, therefore, gives the change in
gravitational potential energy of mass m

Work is done on the satellite of mass m to move it from A to B, because gravity is attractive. The area
under the curve represents the magnitude of energy transferred
Change in Gravitational Potential Energy
Two points at different distances from a mass will have different gravitational potentials
This is because the gravitational potential increases with distance from a mass
Therefore, there will be a gravitational potential difference ΔV between the two points
∆V = V − V f i

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Where:
V i = initial gravitational potential (J kg–1)
Your notes
V f = final gravitational potential (J kg–1)
The change in work done against a gravitational field is equal to the change in gravitational potential
energy (GPE)
When V = 0, then the GPE = 0
It is usually more useful to find the change in the GPE of a system
For example, a satellite lifted into space from the Earth’s surface
The change in GPE when a mass moves towards, or away from, another mass is given by:
Gm 1 m 2 ⎜ ⎛ Gm 1 m 2 ⎞⎟
∆E p = − − ⎜⎜⎜− ⎟⎟
r2 r1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
∆ E p = Gm 1 m 2 ⎜⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
r1 r2
⎝ ⎠
Where:
m1 = mass that is producing the gravitational field (e.g. a planet) (kg)
m2 = mass that is moving in the gravitational field (e.g. a satellite) (kg)
r1 = first distance of m from the centre of M (m)
r2 = second distance of m from the centre of M (m)
The change in potential ΔVg is the same, without the mass of the object m2:
Gm 1 ⎛⎜ Gm 1 ⎞⎟
∆V g = − − ⎜⎜⎜− ⎟⎟
r2 r1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
∆ V g = Gm 1 ⎜⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
r1 r2
⎝ ⎠
Work is done when an object in a planet's gravitational field moves against the gravitational field lines
i.e. away from the planet

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Worked example
Your notes
A spacecraft of mass 300 kg leaves the surface of Mars up to an altitude of 700 km.
Calculate the work done by the spacecraft.
Radius of Mars = 3400 km
Mass of Mars, m1 = 6.40 × 1023 kg
Answer:
The change in GPE is equal to
⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
∆ E p = Gm 1 m 2 ⎜⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
r1 r2
⎝ ⎠
Where
r1 = radius of Mars = 3400 km
r2 = radius + altitude = 3400 + 700 = 4100 km
⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
∆ E p = (6 . 67 × 10−11 ) × (6 . 40 × 1023 ) × 300 × ⎜⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 3400 × 103 4100 × 103 ⎠

Work done by satellite: ∆ E = 643 . 1 × 106 = 640 MJ (2 s.f.)

p

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Worked example
Your notes
A satellite of mass 1450 kg moves from an orbit of 980 km above the Earth’s surface to a lower orbit of
480 km.
Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy of the satellite.
Mass of the Earth = 5.97 × 1024 kg
Radius of the Earth = 6.38 × 106 m
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Initial height above Earth’s surface, h1 = 980 km
Final height above Earth’s surface, h2 = 480 km
Mass of the satellite, m1 = 1450 kg
Mass of the Earth, m2 = 5.97 × 1024 kg
Radius of the Earth, R = 6.38 × 106 m
Step 2: Write down the equation for change in gravitational potential energy

⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
∆ E p = Gm 1 m 2 ⎜⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
r1 r2
⎝ ⎠
Step 3: Convert distances into standard units and include Earth radius
Distance from centre of Earth to higher orbit:
r =h +
1 1
R

r 1 = (980 × 103) + (6.38 × 106) = 7.36 × 106 m

Distance from centre of Earth to lower orbit:
r =2
h2 + R

r 2 = (480 × 103) + (6.38 × 106) = 6.86 × 106 m

Step 4: Substitute values into the equation

⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
∆ E p = (6 . 67 × 10−11 ) × (5 . 97 × 1024 ) × 1450 × ⎜⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 7 . 36 × 106 6 . 86 × 106 ⎠
Change in gravitational potential energy: ΔEp = 5.72 × 109 J

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Make sure to not confuse the ΔEp equation with ΔE = mgΔh, they look similar but refer to quite different
situations.
The more familiar equation is only relevant for an object lifted in a uniform gravitational field, meaning
very close to the Earth’s surface, where we can model the field as uniform.
The new equation for Ep does not include g. The gravitational field strength, which is different on
different planets, does not remain constant as the distance from the surface increases. Gravitational
field strength falls away according to the inverse square law.
The change in gravitational potential energy is the work done.

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Gravitational Potential Gradient (HL)

Your notes
Gravitational Potential Gradient
A gravitational field can be defined in terms of the variation of gravitational potential at different points
in the field:
The gravitational field at a particular point is equal to the negative gradient of a potential-
distance graph at that point
The potential gradient is defined by the equipotential lines
These demonstrate the gravitational potential in a gravitational field and are always drawn
perpendicular to the field lines
The potential gradient in a gravitational field is defined as:
The rate of change of gravitational potential with respect to displacement in the direction
of the field
Gravitational field strength, g and the gravitational potential, V can be graphically represented against
the distance from the centre of a planet, r
∆V g
g= −
∆r
Where:
g = gravitational field strength (N kg-1)
ΔVg = change in gravitational potential (J kg-1)
Δr = distance from the centre of a point mass (m)
The graph of Vg against r for a planet is:

The gravitational potential and distance graphs follow a -1/r relation

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The key features of this graph are:

The values for Vg are all negative (because the graph is drawn below the horizontal r axis)
1 Your notes
As r increases, Vg against r follows a − relation
r
The gradient of the graph at any particular point is the value of g at that point,
1 Vg
g = − Vg × − =
r r
The graph has a shallow increase as r increases
To calculate g, draw a tangent to the graph at that point and calculate the gradient of the tangent
This is a graphical representation of the gravitational potential equation:
GM
Vg = −
r
where G and M are constant

Worked example
Determine the change in gravitational potential when travelling from 3 Earth radii (from Earth’s centre)
to the surface of the Earth.
Take the mass of the Earth to be 5.97 × 1024 kg and the radius of the Earth to be 6.38 × 106 m.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Mass of the Earth, ME = 5.97 × 1024 kg
Radius of the Earth, rE = 6.38 × 106 m
Initial distance, r1 = 3rE = 3 × (6.38 × 106) m = 1.914 × 107 m
Final distance, r2 = rE = 6.38 × 106 m
Gravitational constant, G = 6.67 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2
Step 2: Write down the equation for potential difference

⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
∆ V g = − GM E ⎜⎜⎜ − ⎟
r2 r1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Step 3: Substitute the values into the equation

⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
ΔV g = − (6 . 67 × 10−11 ) × (5 . 97 × 1024 ) × ⎜⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 6 . 38 × 106 1 . 914 × 107 ⎠
ΔVg = −4.16 × 107 J kg−1

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Gravitational Equipotential Surfaces (HL)

Your notes
Gravitational Equipotential Surfaces
Equipotential lines (when working in 2D) and surfaces (when working in 3D) join together points that
have the same gravitational potential
These are always:
Perpendicular to the gravitational field lines in both radial and uniform fields
Represented by dotted lines (unlike field lines, which are solid lines with arrows)
In a radial field (e.g. a planet), the equipotential lines:
Are concentric circles around the planet
Become further apart further away from the planet
Remember: radial field is made up of lines which follow the radius of a circle
In a uniform field (e.g. near the Earth's surface), the equipotential lines are:
Horizontal straight lines
Parallel
Equally spaced
Remember: uniform field is made up of lines which are a uniform distance apart
Potential gradient is defined by the equipotential lines
No work is done when moving along an equipotential line or surface, only between equipotential lines
or surfaces
This means that an object travelling along an equipotential doesn't lose or gain energy and ΔV = 0

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Your notes

Gravitational equipotential lines in a non-uniform and uniform gravitational field

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Remember equipotential lines do not have arrows, since they have no particular direction and are not
vectors.
Make sure to draw any straight lines with a ruler or a straight edge.

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Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

Your notes
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion
Kepler's First Law
Kepler's First Law describes the shape of planetary orbits
It states:
The orbit of a planet is an ellipse, with the Sun at one of the two foci

The orbit of all planets are elliptical, and with the Sun at one focus
An ellipse is just a 'squashed' circle
Some planets, like Pluto, have highly elliptical orbits around the Sun
Other planets, like Earth, have near circular orbits around the Sun

Kepler's Second Law

Kepler's Second Law describes the motion of all planets around the Sun
It states:
A line segment joining the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals

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Your notes

The consequence of Kepler's Second Law is that planets move faster nearer the Sun and slower further
away from it

Kepler's Third Law

Kepler's Third Law states
For planets or satellites in a circular orbit about the same central body, the square of the
time period is proportional to the cube of the radius of the orbit
This law describes the relationship between the time of an orbit and its radius
T 2 ∝ r3
Where:
T = orbital time period (s)
r = mean orbital radius (m)
Time Period & Orbital Radius Relation
Since a planet or a satellite is travelling in circular motion when in order, its orbital time period T to travel
the circumference of the orbit 2πr, the linear speed v is:
2πr
v=
T
This is a result of the well-known equation, speed = distance / time and first introduced in the circular
motion topic
Substituting the value of the linear speed v from equating the gravitational and centripetal force into
the above equation gives:
⎛ 2πr ⎞⎟2 GM
v 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ T ⎠ r

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Squaring out the brackets and rearranging for T2 gives the equation relating the time period T and
orbital radius r:
4π2 r 3 Your notes
2
T =
GM
Where:
T = time period of the orbit (s)
r = orbital radius (m)
G = Gravitational Constant
M = mass of the object being orbited (kg)
The relationship between T and r can be shown using a logarithmic plot
T 2 ∝ r 3 ⇒ 2 log T ∝ 3 log r
The graph of log T in years against log r in AU (astronomical units) for the planets in our solar system is a
straight-line graph:

The logarithmic graph of log T against log r gives a straight line

The graph does not go through the origin since it has a negative y-intercept
Only the graph of log T and log r will produce a straight-line graph, a graph of T vs r would not

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Worked example
Your notes
Planets A and B orbit the same star.
Planet A is located an average distance r from the star. Planet B is located an average distance 6r from
the star

orbital period of planet A

What is ?
orbital period of planet B
1 1 1 1
A. B. C. D.
3 3
6 6 62 63
Answer: D

Kepler's third law states T 2 ∝ r 3

The orbital period of planet A: T
A
∝ r3
The orbital period of planet B: T
B
∝ (6 r ) 3
Therefore the ratio is equal to:
TA r3 1
= =
TB (6 r ) 3 63

Examiner Tip
You are expected to be able to describe Kepler's Laws of Motion, so make sure you are familiar with
how they are worded.

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Escape Speed (HL)

Your notes
Escape Speed
To escape a gravitational field, a mass must travel at, or above, the minimum escape speed
This is dependent on the mass and radius of the object creating the gravitational field, such as a
planet, a moon or a black hole
Escape speed is defined as:
The minimum speed that will allow an object to escape a gravitational field with no further
energy input
It is the same for all masses in the same gravitational field
For example, the escape speed of a rocket is the same as a tennis ball on Earth
The escape speed of an object is the speed at which all its kinetic energy has been transferred to
gravitational potential energy
This is calculated by equating the equations:
1 GMm
mv esc 2 =
2 r
Where:
m = mass of the object in the gravitational field (kg)
v = escape velocity of the object (m s−1)
esc
G = Newton's Gravitational Constant
M = mass of the object to be escaped from (i.e. a planet) (kg)
r = distance from the centre of mass M (m)
Since mass m is the same on both sides of the equation, it can cancel on both sides of the equation:
1 GM
v esc 2 =
2 r
Multiplying both sides by 2 and taking the square root gives the equation for escape velocity v :
esc
2GM
v esc =
r

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Your notes

For an object to leave the Earth's gravitational field, it will have to travel at a speed greater than the
Earth's escape velocity, v
Rockets launched from the Earth's surface do not need to achieve escape velocity to reach their orbit
around the Earth
This is because:
They are continuously given energy through fuel and thrust to help them move
Less energy is needed to achieve orbit than to escape from Earth's gravitational field
The escape velocity is not the velocity needed to escape the planet but to escape the planet's
gravitational field altogether
This could be quite a large distance away from the planet

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Worked example
Your notes
Calculate the escape speed at the surface of the Moon.
Density of the Moon = 3340 kg m−3
Mass of the Moon = 7.35 × 1022 kg
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Gravitational constant, G = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2
Density of the Moon, ρ = 3340 kg m−3
Mass of the Moon, M = 7.35 × 1022 kg
Step 2: Rearrange the density equation for radius r

M 4 3
Density: ρ= and volume of a sphere: V = πr
V 3
M 3M
ρ= =
4 3 4πr 3
πr
3

3
3M
r=
4πρ
Step 3: Calculate the radius by substituting in the values

3
3 × (7 . 35 × 1022 )
r= = 1 . 7384 × 106 m
4π × 3340
Step 4: Substitute r into the escape speed equation

2GM 2 × (6 . 67 × 10−11 ) × (7 . 35 × 1022 )

v esc = =
r 1 . 7384 × 106

Escape speed of the Moon: v = 2.37 km s−1

esc

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
When writing the definition of escape velocity, avoid terms such as 'gravity' or the 'gravitational pull /
attraction' of the planet. It is best to refer to its gravitational field. This equation is given on the data
sheet, but make sure you know how it is derived.

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Orbital Motion, Speed & Energy (HL)

Your notes
Orbital Motion, Speed & Energy
Since most planets and satellites have near-circular orbits, the gravitational force FG between two
bodies (e.g. planet & star, planet & satellite) provides the centripetal force needed to stay in an orbit
Both the gravitational force and centripetal force are perpendicular to the direction of travel of the
planet
Consider a satellite with mass m orbiting Earth with mass M at a distance r from the centre travelling
with linear speed v
F =F
G circ

Equating the gravitational force to the centripetal force for a planet or satellite in orbit gives:
GMm mv 2
=
r2 r
The mass of the satellite m will cancel out on both sides to give:
GM GM
v2 = ⇒ v orbital =
r r
Where:
v orbital = orbital speed of the smaller mass (m s−1)
G = Newton's Gravitational Constant
M = mass of the larger mass being orbited (kg)
r = orbital radius (m)
This means that all satellites, whatever their mass, will travel at the same speed v in a particular orbit
radius r
Since the direction of a planet orbiting in circular motion is constantly changing, the centripetal
acceleration acts towards the planet

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Your notes

A satellite in orbit around the Earth travels in circular motion

Energy of an Orbiting Satellite
An orbiting satellite follows a circular path around a planet
Just like an object moving in circular motion, it has both kinetic energy (Ek) and gravitational potential
energy (Ep) and its total energy is always constant
An orbiting satellite's total energy is calculated by:
Total energy = Kinetic energy + Gravitational potential energy

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Your notes

A graph showing the kinetic, potential and total energy for a mass at varying orbital distances from a
massive body
This means that the satellite's Ek and Ep are also both constant in a particular orbit
If the orbital radius of a satellite decreases its Ek increases and its Ep decreases
If the orbital radius of a satellite increases its Ekdecreases and its Epincreases

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Your notes

At orbit Y, the satellite has greater GPE and less KE than at at orbit X
A satellite is placed in two orbits, X and Y, around Earth
At orbit X, where the radius of orbit r is smaller, the satellite has a:
Larger gravitational force on it
Higher speed
Higher Ek
Lower Ep
Shorter orbital time period, T
At orbit Y, where the radius of orbit r is larger, the satellite has a:
Smaller gravitational force on it
Smaller speed
Lower Ek
Higher Ep
Longer orbital time period, T

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Worked example
Your notes
A binary star system constant of two stars orbiting about a fixed point B.
The star of mass M1 has a circular orbit of radius R1 and mass M2 has a radius of R2. Both have linear
speed v and an angular speed ⍵ about B.

In terms of G, M2, R1 and R2, write an expression for

(a) the angular speed ⍵ of mass M1
(b) the time period T of each star

Answer:
(a) Angular speed:
The centripetal force on mass M1 is:
M 1v 1 2 M 1 (ωR 1) 2
F= = = M1R1ω2
R1 R1
The gravitational force between the two masses is:
GM 1 M 2
F= 2
( R 1 + R 2)
Equating these expressions gives:
GM 1 M 2
M1R1 ω2 = 2
( R 1 + R 2)
Rearrange for angular velocity

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GM 2
ω= Your notes
R 1 ( R 1 + R 2) 2
(b) Orbital period:
The relation between angular speed and orbital period is
2π 2π
ω= ⇒ T =
T ω
Using the expression for angular velocity from part (a)
GM 2 R 1 ( R 1 + R 2) 2
T = 2π ÷ = 2π
R 1 ( R 1 + R 2) 2 GM 2

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Worked example
Your notes
Two identical satellites, X and Y, orbit a planet at radii R and 3R respectively.
Which one of the following statements is incorrect?
A. Satellite X has more kinetic energy and less potential energy than satellite Y
B. Satellite X has a shorter orbital period and travels faster than satellite Y
C. Satellite Y has less kinetic energy and more potential energy than satellite X
D. Satellite Y has a longer orbital period and travels faster than satellite X
Answer: D

Satellite Y is at a larger orbital radius, therefore it will have a longer orbital period, since T 2 ∝ R3
Being at a larger orbital radius means the gravitational force will be weaker for Y than for X
So, satellite Y will travel much slower than X as centripetal force: F ∝ v 2
Travelling at a slower speed means satellite Y will have less kinetic energy, as E ∝ v 2 , and,
K
therefore, more potential energy than X
Satellite X Satellite Y
orbital radius smaller larger
orbital period shorter longer
orbital speed faster slower
kinetic energy greater lower
potential energy lower greater

Therefore, all statements are correct except in D where it says 'Satellite Y travels faster than
satellite X'

Examiner Tip
If you can't remember which way around the kinetic and potential energy increases and decreases,
think about the velocity of a satellite at different orbits.
When it is orbiting close to a planet, it experiences a larger gravitational pull and therefore orbits faster.
Since the kinetic energy is proportional to v2, it, therefore, has higher kinetic energy closer to the
planet. To keep the total energy constant, the potential energy must decrease too.

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Effects of Drag on Orbital Motion (HL)

Your notes
Effects of Drag on Orbital Motion
Satellites in low orbits (<600 km) may be slightly affected by viscous drag, or air resistance
The effects of drag on the motion of the satellite are usually very small, but over time, it can have a
significant effect on the height and speed of the satellite's orbit

Viscous drag can affect the height and speed of a low-orbit satellite as a result of energy dissipation
The density of the air in the very upper layers of the atmosphere is very low, but not zero
As a result, satellites travelling through these thin layers of air will experience a small dissipation of
kinetic energy into thermal energy
This heating is due to the friction between the air particles and the surface of the satellite

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Your notes

As a low-orbit satellite loses energy, it spirals towards the Earth as its orbital radius decreases
As some of the kinetic energy is dissipated into the surroundings, the satellite's total energy is reduced
When a satellite loses energy, its orbital radius decreases
However, as the satellite's orbit becomes lower, some of its potential energy is transferred to
kinetic energy
Overall, its speed increases and the effects of air resistance become even greater in its lower orbit
resulting in greater dissipation of kinetic energy into thermal energy
If the overall decrease in potential energy is larger than the overall increase in kinetic energy, the total
energy will decrease
∆E < 0 if ∆ E > ∆ E
total p k

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