Jam density (often denoted as Kj) is the highest possible concentration

of vehicles on a road, where the traffic is so dense that vehicles cannot

move, resulting in a complete standstill.

1 Overview

To figure out the exact relationship between the traffic parameters,

a great deal of research has been done over the past several
decades. The results of these researches yielded many
mathematical models. Some important models among them will be
discussed in this chapter.

2 Greenshield’s macroscopic stream model

Macroscopic stream models represent how the behaviour of one

parameter of traffic flow changes with respect to another. Most
important among them is the relation between speed and density.
The first and most simple relation between them is proposed by
Greenshield. Greenshield assumed a linear speed-density
relationship as illustrated in figure 1 to derive the model.

Figure 1: Relation between speed and density

The equation for this relationship is shown below.

where v is the mean speed at density k, vf is the free speed and kj is
the jam density. This equation ( 1) is often referred to as the
Greenshield’s model. It indicates that when density becomes zero,
speed approaches free flow speed (ie. v → vf when k → 0).

Figure 2: Relation between speed and flow

Once the relation between speed and flow is established, the

relation with flow can be derived. This relation between flow and
density is parabolic in shape and is shown in figure 3. Also, we know
that

Figure 3: Relation between flow and density 1

Now substituting equation 1 in equation 2, we get

Similarly we can find the relation between speed and flow. For this,
put k = in equation 1 and solving, we get

This relationship is again parabolic and is shown in figure 2. Once

the relationship between the fundamental variables of traffic flow is
established, the boundary conditions can be derived. The boundary
conditions that are of interest are jam density, free-flow speed, and
maximum flow. To find density at maximum flow, differentiate
equation 3 with respect to k and equate it to zero. ie.,

Denoting the density corresponding to maximum flow as k0,

Therefore, density corresponding to maximum flow is half the jam

density. Once we get k0, we can derive for maximum flow, qmax.
Substituting equation 5 in equation 3
Thus the maximum flow is one fourth the product of free flow and
jam density. Finally to get the speed at maximum flow, v0, substitute
equation 5 in equation 1 and solving we get,

Therefore, speed at maximum flow is half of the free speed.

3 Calibration of Greenshield’s model

In order to use this model for any traffic stream, one should get the
boundary values, especially free flow speed (vf) and jam density (kj).
This has to be obtained by field survey and this is called calibration
process. Although it is difficult to determine exact free flow speed
and jam density directly from the field, approximate values can be
obtained from a number of speed and density observations and then
fitting a linear equation between them. Let the linear equation
be y = a + bx such that y is density k and x denotes the speed v.
Using linear regression method, coefficients a and b can be solved
as,

Alternate method of solving for b is,

where xi and yi are the samples, n is the number of samples,

and x and y are the mean of xi and yi respectively.

3.0.1 Numerical example

For the following data on speed and density, determine the

parameters of the Greenshield’s model. Also find the maximum flow
and density corresponding to a speed of 30 km/hr.

k v
 171 5

129 15

20 40

70 25

Solution Denoting y = v and x = k, solve for a and b using

equation 8 and equation 9. The solution is tabulated as shown
below.

Table 1: Solution to numerical example

(xi -x)(yi
x(k) y(v) (xi -x) (yi -y) -y) (xi -x2)

171 5 73.5 -16.3 -1198.1 5402.3

129 15 31.5 -6.3 -198.5 992.3

20 40 -77.5 18.7 -1449.3 6006.3

70 25 -27.5 3.7 -101.8 756.3

390 85 -2947.7 13157.2

x= = = 97.5, y = = = 21.3. From equation 9, b = =

-0.2 a = y -bx = 21.3 + 0.2×97.5 = 40.8 So the linear regression
equation will be,
Here vf = 40.8 and = 0.2. This implies, kj = = 204 veh/km. The
basic parameters of Greenshield’s model are free flow speed and
jam density and they are obtained as 40.8 kmph and 204 veh/km
respectively. To find maximum flow, use equation 6,
i.e., qmax = = 2080.8 veh/hr Density corresponding to the
speed 30 km/hr can be found out by substituting v = 30 in
equation 10. i.e, 30 = 40.8 - 0.2 × k Therefore, k = = 54
veh/km.

4 Other macroscopic stream models

In Greenshield’s model, linear relationship between speed and

density was assumed. But in field we can hardly find such a
relationship between speed and density. Therefore, the validity of
Greenshield’s model was questioned and many other models came
up. Prominent among them are Greenberg’s logarithmic model,
Underwood’s exponential model, Pipe’s generalized model, and
multi-regime models. These are briefly discussed below.

4.1 Greenberg’s logarithmic model

Greenberg assumed a logarithmic relation between speed and

density. He proposed,

Figure 4: Greenbergs logarithmic model

This model has gained very good popularity because this model can
be derived analytically. (This derivation is beyond the scope of this
notes). However, main drawbacks of this model is that as density
tends to zero, speed tends to infinity. This shows the inability of the
model to predict the speeds at lower densities.

4.2 Underwood’s exponential model

Trying to overcome the limitation of Greenberg’s model, Underwood

put forward an exponential model as shown below.

where vf is the free flow speed and k0 is the optimum density. The
model can be graphically expressed as in figure 5. is the free flow
speed and ko is the optimum density, i.e. the density corresponding
to the maximum flow.

Figure 5: Underwood’s exponential model

In this model, speed becomes zero only when density reaches

infinity which is the drawback of this model. Hence this cannot be
used for predicting speeds at high densities.

4.3 Pipes’ generalized model

Further developments were made with the introduction of a new
parameter (n) to provide for a more generalized modeling approach.
Pipes proposed a model shown by the following equation.

When n is set to one, Pipe’s model resembles Greenshield’s model.

Thus by varying the values of n, a family of models can be
developed.

4.4 Multi-regime models

All the above models are based on the assumption that the same
speed-density relation is valid for the entire range of densities seen
in traffic streams. Therefore, these models are called single-regime
models. However, human behaviour will be different at different
densities. This is corroborated with field observations which shows
different relations at different range of densities. Therefore, the
speed-density relation will also be different in different zones of
densities. Based on this concept, many models were proposed
generally called multi-regime models. The most simple one is called
a two-regime model, where separate equations are used to
represent the speed-density relation at congested and uncongested
traffic.

5 Shock waves

The flow of traffic along a stream can be considered similar to a fluid

flow. Consider a stream of traffic flowing with steady state
conditions, i.e., all the vehicles in the stream are moving with a
constant speed, density and flow. Let this be denoted as state A
(refer figure 6. Suddenly due to some obstructions in the stream
(like an accident or traffic block) the steady state characteristics
changes and they acquire another state of flow, say state B. The
speed, density and flow of state A is denoted as vA, kA, and qA, and
state B as vB, kB, and qB respectively.
Figure 6: Shock wave: Stream characteristics

The flow-density curve is shown in figure 7.

Figure 7: Shock wave: Flow-density curve

The speed of the vehicles at state A is given by the line joining the
origin and point A in the graph. The time-space diagram of the
traffic stream is also plotted in figure 8.

Figure 8: Shock wave : time-distance diagram

All the lines are having the same slope which implies that they are
moving with constant speed. The sudden change in the
characteristics of the stream leads to the formation of a shock
wave. There will be a cascading effect of the vehicles in the
upstream direction. Thus shock wave is basically the movement of
the point that demarcates the two stream conditions. This is clearly
marked in the figure 7. Thus the shock waves produced at state B
are propagated in the backward direction. The speed of the vehicles
at state B is the line joining the origin and point B of the flow-
density curve. Slope of the line AB gives the speed of the shock
wave (refer figure 7). If speed of the shock-wave is represented
as ωAB, then

The above result can be analytically solved by equating the

expressions for the number vehicles leaving the upstream and
joining the downstream of the shock wave boundary (this
assumption is true since the vehicles cannot be created or
destroyed. Let NA be the number of vehicles leaving the section A.
Then, NA = qB t. The relative speed of these vehicles with respect to
the shock wave will be vA - ωAB. Hence,

Similarly, the vehicles entering the state B is given as

Equating equations 15 and 16, and solving for ωAB as follows will
yield to:

This will yield the following expression for the shock-wave speed.
In this case, the shock wave move against the direction of traffic
and is therefore called a backward moving shock wave. There are
other possibilities of shock waves such as forward moving shock
waves and stationary shock waves. The forward moving shock
waves are formed when a stream with higher density and higher
flow meets a stream with relatively lesser density and flow. For
example, when the width of the road increases suddenly, there are
chances for a forward moving shock wave. Stationary shock waves
will occur when two streams having the same flow value but
different densities meet. traffic parameters. These models were
based on many assumptions, for instance, Greenshield’s model
assumed a linear speed-density relationship. Other models were
also discussed in this chapter. The models are used for explaining
several phenomena in connection with traffic flow like shock wave.
The topics of further interest are multi-regime model (formulation of
both two and three regime models) and three dimensional
representation of these models.

Greenshield’s Model

Greenshield was able to develop a model of uninterrupted traffic flow that

predicts and explains the trends that are observed in real traffic flows. While
Greenshield’s model is not perfect, it is fairly accurate and relatively simple.

Greenshield made the assumption that, under uninterrupted flow conditions,

speed and density are linearly related. This relationship is expressed
mathematically and graphically below. See figure 1.0.

v=A-B*k

Where:
v = speed (miles/hour, kilometers/hour)
A,B = constants determined from field observations
k = density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)
As noted above, you can determine the values of the constants A and B
through field observations. This is normally done by collecting velocity and
density data in the field, plotting the data, and then using linear regression
to fit a line through the data points. The constant A represents the free flow
speed, while A/B represents the jam density.

Figure 1.0: Speed vs. Density

Inserting Greenshield’s speed-density relationship into the general speed-

flow-density relationship yields the following equations:

q = (A-B*k)*k or q = A*k – B*k2

Where:
q = flow (vehicles/hour)
A,B = constants
k = density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

Figure 2.0: Flow vs. Density

This new relationship between flow and density provides an avenue for
finding the density at which the flow is maximized.

dq/dk = A – 2*B*k

setting dq/dK = 0 yields:

k = A/(2*B)
Therefore, at the density given above, the flow will be maximized.
Substituting this maximized value of k into the original speed-density
relationship yields the speed at which the flow is maximized.

v = A – B*(A/(2*B)) or v = A/2

This indicates that the maximum flow occurs when traffic is flowing at half of
free-flow speed (A). Substituting the optimum speed and density into the
speed-flow-density relationship yields the maximum flow.

q = (A/2)*(A/(2*B)) or q = A2/(4*B)

Figure 3.0 shows the relationship between flow and speed graphically.

Figure 3.0: Flow vs. Speed

As you can see, Greenshield’s model is quite powerful. The following can be
derived from Greenshield’s model:

 When the density is zero, the flow is zero because there are no vehicles
on the roadway.

 As the density increases, the flow also increases to some maximum

flow conditions.

 When the density reaches a maximum, generally called jam density,

the flow must be zero because the vehicles tend to line up end to end
(parking lot conditions).

As the density increases the flow increases to some maximum value, but a
continual increase in density will cause the flow to decrease until jam density
and zero flow conditions are reached.
In traffic flow, a shockwave refers to a sudden change or disturbance that
moves through a stream of vehicles, usually caused by abrupt changes in
driving conditions like braking, lane changes, or road capacity reductions.
Think of it as a ripple that travels backward through traffic when something
disrupts the normal flow.

🔁 How It Works:

When a vehicle brakes suddenly — say, due to a red light, congestion ahead,
or an obstacle — the driver behind it also brakes, and so on. This reaction
doesn't happen instantly; there’s a slight delay, and that delay causes the
disturbance to move upstream (backward) through the traffic.

Types of Shockwaves in Traffic:

1. Backward-moving shockwave (most common):

Caused by sudden braking or congestion. The disturbance moves
backward relative to the direction of traffic.

2. Forward-moving shockwave:
Happens when a blockage clears (like an accident being removed) and
cars begin accelerating — the "wave" of movement spreads forward.

3. Standing shockwave:
Occurs when the inflow and outflow of vehicles at a bottleneck are
equal. The congestion remains stationary on the road.

Shockwaves can be analyzed using kinematic wave theory (also called the
Lighthill-Whitham-Richards (LWR) model), where:

w=q2−q1k2−k1w = \frac{q_2 - q_1}{k_2 - k_1}w=k2−k1q2−q1

 www: Shockwave speed

 q1,q2q_1, q_2q1,q2: Traffic flow before and after the disturbance

 k1,k2k_1, k_2k1,k2: Traffic density before and after the disturbance

This helps determine how fast and in which direction the shockwave moves.

🚗 Real-Life Example:

You're on the highway going 60 mph. A driver several cars ahead brakes
hard. Even if there's no crash, that braking creates a wave of slowing cars
behind, potentially reaching vehicles miles back — all because of one tiny
disturbance.

Q no. 4: Explain what is moving bottlenecks?; What is the fundamental

assumption in the analytics of moving bottlenecks allowing passing?

What is a Moving Bottleneck in Traffic Flow?

A moving bottleneck is typically a slow-moving vehicle, like a truck or

construction equipment, that travels slower than the surrounding traffic and
restricts the flow of vehicles behind it. Unlike a fixed bottleneck (like a lane
drop or signal), this one moves along the road, and its effect depends on
its speed and surrounding traffic.

📉 How It Affects Traffic:

 If the traffic behind the slow vehicle cannot overtake, it causes a

queue to build up.

 If passing is allowed, faster vehicles can go around it, and the

bottleneck might not restrict overall flow much.

 The slower the vehicle and the denser the traffic, the greater its
impact on flow.

📌 Fundamental Assumption When Analyzing Moving Bottlenecks

(Allowing Passing):

The key assumption is:

Vehicles behind the moving bottleneck can pass it if there is enough

space and lower density ahead.

This means:

 The flow adjusts locally — congestion builds only behind the slow
vehicle.

 The effect is temporary and limited in space if passing is possible.

 A "critical density" exists above which the moving bottleneck will

restrict traffic flow (i.e., act like a real bottleneck).