Al Minya University

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering

Electromagnetic Field Theory

For The Second Year

Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mohamed El-Sawy

Lecture 6
 L e c t u r e 6

Time-Varying Fields
and Maxwell’s Equations

T
he basic relationships of the electrostatic field and the steady magnetic field
were obtained in the previous eight chapters, and we are now ready to discuss
time-varying fields. The discussion will be short, for vector analysis and
vector calculus should now be more familiar tools; some of the relationships are
unchanged, and most of the relationships are changed only slightly.
Two new concepts will be introduced: the electric field produced by a changing
magnetic field and the magnetic field produced by a changing electric field. The first
of these concepts resulted from experimental research by Michael Faraday and the
second from the theoretical efforts of James Clerk Maxwell.
Maxwell actually was inspired by Faraday’s experimental work and by the mental
picture provided through the “lines of force” that Faraday introduced in developing
his theory of electricity and magnetism. He was 40 years younger than Faraday, but
they knew each other during the five years Maxwell spent in London as a young
professor, a few years after Faraday had retired. Maxwell’s theory was developed
subsequent to his holding this university position while he was working alone at his
home in Scotland. It occupied him for five years between the ages of 35 and 40.
The four basic equations of electromagnetic theory presented in this chapter bear
his name. ■

9.1 FARADAY’S LAW

After Oersted1 demonstrated in 1820 that an electric current affected a compass
needle, Faraday professed his belief that if a current could produce a magnetic field,
then a magnetic field should be able to produce a current. The concept of the “field”

1 Hans Christian Oersted was professor of physics at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark.

277
278 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

was not available at that time, and Faraday’s goal was to show that a current could be
produced by “magnetism.”
He worked on this problem intermittently over a period of 10 years, until he
was finally successful in 1831.2 He wound two separate windings on an iron toroid
and placed a galvanometer in one circuit and a battery in the other. Upon closing
the battery circuit, he noted a momentary deflection of the galvanometer; a similar
deflection in the opposite direction occurred when the battery was disconnected. This,
of course, was the first experiment he made involving a changing magnetic field, and
he followed it with a demonstration that either a moving magnetic field or a moving
coil could also produce a galvanometer deflection.
In terms of fields, we now say that a time-varying magnetic field produces an
electromotive force (emf) that may establish a current in a suitable closed circuit.
An electromotive force is merely a voltage that arises from conductors moving in a
magnetic field or from changing magnetic fields, and we shall define it in this section.
Faraday’s law is customarily stated as

d

emf = − V (1)
dt

Equation (1) implies a closed path, although not necessarily a closed conducting
path; the closed path, for example, might include a capacitor, or it might be a purely
imaginary line in space. The magnetic flux is that flux which passes through any and
every surface whose perimeter is the closed path, and d
/dt is the time rate of change
of this flux.
A nonzero value of d
/dt may result from any of the following situations:
1. A time-changing flux linking a stationary closed path
2. Relative motion between a steady flux and a closed path
3. A combination of the two
The minus sign is an indication that the emf is in such a direction as to produce
a current whose flux, if added to the original flux, would reduce the magnitude of
the emf. This statement that the induced voltage acts to produce an opposing flux is
known as Lenz’s law.3
If the closed path is that taken by an N -turn filamentary conductor, it is often
sufficiently accurate to consider the turns as coincident and let

d

emf = −N (2)
dt

where
is now interpreted as the flux passing through any one of N coincident
paths.

2 Joseph Henry produced similar results at Albany Academy in New York at about the same time.
3 Henri Frederic Emile Lenz was born in Germany but worked in Russia. He published his law in 1834.
 CHAPTER 9 Time-Varying Fields and Maxwell’s Equations 279

We need to define emf as used in (1) or (2). The emf is obviously a scalar, and
(perhaps not so obviously) a dimensional check shows that it is measured in volts.
We define the emf as


emf = E · dL (3)

and note that it is the voltage about a specific closed path. If any part of the path is
changed, generally the emf changes. The departure from static results is clearly shown
by (3), for an electric field intensity resulting from a static charge distribution must lead
to zero potential difference about a closed path. In electrostatics, the line integral leads
to a potential difference; with time-varying fields, the result is an emf or a voltage.
Replacing
in (1) with the surface integral of B, we have


d
emf = E · dL = − B · dS (4)
dt S

where the fingers of our right hand indicate the direction of the closed path, and
our thumb indicates the direction of dS. A flux density B in the direction of dS and
increasing with time thus produces an average value of E which is opposite to the
positive direction about the closed path. The right-handed relationship between the
surface integral and the closed line integral in (4) should always be kept in mind
during flux integrations and emf determinations.
We will divide our investigation into two parts by first finding the contribution to
the total emf made by a changing field within a stationary path (transformer emf), and
then we will consider a moving path within a constant (motional, or generator, emf).
We first consider a stationary path. The magnetic flux is the only time-varying
quantity on the right side of (4), and a partial derivative may be taken under the integral
sign,


∂B
emf = E · dL = − · dS (5)
S ∂t
Before we apply this simple result to an example, let us obtain the point form of
this integral equation. Applying Stokes’ theorem to the closed line integral, we have
 
∂B
(∇ × E) · dS = − · dS
S S ∂t
where the surface integrals may be taken over identical surfaces. The surfaces are
perfectly general and may be chosen as differentials,
∂B
(∇ × E) · dS = − · dS
∂t
and
∂B
∇ ×E=− (6)
∂t
280 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

This is one of Maxwell’s four equations as written in differential, or point, form,

the form in which they are most generally used. Equation (5) is the integral form of
this equation and is equivalent to Faraday’s law as applied to a fixed path. If B is not
a function of time, (5) and (6) evidently reduce to the electrostatic equations


E · dL = 0 (electrostatics)

and
∇ ×E=0 (electrostatics)
As an example of the interpretation of (5) and (6), let us assume a simple magnetic
field which increases exponentially with time within the cylindrical region ρ < b,
B = B0 ekt az (7)
where B0 = constant. Choosing the circular path ρ = a, a < b, in the z = 0 plane,
along which E φ must be constant by symmetry, we then have from (5)
emf = 2πa E φ = −k B0 ekt πa 2
The emf around this closed path is −k B0 ekt πa 2 . It is proportional to a 2 because
the magnetic flux density is uniform and the flux passing through the surface at any
instant is proportional to the area.
If we now replace a with ρ, ρ < b, the electric field intensity at any point is
E = − 12 k B0 ekt ρaφ (8)
Let us now attempt to obtain the same answer from (6), which becomes
1 ∂(ρE φ )
(∇ × E)z = −k B0 ekt =
ρ ∂ρ
Multiplying by ρ and integrating from 0 to ρ (treating t as a constant, since the
derivative is a partial derivative),
− 12 k B0 ekt ρ 2 = ρE φ
or
E = − 12 k B0 ekt ρaφ
once again.
If B0 is considered positive, a filamentary conductor of resistance R would have
a current flowing in the negative aφ direction, and this current would establish a flux
within the circular loop in the negative az direction. Because E φ increases exponen-
tially with time, the current and flux do also, and thus they tend to reduce the time rate
of increase of the applied flux and the resultant emf in accordance with Lenz’s law.
Before leaving this example, it is well to point out that the given field B does
not satisfy all of Maxwell’s equations. Such fields are often assumed (always in ac-
circuit problems) and cause no difficulty when they are interpreted properly. They
 CHAPTER 9 Time-Varying Fields and Maxwell’s Equations 281

Figure 9.1 An example illustrating the application of

Faraday’s law to the case of a constant magnetic flux density
B and a moving path. The shorting bar moves to the right
with a velocity v, and the circuit is completed through the two
rails and an extremely small high-resistance voltmeter. The
voltmeter reading is V12 = −Bvd.

occasionally cause surprise, however. This particular field is discussed further in

Problem 9.19 at the end of the chapter.
Now let us consider the case of a time-constant flux and a moving closed path.
Before we derive any special results from Faraday’s law (1), let us use the basic law to
analyze the specific problem outlined in Figure 9.1. The closed circuit consists of two
parallel conductors which are connected at one end by a high-resistance voltmeter of
negligible dimensions and at the other end by a sliding bar moving at a velocity v.
The magnetic flux density B is constant (in space and time) and is normal to the plane
containing the closed path.
Let the position of the shorting bar be given by y; the flux passing through the
surface within the closed path at any time t is then

= Byd
From (1), we obtain
d
dy
emf = − = −B d = −Bνd (9)
dt dt

The emf is defined as E · dL and we have a conducting path, so we may actually
determine E at every point along the closed path. We found in electrostatics that the
tangential component of E is zero at the surface of a conductor, and we shall show in
Section 9.4 that the tangential component is zero at the surface of a perfect conductor
(σ = ∞) for all time-varying conditions. This is equivalent to saying that a perfect
conductor is a “short circuit.” The entire closed path in Figure 9.1 may be considered
a perfect conductor, with the exception of the voltmeter. The actual computation of
E · dL then must involve no contribution along the entire moving bar, both rails,
and the voltmeter leads. Because we are integrating in a counterclockwise direction
282 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

(keeping the interior of the positive side of the surface on our left as usual), the
contribution E L across the voltmeter must be −Bνd, showing that the electric
field intensity in the instrument is directed from terminal 2 to terminal 1. For an up-
scale reading, the positive terminal of the voltmeter should therefore be terminal 2.
The direction of the resultant small current flow may be confirmed by noting that
the enclosed flux is reduced by a clockwise current in accordance with Lenz’s law.
The voltmeter terminal 2 is again seen to be the positive terminal.
Let us now consider this example using the concept of motional emf. The force
on a charge Q moving at a velocity v in a magnetic field B is

F = Qv × B

or
F
=v×B (10)
Q
The sliding conducting bar is composed of positive and negative charges, and each
experiences this force. The force per unit charge, as given by (10), is called the
motional electric field intensity Em ,

Em = v × B (11)

If the moving conductor were lifted off the rails, this electric field intensity would force
electrons to one end of the bar (the far end) until the static fiel due to these charges
just balanced the field induced by the motion of the bar. The resultant tangential
electric field intensity would then be zero along the length of the bar.
The motional emf produced by the moving conductor is then



emf = Em · dL = (v × B) · dL (12)

where the last integral may have a nonzero value only along that portion of the path
which is in motion, or along which v has some nonzero value. Evaluating the right
side of (12), we obtain

 0
(v × B) · dL = ν B d x = −Bνd
d
as before. This is the total emf, since B is not a function of time.
In the case of a conductor moving in a uniform constant magnetic field, we may
therefore ascribe a motional electric field intensity Em = v × B to every portion of
the moving conductor and evaluate the resultant emf by




emf = E · dL = Em · dL = (v × B) · dL (13)

If the magnetic flux density is also changing with time, then we must include
both contributions, the transformer emf (5) and the motional emf (12),



∂B
emf = E · dL = − · dS + (v × B) · dL (14)
S ∂t
 CHAPTER 9 Time-Varying Fields and Maxwell’s Equations 283

Figure 9.2 An apparent increase in flux linkages does

not lead to an induced voltage when one part of a circuit
is simply substituted for another by opening the switch.
No indication will be observed on the voltmeter.

This expression is equivalent to the simple statement

d

emf = − (1)
dt
and either can be used to determine these induced voltages.
Although (1) appears simple, there are a few contrived examples in which its
proper application is quite difficult. These usually involve sliding contacts or switches;
they always involve the substitution of one part of a circuit by a new part.4 As an
example, consider the simple circuit of Figure 9.2, which contains several perfectly
conducting wires, an ideal voltmeter, a uniform constant field B, and a switch. When
the switch is opened, there is obviously more flux enclosed in the voltmeter circuit;
however, it continues to read zero. The change in flux has not been produced by either
a time-changing B [first term of (14)] or a conductor moving through a magnetic field
[second part of (14)]. Instead, a new circuit has been substituted for the old. Thus it
is necessary to use care in evaluating the change in flux linkages.
The separation of the emf into the two parts indicated by (14), one due to the time
rate of change of B and the other to the motion of the circuit, is somewhat arbitrary
in that it depends on the relative velocity of the observer and the system. A field that
is changing with both time and space may look constant to an observer moving with
the field. This line of reasoning is developed more fully in applying the special theory
of relativity to electromagnetic theory.5

D9.1. Within a certain region, = 10−11 F/m and µ = 10−5 H/m. If Bx =

∂E
2 × 10−4 cos 105 t sin 10−3 y T: (a) use ∇ × H = to find E; (b) find the total
∂t
magnetic flux passing through the surface x = 0, 0 < y < 40 m, 0 < z < 2 m,

4See Bewley, in References at the end of the chapter, particularly pp. 12–19.
5This is discussed in several of the references listed in the References at the end of the chapter.
See Panofsky and Phillips, pp. 142–51; Owen, pp. 231–45; and Harman in several places.
284 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

at t = 1 µs; (c) find the value of the closed line integral of E around the peri-
meter of the given surface.

Ans. −20 000 sin 105 t cos 10−3 yaz V/m; 0.318 mWb; −3.19 V

D9.2. With reference to the sliding bar shown in Figure 9.1, let d = 7 cm,
B = 0.3az T, and v = 0.1a y e20y m/s. Let y = 0 at t = 0. Find: (a) ν(t = 0);
(b) y(t = 0.1); (c) ν(t = 0.1); (d) V12 at t = 0.1.

Ans. 0.1 m/s; 1.12 cm; 0.125 m/s; −2.63 mV