M2794.

001800 M A T E R I A L A N D M A N U F A C T U R I N G P R O C E S S E S

Chapter 5. Casting Processes

and Heat Treatment

Prof. Sung-Hoon Ahn

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Seoul National University

March 31, 2024

 https://www.newdaily.co.kr/site/data/html/2016/06/10/2016061000063.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com
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Casting Failure
▪ F-16 aircraft crash. March 30, 2016
▪ Training mission near Cheongsong

▪ Engine failure due to detachment of the turbine's first-

stage cover plate
▪ Hot tearing defect in the turbine cover plate during
the casting process
▪ Expansion of the defect over time, leading to
structural failure

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-q-WBYT72oU
3

History of Casting
Akkadian king
(Sargon or
Naram-Sin)
2300-2200 BC

Slender bronze dagger (세형 동검, 細形銅劍)

& Mold (거푸집) 300 BC

First Bronze Printing Type in AD 1234

Metallic printing type (금속 활자)
(cf. Gutenberg Bible, AD 1400) © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 4

Casting
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a molten material such as metal or
plastic is introduced into a mold made of sand or metal, allowed to solidify within the
mold, and then ejected or broken out to make a fabricated part.

▪ Advantages
▪ Making parts of complex shape in a single piece.
▪ Producing large number of identical castings within specified tolerances.
▪ Good bearing qualities and jointless product.

▪ Disadvantages
▪ Limitations of mechanical properties because of the polycrystalline grain structure.
▪ Poor dimensional accuracy due to shrinkage of metal during solidification.
▪ If the number of parts cast is relatively small, the cost per casting increases rapidly.

▪ Fundamental aspects in casting operations

▪ Solidification of the metal from its molten state.
▪ Flow of the molten metal into the mold cavity.
▪ Heat transfer during solidification and cooling of the metal in the mold.
▪ Mold material and its influence on the casting process.
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 Casting experiment 5

Solidification of Metals
▪ Casting experiment
79 ℃ Low Melting Point Alloy (Fusible Alloy)

※ The prepared alloy is free of Pd/Cd (non-toxic)

Popular examples of fusible alloy

Figure 5.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification

of pure metals. Note that freezing takes place at a constant temperature.
(b) Density as a function of time

Fusible Alloys | Products | Indium Corporation © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 6

Solid Solution
Solute (용질)
Solvent (용매)

When the particular crystal structure of the solvent is maintained during

alloying, the alloy is called solid solution.
Substitutional solid solution (치환 고용체)
Interstitial solid solution (침입 고용체)

5.2.2 Intermetallic compound (금속간 화합물)

Complex structures in which solute atoms are present among solvent
atoms in certain specific proportions.

Intermetallic compound
(Cr11Ge19)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermetallic © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 7

Two-phase system(이상계)
Phase: a homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform physical
and chemical characteristics

Figure 5.2 (a) Schematic illustration of

grains, grain boundaries, and particles
dispersed throughout the structure of a two-
phase system, such as lead-copper alloy. The
grains represent lead in solid solution of
copper, and the particles are lead as a second
phase. Particles dispersed
throughout the structure (a) Leaded brass
(b) Schematic illustration of a two-phase
system, consisting of two sets of grains:
dark and light. Dark and light grains have
their own compositions and properties.

Two sets of grains (b) Polycrystalline alpha brass

https://www.copper.org/resources/properties/microstructure/lead_brasses.html © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 8

Phase Diagram (평형상태도)

Graphically illustrates the relationships among
temperature, composition, and the phase present
in a particular alloy system. Figure 5.3 Phase diagram for nickel-copper alloy
system obtained by a low rate of solidification. Note
that pure nickel and pure copper each have one
freezing or melting temperature. The top circle on
the right depicts the nucleation of crystals; the
second circle shows the formation of dendrites; and
the bottom circle shows the solidified alloy with
grain boundaries. Potassium nitrate (KNO3)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gPEdoEtGmqE&t=2s © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 9

Lever Rule (천평법칙)

Lever Rule
𝑺 𝑪𝑶 − 𝑪𝑳
=
𝑺 + 𝑳 𝑪𝑺 − 𝑪𝑳

𝑳 𝑪𝑺 − 𝑪𝑶 𝑆 + 𝐿 = 𝑀 ⋯ (1)
=
𝑺 + 𝑳 𝑪𝑺 − 𝑪𝑳
𝐶𝑆 × 𝑆 + 𝐶𝐿 × 𝐿 = 𝐶𝑂 × 𝑀
𝑆 𝐿
⇒ 𝐶𝑆 × + 𝐶𝐿 × = 𝐶𝑂 ⋯ (2)
𝑀 𝑀

1 ⇒ (2)

𝑆 𝐿
𝐶𝑆 × + 𝐶𝐿 × = 𝐶𝑂
𝑆+𝐿 𝑆+𝐿

𝐿 𝐿 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝑆
𝐶𝑆 + 𝐶 − 𝐶𝑆 = 𝐶𝑂 ⇒ =
𝑆+𝐿 𝐿 𝑆 + 𝐿 𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝑆

𝑆 𝑆 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐿 + 𝐶𝑆 − 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝑂 ⇒ =
𝑆+𝐿 𝑆 + 𝐿 𝐶𝑆 − 𝐶𝐿
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Eutectic System, Pb-Sn (1)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Eutectic System, Pb-Sn (2)

Figure 11.10 Schematic Figure 11.11 Schematic

representations of the representations of the
equilibrium microstructures for equilibrium microstructures for
a lead–tin alloy of composition a lead–tin alloy of composition
C1 as it is cooled from the C2 as it is cooled from the
liquid-phase region. liquid-phase region.

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Types of 3-phase Invariant Reactions

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Iron-Carbon System (1)

▪ Pure iron (순철) : 0.008% C
▪ Steels (강) : 2.11% C -ferrite (x 90) Austenite (x325)
▪ Cast irons (주철) : ~6.67% C
▪ -ferrite (페라이트): BCC, soft and ductile
▪ -ferrite: BCC, stable only at very high temperatures
▪ Austenite (오스테나이트) : FCC, ductile
▪ Cementite (세멘타이트): Fe3C, C 6.67%, iron carbide(탄화철), brittle

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Phase Diagram of Iron-Carbon System

Figure 5.4 (a) The iron-iron carbide phase diagram. (b) Detail view of the microstructures above and below the
eutectoid temperature of 727°C (1341°F ). Because of the importance of steel as an engineering material, this
elsius ahrenheit

diagram is one of the most important phase diagrams.

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 15

Eutectoid Steel
- ferrite: white
Fe3C: dark

Lamellar structure (pearlite) (x 500)

A schematic of a lamellar structure

for a eutectic system

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamellar_structure
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Iron-Carbon System : Hypoeutectoid Steel

Figure 11.28 Schematic representations of the microstructures for Figure 11.29 Photomicrograph of a 0.38 wt% C steel having a microstructure consisting of
an iron-carbon alloy of hypoeutectoid composition C0 (containing pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite, 635X,(Photomicrograph courtesy of Republic Steel
less than 0.79 wt% C) as it is cooled from within the austenite phase Corporation.)
region to below the eutectoid temperature.
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 17

Iron-Carbon System : Hypereutectoid Steel

Proeutectoid
cementite

Figure 11.31 Schematic representations of the microstructures for Figure 11.32 Photomicrograph of a 1.4 wt% C steel having a microstructure consisting of a white
an iron–carbon alloy of hypereutectoid composition C1 (containing proeutectoid cementite network surrounding the pearlite colonies. 1000×. (Copyright 1971 by
between 0.76 and 2.14 wt% C) as it is cooled from within the United States Steel Corporation.)
austenite-phase region to below the eutectoid temperature.
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 18

1% Carbon (Hypereutectoid) Pearlite Steel

- ferrite - white
eutectoid - cementite - blue
proeutectoid - cementite - violet

(x 500)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Classification of Ferrous Alloys

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Composition and Naming Steels

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Amount of Phases in Carbon Steel

▪ A 10 kg, 1040 steel casting as it is being cooled slowly to the following temperatures:
(a) 900 °C; (b) 728 °C; and (c) 726 °C. Determine the amount of gamma and alpha phases in the steel casting.

(a) 900 °C; Single phase austenite.

FIGURE 5.4 (b)

𝛾 % = 100 %, or 10 kg, 𝛼 % =0%

(b) 728 °C; Two-phase gamma-alpha field .

𝐶𝛾 − 𝐶𝑜 0.77 − 0.40
𝛼 % = × 100 = × 100 = 49.5 %, or 4.95 kg
𝐶𝛾 − 𝐶𝛼 0.77 − 0.022

𝐶𝑜 − 𝐶𝛼 0.40 − 0.022
𝛾 % = × 100 = × 100 = 50.5 %, or 5.05 kg
𝐶𝛾 − 𝐶𝛼 0.77 − 0.022

(c) 726 °C; Two-phase alpha and Fe3C region, no gamma phase.

6.67 − 0.40
𝛼 % = × 100 = 94.3 %, or 9.43 kg
6.67 − 0.022
1040 steel → 0.4% carbon
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 22

Cast Irons (1)

▪ Fe, C 2.11 ~ 4.5 %, Si ~3.5 %

▪ According to solidification morphology :

Gray cast iron (회주철)

▪ Flake graphite (편상흑연)
▪ Gray fracture surface (회색파단면)
▪ Damping (진동감쇠)

Ductile(nodular) iron (구상흑연주철)

▪ Ductile

White cast iron (백주철)

▪ Large amount of Fe3C
▪ Brittle
▪ White fracture surface (흰색 파단면)

Malleable cast iron (가단주철)

▪ Obtained by annealing white cast iron

Compact graphite iron (컴팩트 흑연주철)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 23

Cast Irons (2)

Figure 5.13 Cast iron microstructure. Magnification: 100×. (a) Ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes. (b) Ferritic nodular iron, (ductile iron) with
graphite in nodular form. (c) Ferritic malleable iron, solidified as white cast iron, with the carbon present as cementite, ethen heat treated to
graphitize the carbon

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Cast Irons (3)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Ternary Phase Diagram

▪ Fe-Cr-Ni

Phase Diagrams: Understanding the Basics, Flacke C. Campbell

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Cast Structures
▪ Pure metal vs. alloys

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Dendrites (수지상정) (1)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vVLZOoWknYI

Figure 5.6 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the solidifying
metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the semi-solid (mushy) zone.
Wen, K., Liu, L., Chen, S., & Zhang, S. (2018). A bidirectional growth mechanism for a stable lithium anode by a platinum nanolayer sputtered on a polypropylene
separator. RSC advances, 8(23), 13034-13039. © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 28

Dendrites (수지상정) (2)

Figure 5.7 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in) square casting. Note that after 11 min of cooling, dendrites reach each
other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about two hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in
sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content increases.
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 29
Bernoulli’s theorem
Fluid Flow ℎ +
𝑝
+
𝑣2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
ℎ1 + + = ℎ2 + + + 𝑓
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Mass continuity
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2

Sprue profile
𝐴1 ℎ2
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 , =
𝐴2 ℎ1

The velocity of the molten metal leaving the gate

𝑣 = 𝑐 2𝑔ℎ

Flow characteristics
𝑣𝐷𝜌
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜂

Figure 5.10 Cross section of a typical sand mold

showing various features

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-8KVdZIoNRQ&t=189s © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Solidification Time & Shrinkage

▪ Chvonrinov’s rule
Solidification time = C (volume/surface area)2 Table 5.1 Volumetric Solidification Contraction or Expansion for
Various Cast Metals

▪ Shrinkage occurs at
▪ Molten metal
▪ Phase change
▪ Solid metal

▪ Cast iron expands

▪ Graphite has high volume/mass
▪ Net expansion during precipitation

▪ Similarly Bi-Sn alloys expand

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 31

Casting alloys

Figure 5.12 Mechanical properties for various

groups of cast alloys. Compare with various
tables of properties in chapter 3. Source: After
Steel Society of America.
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 32

Applications
Table 5.3 Typical Applications for Castings and Casting Characteristics

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Properties

Table 5.5 Typical Properties of Nonferrous Casting Alloys

Table 5.4 Properties and Typical Applications of Cast Irons

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 34

Casting Processes (1)

▪ Expendable mold, permanent pattern
▪ Sand casting
▪ Shell-mold casting
▪ Plaster mold casting
▪ Ceramic mold casting
▪ Vacuum casting Figure 5.18 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note
that the mold has a bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of
the mold into the molten metal.

Figure 5.17 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 35

Casting Processes (2)

▪ Expendable mold, expendable pattern
▪ Evaporative-pattern casting (lost foam)
▪ Investment casting (lost wax)

Figure 5.19 Schematic illustration of the expendable-pattern casting

process, also known as lost-foam or evaporative-pattern casting
© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 36

Investment Casting

Figure 5.20 Schematic illustration of investment casting (lost wax process). Castings by this
method can be made with very fine detail and from a variety of metals. Source: Steel Founders’
Society of America. © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 37

Casting Processes (3)

▪ Permanent mold ▪ In permanent-mold casting, a mold are made from
▪ Slush casting materials such as steel, bronze, refractory metal alloys, or
graphite. Because metal molds are better heat
▪ Pressure casting
conductors than expendable molds, the solidifying casting
▪ Die casting is subjected to a higher rate of cooling, which turn affects
▪ Centrifugal casting the microstructure and grain size within the casting.
▪ Squeeze casting
▪ Semisolid metal forming ▪ Cooling methods : water, air-cooled fin
▪ Casting for single crystal ▪ Used for aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys due to
▪ Rapid solidification their lower melting points
▪ Pros : good surface finishing, close dimensional
tolerances, and uniform and good mechanical properties
▪ Cons : not economical for small production runs, not good
for intricate shapes

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 38

Pressure Casting / Centrifugal Casting

Figure 5.24 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes,

cylinder liners, and similarly shaped hollow parts can be cast by this process

Figure 5.21 The pressure casting process, utilizing

graphite molds for the production of steel railroad wheels
Figure 5.25 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with
spokes can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The
molds are placed at the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the
molds by centrifugal forces. © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 39

Die Casting
▪ Hot-chamber process
▪ Cold-chamber process

Figure 5.22 Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die- Figure 5.23 Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. These
casting process machines are large compared to the size of the casting, because high forces are required to
keep the two halves of the die closed under pressure. © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 Sample : Turbine blade 40

Squeeze Casting / Single Crystal

Figure 5.26 Sequence of operations in the
squeeze-casting process. This process combines
the advantages of casting and forging.

Figure 5.27 Methods of casting turbine blades: (a)

directional solidification; (b) method to produce a
single-crystal blade; and (b) A single-crystal blade
with the constriction portion still attached.

(a) Conventionally cast (b) Directionally solidified (c) Single crystal

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 Sample : wafer 41

Casting for Single Crystal

Figure 5.28 Two methods of crystal growing.

(a) Crystal pulling (Czochralski process) and
(b) floating-zone method. Crystal growing is especially
important in the semiconductor industry.
(c) A single-crystal silicon ingot produced by the Figure 13.3 General
Czochralski process. fabrication sequences for
integrated circuits.

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 42

Continuous Casting
Figure 5.14 (a) The continuous-casting process for steel. Typically, the
solidified metal descends at a speed of 25 mm/s (1 in/s). Note that the platform
is about 20 m(65 ft) above ground level. (b) Continuous casting using support
or guide rollers to allow transition from a vertical pour zone to horizontal
conveyors. (c) Continuous strip casting of nonferrous metal strip.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d-72gc6I-_E © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Heat Treatment - Ferrous Alloys

▪ Pearlite
▪ Spheroidite
▪ Bainite
▪ Martensite
▪ Quenching (담금질)
▪ Body Centered Tetragonal (BCT)
▪ Retained austenite
▪ Tempered martensite

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 44

Transformation - Ferrous Alloys

Austenite

Slow cooling Quenching

Moderate
cooling
Pearlite Martensite
(+Fe3C)
(+proeutectic ) Bainite
reheat

(+Fe3C)
Tempered
martensite

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 45

Ferrous Alloys

Figure 5.30
(b) Isothermal
transformation diagram
obtained from (a) for a
transformation
temperature of 675°C
(1247°F).
(c) Microstructures
obtained for a eutectoid
iron-carbon alloy as a
function of cooling rate.

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 46

Quenched AISI 9310 Steel

▪ The white strikes are excess proeutectoid Cementite
▪ Cream color is retained austenite
▪ Gray area is bainite
▪ Blue/brown regions are martensite
(x 320)

http://youtube.com/watch?v=RelPQze91Mo © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 47

Nonferrous Alloys / Stainless Steel (1)

Figure 5.31 (a) Phase diagram for the
aluminum-copper alloy system. (b) Various
microstructures obtained during the age-
hardening process

Precipitation hardening Age hardening (시효경화)

(석출경화), Al-Cu alloy Age hardening of Aluminum alloy

https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4701/8/7/528 © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 48

Nonferrous Alloys / Stainless Steel (2)

▪ Solution treatment
▪ Precipitation hardening
▪ Aging
▪ Maraging (martensite + aging)

http://www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk/images/rcm2405.GIF © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 49

Case Hardening
▪ Surface hardening
▪ Carburizing (침탄법)
▪ Carbonitriding (침탄질화법)
▪ Cyaniding (청화법)
▪ Nitriding (질화법)
▪ Boronizing (붕화법)
▪ Flame hardening (화염경화법)
▪ Induction hardening (유도경화법)

Induction hardening
https://www.haertetechnik-folz.de/en/our-technologies/induction-hardening/ © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
 50

Annealing / Tempering / Normalizing

Figure 5.32 Temperature ranges for

heat treating plain-carbon steels, as
indicated on the iron-iron carbide
phase diagram

Annealing Temperature : above the 𝐴1 𝑜𝑟 𝐴3 , cooling slowly (ex 10 K/h)

Tempering : Quenching → Tempering, under the 𝐴1
Normalizing : 30~50℃ above 𝐴3 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑚 in austenite field range Spheroidizing

http://mechanicalengineeringart.blogspot.com/2011/07/spheroidizing.html © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 51

Ｍold design (1)

？ ？

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 52

Ｍold design (2)

？

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 53

Defects / DFM

Figure 5.33 Various types of (a) internal and

(b) external chills (dark areas at corners), used
in castings to eliminate porosity caused by
shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where
there is a larger volume of metal, as shown in
(c)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 54

Design Consideration (1)

Figure 5.35 (a) Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings. Note that sharp corners are
avoided to reduce stress concentrations; (b, c, d) examples of designs showing the importance of
maintaining uniform cross sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 55

Design Consideration (2)

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 56

Design Consideration (3)

Figure 5.37 suggested design
modifications to avoid defects
in castings

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 57

Economics of Casting

Figure 5.38 Economic comparison of

making a part by two different casting
processes. Note that because of the high
cost of equipment, die casting is
economical mainly for large production
runs

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 58

Case Study

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 59

Material of Low Tensile Strength

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

 Charged EVs | First Model Y megacasting produced at Tesla’s Gigafactory Texas - Charged Evs
https://youtu.be/mvXpcvCUwpg 60
63_16507_file_pdf_1628642451.pdf (posri.re.kr)
Elon Musk: IDRA Group’s 9,000-Ton Giga Casting Machine Is For Tesla Cybertruck

Mega Casting - Tesla Gigapress

Unibody - CleanTechnica

▪ Tesla Giga press manufactured by IDRA

▪ Weight: Over 400 tons
▪ Injection Speed: 104 kg of molten Al alloy at 10 m/s
▪ Up to 1,000 castings daily

▪ 6,000 & 8000 ton clamping pressure → Model 3 & Y

(8,000 ton ≈ weight of 20 Boeing 747 airplanes)

▪ 9,000 ton clamping pressure → Cybertruck stainless steel body shell

How Gigapress Works

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon