University of Abuja

CSC 207: Computer Hardware

Department of Computer Science
Dr. Ahmad K. Belgore
ahmad.belgore@uniabuja.edu.ng

1. Introduction
Currently, Computers have become global tools in every facets of our activities. Early computers
were large in size and too expensive to be owned by individuals. Thus, they were confined to the
laboratories and few research institutes. The basic applications were confined to undertaking
complex calculations in science and engineering. Today, computers are no longer confined to the
laboratory. Computers and, indeed, computing have become embedded in almost every item we
use. Its application transcends science, engineering, communication, space science, aviation,
financial institutions, social sciences, humanities, the military, transportation, manufacturing, and
extractive industries to mention but a few. This unit presents the background information about
computers.

1.1 Computer:
A computer is basically defined as a tool or machine used for processing data to give
required information capable of:
 taking input data through the keyboard (input unit),
 storing the input data in a diskette, hard disk or other medium,
 processing it in the central processing unit (CPU) and
 giving out the result (output) on the screen or the Visual Display
Unit (VDU).

Figure. 1: A schematic definition of a computer

Data: The term data denotes an attribute revealing detail(s) of an individual, object or place, e.g.
name, gender, complexion, school, class, height etc.

Information: This is referred to as processed data or a meaningful statement, e.g. net pay of
workers, examination results of students, list of successful candidates in an examination or
interview etc.
1.2 Methods of Data Processing
The ensuing are the three primary methods of data processing:
 The Computer method;
 Manual method
 The Mechanical method;

1.2.1 Computer Method

The computer method of carrying out data processing has the following major features:
 Data can be steadily and continuously processed. The operations are practically not noisy
 There is a store where data and instructions can be stored temporarily and permanent.
 Errors can be easily and neatly corrected. Output reports are usually very neat, decent and
can be produced in various forms such as adding graphs, diagrams and pictures etc.
 Accuracy and reliability are highly enhanced.

1.2.2 Manual Method

The manual method of data processing involves the use of chalk, wall, pen, pencil and the like.
These devices, machines or tools facilitate human efforts in recording, classifying, manipulating,
sorting and presenting data or information. The manual data processing operations entail
considerable manual efforts. Thus, the manual method is cumbersome, tiresome, boring,
frustrating and time consuming. Furthermore, the processing of data by the manual method is
likely to be affected by human errors. When there are errors, then the reliability, accuracy,
neatness, tidiness, and validity of the data would be in doubt.
The manual method does not allow for the processing of large volumes of data on a regular and
timely basis.

1.2.3 Mechanical Method

The mechanical method of data processing involves the use of machines such as the typewriter,
roneo machines, adding machines and the like. These machines facilitate human efforts in
recording, classifying, manipulating, sorting and presenting data or information. The mechanical
operations are basically routine in nature. There is virtually no creative thinking. Mechanical
operations are noisy, hazardous, error prone and untidy. The mechanical method does not allow
for the processing of large volumes of data continuously and timely. Below are further attributes
of a computer which make an indispensable tool for humans.
1.3 Characteristics of a Computer
i. Speed: The computer can manipulate large data at incredible speed and response time can
be very fast.
ii. Accuracy: Its accuracy is very high and its consistency can be relied upon. Errors
committed in computing are mostly due to human rather than technological weakness.
There are in-built error detecting schemes in the computer.
iii. Storage: It has both internal and external storage facilities for holding data and
instructions. This capacity varies from one machine to the other. Memories are built up in
K (Kilo) modules where K=1024 memory locations.
iv. Automatic: Once a program is in the computer’s memory, it can run automatically each
time it is opened. The individual has little or no instruction to give again.
 v. Reliability: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer human traits of tiredness and lack
of concentration. It will perform the last job with the same speed and accuracy as the first
job every time even if ten million jobs are involved.
vi. Flexibility: It can perform any type of task once it can be reduced to logical steps. Modern
computers can be used to perform a variety of functions like on-line processing,
multiprogramming, real time processing etc.

Although computers are classified based on signal sizes, as well as purpose, the course only details
the classification based on the signal

1.4 Signal-based Classification

There are basically three types of electronic computers. These are the Digital, Analog and
Hybrid computers.

1.4.1 Analog Computer

It measures rather than counts. This type of computer sets up a model of a system. The common
type represents its variables in terms of electrical voltage and sets up circuit analog to the equation
connecting the variables. The answer can be either by using a voltmeter to read the value of the
variable required, or by feeding the voltage into a plotting device. Analog computers hold data in
the form of physical variables rather than numerical quantities. In theory, analog computers give
an exact answer because the answer has not been approximated to the nearest digit. Whereas, when
we try to obtain the answers using a digital voltmeter, we often find that the accuracy is less than
that which could have been obtained from an analog computer. It is almost never used in business
systems. It is used by scientists and engineers to solve systems of partial differential equations. It
is also used in controlling and monitoring of systems in such areas as hydrodynamics and rocketry
in production. There are two useful properties of this computer once it is programmed:

 It is simple to change the value of a constant or coefficient and study the effect of such
changes.
 It is possible to link certain variables to a time pulse to study changes with time as a
variable, and chart the result on an X-Y plotter.
1.4.2 Digital Computer

This represents its variables in the form of digits. The data it deals with, whether representing
numbers, letters or other symbols, are converted into binary form on input to the computer. The
data undergoes a processing after which the binary digits are converted back to alpha numeric form
for output for human use. Because of the fact that business applications like inventory control,
invoicing and payroll deal with discrete values (separate, disunited, discontinuous), they are best
processed with digital computers. As a result of this, digital computers are mostly used in
commercial and business places today.
1.4.3 The Hybrid Computer
In some cases, the computer user may wish to obtain the output from an analog computer as
processed by a digital computer or vice versa. To achieve this, he set up a hybrid machine where
the two are connected and the analog computer may be regarded as a peripheral of the digital
computer. In such a situation, a hybrid system attempts to gain the advantage of both the digital
and the analog elements in the same machine. This kind of machine is usually a special-purpose
device which is built for a specific task. It needs a conversion element which accepts analog inputs,
and outputs digital values. Such converters are called digitisers. There is a need for a converter
from analog to digital also. It has the advantage of giving real-time response on a continuous basis.
Complex calculations can be dealt with by the digital elements, thereby requiring a large memory,
and giving accurate results after programming. They are mainly used in aerospace and process
control applications.

1.4.4 The Computer System

The computer system is made up of the hardware and the software. However, within the scope of
this course, the focus shall only be limited to the hardware components as detailed in the ensuing
section.

2. The Hardware
The computer hardware comprises of the input unit, the processing unit and
the output unit, as illustrated in Figure 2
 Figure 2: Computer Hardware

Illustratively, the input unit comprises of those media through which data is fed into the computer.
Examples include the keyboard, mouse, joystick, trackball and scanner. While the processing unit
is made up of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), the control unit and the main memory. The
main memory also known as the primary memory is made up of the Read Only Memory (ROM)
and the Random Access Memory (RAM). The output unit is made up of those media. Inherently,
the functionality of computers is entirely dependent on the computer circuits, encompassing the
diode, PIAs IC as detailed in the ensuing sections.

2.1 DIODE

A diode is an electrical device enabling current move through it in one direction with far greater
ease than in the other. While a Diode Array is a type of electronic component that consists of
multiple diodes within a single package. The most common kind of diode in modern circuit design
is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes are
symbolized in schematic diagrams, such as the figure below. The term “diode” is customarily
reserved for small signal devices, I ≤ 1 A. The term rectifier is used for power devices, I > 1 A.
Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of Current flow. When
placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent current through the
lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure below):

Figure 3: Polarized Diode

Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. (b) Current flow is
prohibited; the diode is reversed biased. When the polarity of the battery is such that current is
allowed to flow through the diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the
battery is “backward” and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode
may be thought of as like a switch: “closed” when forward-biased and “open” when reverse-biased.

The direction of the diode symbol’s “arrowhead” points at the direction of the current in
conventional flow. This convention holds true for all semiconductors possessing “arrowheads” in
their schematics. The opposite is true when electron flow is used, where the current direction is
against the “arrowhead”.

2.1.1 Types of Diodes and the Corresponding Domains of Application

i. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

The light emitting diode is also a type of P-N junction diode that emits light in the forward bias
configuration. LED is made up of a direct-band semiconductor. When the charge carriers
(electrons) cross the barrier and recombine with electron holes on the other side, they emit photon
particles (light). While the color of the light depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor. LED
converts electrical energy into light energy.
 ii. Laser Diode
A laser diode is similar to LED because it converts electrical energy into light energy. But unlike
LED, Laser diode produces coherent light. The laser diode consists of a PIN junction, where
electron and holes combine together in the intrinsic (I) region. when they combine, it generates a
laser beam. Laser diodes are used in optical communication, laser pointer, CD drives and laser
printer etc.

iii. Tunnel Diode

Tunnel diode was invented by Leo Esaki in 1958 for which he received Nobel prize in 1973, which
is why it is also known as Esaki diode. A tunnel diode is a heavily doped P-N junction diode. It
works on the principle of the tunneling effect. Due to heavy doping concentration, the junction
barrier becomes very thin. This allows the electron to easily escape through the barrier. This
phenomenon is known as tunneling effect. The Tunnel diode has a region in its VI curve where
the current decreases as the voltage increases. This region is known as the negative resistance
region. The tunnel diode operates in this region in different applications such as an oscillator and
a microwave amplifier.

Zener Diode

Zener diode is a type of diode, which not only allows the flow of current in the forward direction
but also in reverse direction. when the reverse voltage reaches the breakdown voltage known
as Zener voltage it allows the current flow. The Zener diode has heavier doping concentration
than a normal P-N junction diode. Hence, it has a very thin depletion region. In forward bias, it
operates as a simple P-N junction diode (Rectifier). In reverse bias, it blocks until the reverse
voltage reaches breakdown. After that, it allows the current flow with a constant voltage drop.

iv. P-N Junction Diode

The P-N junction diode is made up of semiconductor material. It consists of two layers of
semiconductors. One layer is doped with P-type material and the other layer with N-type material.
The combination of these both P and N-type layers form a junction known as the P-N
junction. Hence the name P-N junction diode.
 v. Small Signal Diode
It is a type of P-N junction diode which operates on low voltage signals. Its junction area is very
small. Due to which, the junction has less capacitance & low charge storing capacity. It enables
the small signal diode to have high switching speed with very fast recovery time. However, its
limitations are low voltage and current parameters

2.2 Peripheral Interface Adapter

The Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA), provides a seamless means of interfacing peripheral
equipment to the microprocessors. This device is capable of interfacing the MPU to peripherals
through two 8-bit bidirectional peripheral data buses and four control lines. No external logic is
required for interfacing to most peripheral devices. The functional configuration of the PIA is
programmed by the MPU during system initialization. Each of the peripheral data lines can be
programmed to act as an input or output, and each of the four control/interrupt lines may be
programmed for one of several control modes. This allows a high degree of flexibility in the overall
operation of the interface.

3. Integrated Circuit
An Integrated Circuit entails the interconnection of multiple electronic components on a single
chip, and this can be classified into three different types.

3.1 Types of Integrated Circuits

 Based on Mode of Operation

 Based on Fabrication
 Based on Complexity

3.2 Based on Mode of Operation

IC’s are classified into two types based on the Mode of Operation or the signal processed. They
are:

 Digital IC or Non-Linear IC
 Analog IC or Linear IC
3.2.1 Digital IC or Non-Linear IC

Digital Integrated Circuits are the logical networks capable of performing mathematical
calculations and are commercially available as Memory Chip, Microprocessor, Microcontroller,
Counters, Logic gates, Registers etc. The input/ output value is either logical high/low (0 or 1).

3.2.2 Analog IC or Linear IC

Analog Integrated Circuits are the discrete networks, which processes the signals that are
continuously variable like an audio signal. The values of voltage or current may vary continuously
between minimum and maximum values. They are available commercially as Voltage
comparators, regulators, op-amps etc.

3.2.3 Based on Fabrication

IC’s are classified into three types based on the fabrication. They are:

 Monolithic IC
 Thick-Thin Film IC
 Hybrid IC

3.2.4 Monolithic IC

In Monolithic type of Integrated Circuits, all the active and passive components are formed
simultaneously by diffusion process on a single silicon chip. It is followed by metallization process
to interconnect the components to obtain the required circuit. They are generally used in low power
applications.

3.2.5 Thick-Thin Film IC

These are slightly larger than Monolithic IC’s and passive components like resistors and capacitors
are integrated whereas diodes and transistors are connected as discrete components to obtain the
required circuit. Thus, Thick-Thin film IC’s incorporate both integrated and discrete components.

3.2.6. Hybrid IC

Hybrid IC’s are the combination of two or more monolithic IC’s or it is produced using Monolithic
IC and Thick-Thin film Integrated Circuit. These are used for high power applications.

3.2.7 Based on Complexity

The circuit complexity can be determined by the number of active devices used. Hence Integrated
Circuits can be classified in to six types based on the number of components used on a chip. They
are:
  Small Scale Integration (SSI)
 Medium Scale Integration (MSI)
 Large Scale Integration (LSI)
 Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
 Super Large Scale Integration (SLSI)
 Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI)

I. Small Scale Integration (SSI)

It consists of 10 Transistors or few Gates such as AND, OR, NOT within a single chip.

II. Medium Scale Integration (MSI)

Transistor count ranges between 10-100 or tens of Gates per chip and are able to perform digital
operations like Adders, Decoders, Multiplexers etc.

III. Large Scale Integration (LSI)

The range is between 100-1,000 Transistors or hundreds of Gates that performs logical
operations. LSI is implemented for memory units, ALU etc.

IV. Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)

VLSI fabrication is used for Processors, Programmable Logic Devices where the Transistor
count ranges between 1,000-10,000 or thousands of Gates.

V. Super Large Scale Integration (SLSI)

SLSI is implemented for circuits which require 10,000-100,000 Transistors within a single
package like Microprocessor chips, Microcontrollers etc.
 VI. Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI)

In this type of fabrication more than 1 Million Transistors are integrated on a single chip. This
technique is being used in CPU’s, GPU’s, FPGA’s etc.

3.3 Fabrication of IC

The starting material for Integrated Circuit (IC) fabrication is the single crystal silicon wafer. The
end product of fabrication is functioning chips that are ready for packaging and final electrical
testing before being shipped to the customer. The intermediate steps are referred to as wafer
fabrication (including sort). Wafer fabrication refers to the set of manufacturing processes used to
create semiconductor devices and circuits. Some common wafer terminology used are chip, die,
device, circuit, and microchip. These refer to patterns covering the wafer surface that provide
specific functionality. The terminology die and chip are most commonly used and interchangeably
refer to one standalone unit on the wafer surface. Thus, a wafer can be said to be divided into many
dies or chips, as shown in figure 4.

Figure 4: Schematic of wafer depicting the division into individual dies.

One individual die with electrical contacts is also shown. Some of these dies are used for testing.
Dies at the edge dies are incomplete. Adapted from Microchip fabrication.
Figure 5: Schematic of various components of a wafer. (1) Chip (2) Scribe line (3) Test die (4)
Edge chips (5) Wafer crystal plane (6) Flats/notches.

The area between the dies is called a scribe line. This is used for separating the individual dies
when the fabrication is complete. Scribe lines can be blank but most often they consist of test
structures that are used for electrical testing (e-test) during fabrication. This helps in identification
of process issues during fabrication, without having to wait for the entire chip to be made. Along
with the regular ICs, test dies or engineering dies are also fabricated. These dies are used for
electrical testing at the end, for process or quality control. There are also some partial or edge dies
at the corners of the wafers. These arise because the wafers are circular while the dies are usually
rectangular. Corner dies can be used for making smaller testing circuits for process control. The
various elements described above are marked in figure 2. Larger the wafer, more the number of
chips that can be manufactured (including edge chips). Essentially, the Layering, Patterning,
Doping, as well as Heat treatment as detailed in the subsequent subsections are the fundamental
approaches in the fabrication of IC.
 I. Layering
The layering step is used to add thin layers to the wafer surface. These layers can be of a different
material or a different microstructure or composition of the same material (polycrystalline Si or
silicon oxide). Figure 3 shows the cross-section of a simple MOSFET, highlighting the various
thin layers that are part of the device. The different layers help in defining the various components
of the MOSFET and in obtaining a functional device e.g. the passivation layer helps in electrically
isolating the metal contacts to the source, drain and gate. Layering can be of many different types,
though they can be broadly classified into two main categories: grown and deposited.
The various types of layering operations are shown in figure 6.

In the case of grown layers, the underlying wafer material (typically Si) is consumed. A classic
example is the growth of the oxide layer, as shown in the MOSFET structure in figure 6. This is
formed by oxidation of Si into SiO2 and is usually done in two ways.

Figure 6: Cross section of a MOSFET showing the different layers. Poly Si is used as gate with
SiNx used as the interlayer dielectric. Layering is the process by which all of these different
materials are added to the MOSFET. Adapted from Fundamentals of semiconductor
manufacturing and process control.

II. Patterning
Patterning or lithography is one of the most important steps in wafer fabrication. Patterning refers
to a series of steps to selectively mask or expose portions of the surface for
deposition/doping/etching. It sets the critical dimensions of the device. The drive to pack more
devices in a chip (smaller devices) is directly related to the ability to pattern smaller regions in the
wafer. The challenges in reduction of device size in recent ICs is related to patterning. The process
is highly defect sensitive, especially at smaller sizes. Presence of defect particles in the pattern can
affect the later steps like deposition/doping/etching and can also affect pattering of other layers.
To make a pattern, reticle has to be first prepared. Reticle refers to the hard
copy of the design that is then transferred on to the chip.

Use of photoresists for patterning is an example of a soft mask since the mask can be easily
removed without damaging the underlying substrate. Sometimes oxide or nitride layers are also
used as masks for pattern transfer. These are called hard masks, since these masks can withstand
high temperature while resists cannot and they also need aggressive chemical procedures
for removal. Thus, it is difficult to combine lithography with deposition processes like CVD
(where hard mask would be needed) but it can be used with processes like thermal evaporation,
sputtering, and e-beam deposition.

III. Doping
Doping refers to the process where specific amounts of electrically active 'impurities' are
incorporated through openings on the wafer surface. The dopant materials are typically p or n type
impurities and they are needed to form devices like diodes, transistors, conductors, and other
electronic devices
electronic devices

Overview of the patterning process, showing both positive and negative photoresists. Positive
resists directly transfer the pattern from reticle to wafer, while negative resists transfer the inverse
of the pattern. Adapted
from Fundamentals of semiconductor manufacturing and process control
The formation of a doped region in a section of the wafer is shown in figure##. There are two
main techniques for doping
1. Thermal diffusion
2. Ion implantation
Both processes produce different dopant concentration and below
the surface

I. Thermal diffusion
As the name implies, in thermal diffusion, doping is carried out by movement of the dopant
material from the surface to the bulk, by a thermally activated process. The diffusion can be
initiated from dopants in a vapor, liquid, or a solid source. The wafer has to be heated to high
temperature, around 1000 _C, to speed up the diffusion process. Thus, thermal diffusion cannot be
used with soft lithography masks and a hard mask like oxide or nitride is used. For n type doping
in Si, some typical dopant materials are Sb2O3 (s), As2O3 (s), AsH3 (g), POCl3 (l), P2O5 (s), and PH3
(g). For p type doping, typical materials are BBr3 (l), B2O3 (s) and BCl3 (g). Thermal diffusion is
an isotropic process (though diffusion rates might be different in different directions). This leads
to lateral spread of the dopants at higher temperatures and long times, and makes doping in small
confined regions difficult.

II. Heat treatment

Heat treatment operations are usually part of the other three operations i.e. layering, doping, and
patterning. Some of the heat treatment operations in these steps are summarized in table 1.
Table 1: Heat treatment operations in IC fabrication. The link with other fabrication steps is
tabulated. Table 1: Heat treatment operations in IC fabrication. The link with other fabrication
steps is tabulated.

3.4 Applications of Integrated Circuit

The applications of IC’s include:

 They are used in smart phones, mp3 players, laptops, computers.
 IC’s are also used in Television and cameras.
 They are widely used in aircraft and space craft systems.
 IC’s are the basic component used in scientific calculators and digital watches.
 They are used in control systems.
3.4.1 Advantages of Integrated Circuit

The advantages include:

 IC’s are smaller in size and hence the circuit is simplified.

 They are highly reliable as all the circuit components are fabricated.
 Space required by Integrated Circuit is very less.
 Power consumption is less.
 They are economical.
 It has the ability to operate at extreme temperatures.

3.4.2 Disadvantages of Integrated Circuit

The disadvantages are:

 Inductors and high value Capacitors cannot be fabricated.

 Integrated Circuit (IC) cannot produce high power.
 If any component on IC is faulty, then the entire IC has to be replaced.

4. Computer Memories
In computing, memory denotes a device or system that is employed as information storage for
immediate use in a computer or related computer hardware, as well as digital electronic devices.
The memory is either categorized into primary storage, secondary storage, tertiary Storage or off-
line Storage class as further detailed in the ensuing sub-sections.
 Figure 7: Computer Memories

4.1 Primary Memory

Inherently, Primary memory is the main memory of the computer which can be directly accessed
by the central processing unit. Essentially, The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there
and executes them as required. Example:
 RAM
 ROM
 Cache

RAM (Random Access Memory) is a volatile hardware contained within a computing device,
where the operating system (OS) such as Windows, Linux, application programs and data in
current use are temporarily retained in order to be accessed by the processor
The volatility of the RAM means data is retained therein as long as the computer is on, but it is
lost when the computer is turned off. When the computer is rebooted, the OS and other files are
reloaded into RAM, usually from an HDD or SSD. RAM comes in two primary forms:

4.1.1 Types of RAM

 Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) makes up the typical computing device's
RAM, and as was previously noted, it needs that power to be on to retain stored data.

Each DRAM cell has a charge or lack of charge held in an electrical capacitor. This data must be
constantly refreshed with an electronic charge every few milliseconds to compensate for leaks
from the capacitator. A transistor serves as a gate, determining whether a capacitor's value can be
read or written.

 Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) also needs constant power to hold on to data,
but it doesn't need to be continually refreshed the way DRAM does.

In SRAM, instead of a capacitor holding the charge, the transistor acts as a switch, with one
position serving as 1 and the other position as 0. Static RAM requires several transistors to retain
one bit of data compared to dynamic RAM which needs only one transistor per bit. As a result,
SRAM chips are much larger and more expensive than an equivalent amount of DRAM.

However, SRAM is significantly faster and uses less power than DRAM. The price and speed
differences mean static RAM is mainly used in small amounts as cache memory inside a
computer's processor.

4.1.2 RAM vs. ROM

Read-only memory, or ROM, is computer memory containing data that can only be read, not
written to. ROM contains boot-up programming that is used each time a computer is turned on. It
generally can't be altered or reprogrammed.

The data in ROM is nonvolatile and isn't lost when the computer power is turned off. As a result,
read-only memory is used for permanent data storage. Random Access Memory, on the other
hand, can only hold data temporarily. ROM is generally several megabytes of storage, while
RAM is several gigabytes.

4.2 Cache

Is a high-speed access area that can be either a reserved section of main memory or a storage
device.
4.2 Secondary Storage
Secondary memory is directly inaccessible by the CPU. While it is non-volatile and persistent in
nature, its mode of storage is permanent. Computer usually uses its input/output channels to access
secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage.
Example:

4.2.1 Hard Disk

The hard disk drive is the main, and usually largest, data storage device in a computer with a
storage capacity of gigabytes and terabytes. This hardware component is designed with a set
rotational speed varying from 4500 to 7200rpm, as further illustrated in the ensuing Figure.
 Figure 8: Computer Hard Disk Drive

Illustratively, as depicted in the preceding figure, when a document is save, it gets written "non-
volatile" that retains its state even when the power is off. The hard drive contains a spinning platter
with a thin magnetic coating thereafter, a "head" moves over the platter, writing 0's and 1's as tiny
areas of magnetic North or South on the platter. To read the data back, the head goes to the same
spot, notices the North and South spots flying by, and so deduces the stored 0's and 1's. A Modern
hard drive can store well over a trillion 0/1 bits per platter, so the individual North/South spots are
quite small.

4.3 Magnetic Storage Devices

In the Magnetic storage devices, all data are stored with using magnetized medium, and those types
of data saved in that medium in the binary form like as 0 and 1. This magnetic storage has also
non-volatile storage nature. Today’s, mostly people are preferred to magnetic medium because on
the magnetic storage devices can be performed read/write activities very easily. Magnetic storage
devices have huge capacities for storing data that it’s more attractive point. These storage devices
are not more costly but their data accessing power is slow, but this magnetic mechanism also to be
used in the RAM that have good data accessing power to other.
4.4 Floppy Disk
Floppy disk was introduced by IBM, in 1969. Floppy disk is also called the “Floppy Diskette”. It
is a hardware data storage medium that is used in the personal computers. Floppy disk is a plastic
cartridge measuring 3.5 inches square and about 2 millimeters thick, and it is secured with
protective casing. In the floppy disk, iron oxide was used to coat internally for storing data in
magnetic form, just similar to hard disk. But, now floppy disk is completely obsolete.

4.4.1 Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Tape was introduced by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928, and primary objective of magnetic tap
of using was recording voice. It is traditional technology, but now it is replaced by CD and DVD.

4.4.2 Magnetic Drum

Magnetic drum was developed by Gustav Tauschek in 1932 in Austria. Magnetic drum was used
as a primary memory in computers, in 1950 to 1960. But, now it is replaced with secondary
storage medium. It contains the metal cylinder which is coated with magnetic iron-oxide material
on which all data (files or folders) can be saved. Magnetic drum is not physically removable device,
because it is permanently placed in the computer. It is capable to access data at higher rate
compare to tape or disk storage devices but its storage capacity is lesser to them.

4.4.3 Zip Diskette

Zip diskette was developed by Lomega Company, and it was an advance technology to traditional
floppy disk, and it was used as a secondary storage device. Zip drive is used to operate the Zip
disk. Zip disks had 100 and 250 MB storage space that was used to save, share and back up huge
amount of data. But, now Zip disk is not getting popular in the market.

4.4.4 SuperDisk

SuperDisk was introduced by Imation organization that is supported with enlarge high density.
SuperDisk drive was getting more popularity along with OEM computers, like as Compaq and
Packard Bell PCs. SuperDisk has capable of 120 MB storage over single disk similar size of oldest
1.44 MB floppy diskette, and further few time it was capable of storage 240 MB.
4.4.5 MRAM

MRAM stands for “Magnetoresestive Random Access Memory”. In this technology, magnetic
states are used for storing data beyond of electrical charges.

5. Peripheral devices
Peripheral devices denote any device connected internally or externally Peripheral device, device
used to enter information into a computer or deliver processed data to a human or another machine.
Peripherals are commonly divided into three kinds: input devices, output devices, and storage
devices (which partake of the characteristics of the first two). An input device converts incoming
data and instructions into a pattern of electrical signals in binary code that are comprehensible to
a digital computer. An output device reverses the process, translating the digitized signals into a
form intelligible to the user. At one time punched-card and paper-tape readers were extensively
used for inputting, but these have now been supplanted by more efficient devices.

Input devices include typewriter-like keyboards; handheld devices such as the mouse, trackball,
joystick, trackpad, and special pen with pressure-sensitive pad; microphones, webcams, and digital
cameras. They also include sensors that provide information about their environment—
temperature, pressure, and so forth—to a computer. Another direct-entry mechanism is the
optical laser scanner (e.g., scanners used with point-of-sale terminals in retail stores) that can read
bar-coded data or optical character fonts.

Output equipment includes video display terminals, ink-jet and laser printers, loudspeakers,
headphones, and devices such as flow valves that control machinery, often in response to computer
processing of sensor input data. Some devices, such as video display terminals and USB hubs, may
provide both input and output. Other examples are devices that enable the transmission and
reception of data between computers—e.g., modems and network interfaces

6. Operational amplifiers
The operational amplifier (op-amp) is a voltage controlled voltage source with very high gain. It is a five
terminal four port active element. The symbol of the op-amp with the associated terminals and ports is
shown on Figure 1(a) and (b).
 Figure 9: Symbol and associated notation of op-amp

The power supply voltages VCC and VEE power the operational amplifier and in general define
the output voltage range of the amplifier. The terminals labeled with the “+” and the “-” signs are
called non-inverting and inverting respectively. The input voltage Vp and Vn and the output
voltage Vo are referenced to ground.

Logic gates are the basic building blocks of digital circuits, operating on binary values (0s and
1s). They take one or more binary inputs and produce a single binary output based on specific
logical operations. There are three fundamental types of logic gates: AND, OR, and NOT.

AND Gate: Produces a high output (1) only when all inputs are high (1).
OR Gate: Produces a high output (1) when at least one input is high (1).
NOT Gate: Inverts the input, producing a high output (1) when the input is low (0), and vice versa.

Logic gates can be combined to create more complex circuits, allowing for the implementation of
various logical functions. They are essential in digital electronics, used in devices like computers,
calculators, and digital appliances. Understanding logic gates is crucial for anyone working with
digital technology or studying fields like computer science and electrical engineering.

Let's break down each logic gate:

7.1. OR Gate:
 Function: An OR gate produces a high output (1) if any of its inputs are high (1).
Symbol: The symbol for an OR gate is typically represented by a plus (+) sign inside a circle, or
by the letters "OR".
Truth Table:

Input A | Input B | Output

----------------------------
0 | 0 | 0
0 | 1 | 1
1 | 0 | 1
1 | 1 | 1
```

In an OR gate, if either input A or input B (or both) is high (1), the output will also be high (1).
It's like saying "either this or that, or both".

7.2. AND Gate:

Function: An AND gate produces a high output (1) only if all of its inputs are high (1).
Symbol: The symbol for an AND gate is typically represented by a dot (·) inside a circle, or by
the letters "AND".
Truth Table:

```
Input A | Input B | Output
----------------------------
0 | 0 | 0
0 | 1 | 0
1 | 0 | 0
1 | 1 | 1
```

In an AND gate, the output will be high (1) only if both input A and input B are high (1). It's like
saying "this and that".

7.3. NOT Gate:

Function: A NOT gate, also known as an inverter, produces an output that is the opposite
(complement) of its input.
Symbol: The symbol for a NOT gate is typically represented by a triangle pointing towards the
input, or by the letter "NOT".
Truth Table:

```
Input | Output
--------------
0 | 1
1 | 0
```

In a NOT gate, the output is the opposite of the input. If the input is high (1), the output is low
(0), and vice versa. It's like saying "not this".

Understanding these basic logic gates forms the foundation for more complex
digital circuit design and analysis.