Prepared by

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc., B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA.,

POST GRADUATE TEACHER (PHYSICS),
GOVERNMENT BOYS HR SEC SCHOOL,
BUDALUR – 613 602,
THANJAVUR DT.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 1

 CONTENTS

PAGE
UNIT TITLE
NO

UNITS AND VALUES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES 3

1 ELECTROSTATICS 4

2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 22

MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC

3 30
CURRENT

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING

4 47
CURRENT

5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 65

6 RAY OPTICS 71

7 WAVE OPTICS 87

8 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER 108

9 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS 120

10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 136

11 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN PHYSICS 155

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 2

 UNITS AND VALUES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
SL.NO PHYSICAL QUANTITY UNITS AND VALUES

1 Electric charge 𝐶 (Coulomb)

2 Permittivity of free space 𝜀0 = 8.85 x 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2
1
3 9 x 109 𝑁 𝑚2 𝐶 −2
4𝜋𝜀0
4 Electric field 𝑁 𝐶 −1
5 Electric dipole moment 𝐶𝑚
6 Torque 𝑁𝑚
7 Electric potential 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑉
8 Electric flux 𝑁 𝑚2 𝐶 −1
9 Dielectric strength 𝑉 𝑚−1
10 Capacitance 𝐶 𝑉 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑
11 Electric current 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 𝑠 −1
12 Drift velocity 𝑚 𝑠 −1
13 Mobility 𝑚2 𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1
14 Current density 𝐴 𝑚−2
15 Resistance Ω (ohm)
16 Resistivity Ω m (Ohm m)
17 Temperature coefficient of resistance /°C
18 Electric power watt or J s−1
19 1 kWh 3.6 x 106 𝐽
20 Magnetic dipole moment 𝐴 𝑚2
21 Magnetic field 𝑁𝐴−1 𝑚−1
22 Magnetic flux 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑊𝑏)
23 1 Weber (1𝑊𝑏) = 108 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙
24 Magnetic flux density 𝑊𝑏 𝑚−2 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
25 Gyro magnetic ratio 𝐶 𝑘𝑔−1
1 𝑁𝑠 1𝑁
26 1 Tesla (1T) = = 𝑁𝐴−1 𝑚−1
𝐶𝑚 𝐴𝑚
27 Induction 𝑊𝑏 𝐴−1 or 𝑉𝑠 𝐴−1 𝑜𝑟 𝐻
28 Inductive reactance Ω
29 Capacitive reactance Ω
30 Power of a lens Diopter (D)
31 Work function eV
32 Specific charge 𝐶 𝑘𝑔−1
33 1 atomic mass unit 1.6 x 10−27 𝑘𝑔
34 Activity Becquerel (Bq) or Curie (Ci)
10
35 1 Curie 1𝐶𝑖 = 3.7 x 10 𝐵𝑞
1 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
36 1 Becquerel 1𝐵𝑞 =
1𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 3

 UNIT -1 : ELECTROSTATICS
TWO MARK QUESTION AND ANSWERS
1. State law of conservation of electric charge.
 The total electric charge in the universe is constant and charge can neither be created nor be
destroyed.
 In any physical process, the net change in charge will always be zero.

2. What is meant by quantization of charges?

 The charge q on any object is equal to an integral multiple of this fundamental unit of charge e.
 q = ne
 Here n is any integer (0, ±1, ±2, … . )
 This is called quantization of electric charge.

3. State Coulomb’s law.

Coulomb’s law states that the electrostatic force is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitude of the two point charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
two point charges.

4. Write down Coulomb’s law in vector form and mention what each term represents.
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
 F21 = 4𝜋𝜀 r12
0 𝑟2

 F21 - force on the charge 𝑞2 exerted by the charge 𝑞1 .

 𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 - two point charges.
 r – distance between the two point charges
 r12 - unit vector from 𝑞1 𝑡𝑜 𝑞2 .
 𝜀0 – permittivity of free space.
 𝜀0 = 8.85 x 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2

5. Define relative permittivity.

 Relative permittivity is defined as the ratio of permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of free
space.
𝜀
 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀
0

 For vacuum or air, 𝜀𝑟 = 1 and

 For all other media 𝜀𝑟 > 1.
6. State superposition principle of electrostatic force.
The total force acting on a given charge is equal to the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the
other charges.
7. Define Electric field.
 Electric field at a point P at a distance r from the point charge q is the force experienced by a unit
charge.
1 𝑞
 𝐸= r
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟 2
 It is a vector quantity.
 Its SI unit is NC-1
8. Write Coulomb’s law in terms of electric field.
 If the electric field at a point P is 𝐸 , then the force experienced by the test charge 𝑞0 placed at the
point P is 𝐹 = 𝑞0 𝐸
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 4
9. What is meant by Electric field lines?
Electric field lines are the imaginary curved path along which a unit charge tends to move in an
electric field.

10. The electric field lines never intersect. Justify.

 No two electric field lines intersect each other.
 If two lines cross at a point, then there will be two different electric field vectors at the same point.
 As a consequence, if some charge is placed in the intersection point, then it has to move in two
different directions at the same time, which is physically impossible.
 Hence, electric field lines do not intersect.

11. Define Electric dipole. Give the expression for the magnitude of its electric dipole moment and the
direction.
 Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance constitute an electric dipole.
 Examples: CO, H2O, NH3, HCl
 Magnitude: p = q2a
 Direction: Lies along the line joining two charges and is directed from –q to +q

12. Write general definition of electric dipole moment for a collection of point charge.
n 
 𝑝=  qi r i
i 1

13. Define electric potential difference.

The electric potential difference is defined as the work done by an external force to bring unit positive
charge form one point to another point.

14. Define electrostatic potential.

The electric potential at a point P is equal to the work done by an external force to bring a unit
positive charge with constant velocity from infinity to the point P in the region of the external electric
field E.

15. What is equipotential surface?

An equipotential surface is a surface on which all the points are at the same potential.

16. Give the relation between electric field and electric potential.
 The electric field is the negative gradient of the electric potential.
𝑑𝑉
 𝐸 = − 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
 𝐸=− 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘
𝜕𝑥

17. Define electrostatic potential energy.

The electrostatic potential energy is defined as the work done to bring a test charge from one point to
another point in an electrostatic field.

18. Define electric flux.

 The number of electric field lines crossing a given area kept normal to the electric field lines is called
electric flux.
 It is a scalar quantity.
 Its unit is N m2 C-1

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 5

19. State Gauss’s law
Gauss’s law states that if a charge Q is enclosed by an arbitrary closed surface, then the total electric
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
flux 𝜙𝐸 through the closed surface is 𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀0
20. Define - electrostatic energy density.
 The energy stored per unit volume of space is defined as energy density.
1
 Energy stored is 𝑈𝐸 = 2 𝜀0 𝐴𝑑 𝐸 2
1
 Energy density is 𝑢𝐸 = 2 𝜀0 𝐸 2

21. What is dielectric or an insulator?

 A dielectric is a non-conducting material has no free electrons.
 The electrons in a dielectric are bound within the atoms.
 Examples: Ebonite, Glass, and Mica

22. What are non – polar molecules?

 A non – polar molecule is one in which centres of positive and negative charges coincide.
 As a result, it has no permanent dipole moment.
 Examples: H2, O2, CO2

23. What are polar molecules?

 In polar molecules, the centres of the positive and negative charges are separated even in the absence
of an external electric field.
 They have a permanent dipole moment.
 Examples: H2O, N2O, HCl, NH3

24. What is Polarisation?

 Polarisation P is defined as the total dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric.
 P = χe Eext

25. What is dielectric breakdown?

 When the external electric field applied to a dielectric is very large, it tears the atoms apart so that the
bound charges become free charges.
 Then the dielectric starts to conduct electricity.
 This is called dielectric breakdown.

26. What is dielectric strength?

The maximum electric field the dielectric can withstand before it breakdowns is called dielectric
strength.
27. Define capacitance. Give its unit.
 The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of charge on either of the
conductor plates to the potential difference existing between the conductors.
𝑄
 𝐶 = 𝑉
 Its SI unit is coulomb per volt or farad (F)
28. What is electrostatic shielding?
 It is the process of isolating a certain part of space from the external electric field.
 It is based on the principle that the electric field inside the conductor is zero.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 6
29. What is electrostatic induction?
The process of charging a conductor without actual contact is called electrostatic induction.

30. What is action at points or corona discharge?

The leakage of electric charges from the sharp points of the charged conductor is called as action at
points or corona discharge.
THREE MARKS
1. Discuss the basic properties of electric charges.
Electric charge:
 The electric charge is an intrinsic and fundamental property of particles.
 The SI unit of charge is coulomb.
Conservation of charges:
 The total electric charge in the universe is constant and charge can neither be created nor be
destroyed.
 In any physical process, the net change in the charge will always be zero.
Quantization of charges:
 The charge q on any object is equal to an integral multiple of the fundamental unit of charge e.
 q = ne
 Here n is any integer (0, ±1, ±2, … . )
 This is called quantization of electric charge.

2. What are the differences between Coulomb force and gravitational force?
Gravitational force Coulomb force
It can be attractive or repulsive, depending upon
It is always attractive between two masses.
the nature of charges
−11 2 −2
G = 6.626 x 10 N m kg k = 9 x 109 N m2 C −2
It depends on nature of the medium in which the
It is independent of the medium
two charges are kept at rest.
If the charges are in motion, yet another force
It is same whether two point masses are at rest or
(Lorentz force) comes into play in addition to
in motion
coulomb force.

3. Write a short note on superposition principle.

Superposition principle:
The total force acting on a give charge is equal to the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the
other charges.
 Consider a system of n charges, namely 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , … … 𝑞𝑛 .

𝑞 1 𝑞2
 F12 = 𝑘 r21
𝑟2

𝑞 1 𝑞3
 F13 = 𝑘 r31
𝑟2

 F1tot = F12 + F13 + ⋯ + F1n

𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞 1 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞𝑛
 F1tot = r21 + r31 + ⋯ r𝑛1
𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟2

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 7

4. Obtain an expression for electric field at a point due to a point charge.
𝑞 𝑞0
 F =𝑘 r
𝑟2
F
 E =𝑞
0
𝑞
 E = 𝑘 𝑟2 r
1 𝑞
 E = 4πε r
0 𝑟2
5. Differentiate between uniform electric field and non – uniform electric field.
Uniform electric field Non – uniform electric field
It will have the same direction and constant It will have different directions or different
magnitude at all points in space. magnitudes or both at different points in space

6. What are the properties of electric field lines?

 They start form a positive charge and end at negative charge or at infinity.
 For a positive point charge, the electric field lines pint radially outward
 For a negative point charge, the electric field lines point radially inward.
 The electric field vector at a point in space is tangential to the electric field line at that point.
 The electric field lines are denser in a region where the electric field has large magnitude and less
dense in a region where the electric field is of smaller magnitude.
 No twos electric field lines intersect each other.
 The number of electric field lines that emanate from the positive charge or end at a negative charge is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the charges.

7. Derive an expression for the torque experienced by a dipole due to a uniform electric field.
 Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment 𝑝 placed in a uniform electric field E .
 Two forces acting at different points will constitute a couple and the dipole experience a torque.
 This torque tends to rotate the dipole.
 𝜏 = 𝑂𝐴 x −𝑞𝐸 + 𝑂𝐵 x 𝑞𝐸
 𝜏 = 𝑂𝐴 qE sin 𝜃 + 𝑂𝐴 qE sin 𝜃
 𝜏 = 2𝑞𝑎𝐸 sin 𝜃
 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃
 𝜏=𝑝 x 𝐸
 Torque is maximum when 𝜃 = 90°
 Torque is zero when 𝜃 = 0°
 If the electric field is not uniform, then there will be net force acting on the dipole in addition to the
torque.

8. What are the properties of an equipotential surface?

 The work done to move a charge q between any two points A and B, 𝑊 = 𝑞(𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 )
 If the points A and B lie on the same equipotential surface, work done is zero because 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵
 The electric field is normal to an equipotential surface.

9. Obtain an expression for electrostatic potential at a point due a point charge.

 Consider a positive charge q kept fixed at the origin.
 Let P be a point at distance r from the charge q.
𝑟
 The electric potential at P is 𝑉 = − ∞
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑟
𝑞
 𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑟2 𝑟

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 8

 𝑟 𝑞
 𝑉 = −𝑘 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
∞ 𝑟2
𝑟 𝑞
 𝑉 = −𝑘 𝑑𝑟 (∵ 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑟)
∞ 𝑟2
𝑞
 After integration, 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑟
1 𝑞 1
 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 ∵ 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟 0

 For positive charge, V > 0

 For negative charge, V < 0
1 𝑞
 For negative charge, 𝑉 = − 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟
 The potential due to positive charge decreases as the distance increases.
 The potential due to negative charge increases as the distance is increased.
 At infinity, electrostatic potential is zero.
 A positive charge moves from a point of higher electrostatic potential to lower electrostatic potential.
 A negative charge moves from a point of lower electrostatic potential to higher electrostatic potential.

10. Derive an expression for electrostatic potential due to a point charge

 The electric potential at a point P due to a collection of charges q1,
q2,q3……qn is equal to sum of the electric potentials due to
individual charges.
 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉4

𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞𝑛
 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘 + + ……+
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛
1 n qi
 Vtot  
4 0 i1 ri

11. Obtain an expression for potential energy due to a collection of three point charges which are separated
by finite distances.
 Work done to assemble the charges is called electrostatic potential energy.
𝑞
 𝑉1𝐵 = 𝑘 1
𝑟12
 𝑊 = 𝑞2 𝑉1𝐵
𝑞 𝑞
 𝑈𝐼 = 𝑘 𝑟1 2
12

 𝑊 = 𝑞3 (𝑉1𝐶 + 𝑉2𝐶 )
𝑞 1 𝑞3 𝑞 2 𝑞3
 𝑈𝐼𝐼 = 𝑘 +
𝑟13 𝑟23
 Total energy of the system is 𝑈 = 𝑈𝐼 + 𝑈𝐼𝐼
𝑞 1 𝑞2 𝑞 1 𝑞3 𝑞2 𝑞3
 𝑈=𝑘 + +
𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟23

12. Derive an expression for electrostatic potential energy of the dipole in a uniform electric field.

W    ext d
'

𝜏𝐸 = 𝑝 x 𝐸

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 9

 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝜏𝐸 = 𝑝 x 𝐸 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃


W   pE sin  d
'


W  pE cos '  cos  d 
𝑈 𝜃 − 𝑈 𝜃 ′ = ∆𝑈 = 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 ′ − 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃

If 𝜃 ′ = 90°, then 𝑈 𝜃 ′ = 0

The energy stored in the dipole is 𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 = −𝑝. 𝐸

𝐼𝑓 𝜃 = 0°, then 𝑈 𝜃 = −𝑝𝐸 > minimum

𝐼𝑓𝜃 = 180°, then 𝑈 𝜃 = 𝑝𝐸> maximum

13. Differentiate between non-polar and polar molecules.

Non – polar molecules Polar molecules
In polar molecules, the centers of positive and In polar molecules, the centers of the positive
negative charges coincide. and negative charges are separated even in
the absence of external electric field.
They have no permanent dipole moment. They have a permanent dipole moment.
Ex: H2, O2, CO2 Ex: H2O, N2O, HCl

14. Obtain an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.

 Consider a capacitor with two parallel plates each of cross-sectional area A
 d is the distance of separation between the plates.
𝜍
 𝐸=𝜀
0
𝑄
 𝜍=𝐴
𝑄
 𝐸 = 𝐴𝜀
0
𝑄𝑑
 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝐴𝜀
0
𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
 𝐶=𝑉= 𝑑
 𝐶∝𝐴
1
 𝐶∝𝑑

15. Obtain the expressions for the energy stored in the capacitor and energy density.
 Capacitor not only stores the charge but also it stores energy.
 dW = V dQ
 V=Q/C
Q
Q Q2
 W dQ 
0
C 2C
 This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy (UE) in the capacitor.
Q2 1
 𝑈𝐸 = = 2 𝐶𝑉 2
2C

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 10

 𝜀0 𝐴
 As 𝐶 = and V = Ed
𝑑
1
 𝑈𝐸 = 2 𝜀0 (𝐴𝑑)𝐸 2
 𝐴𝑑 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 of the space between the capacitor plates.
𝐸 𝑈
 The energy stored per unit volume of space is defined as energy density, 𝑢𝐸 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
1
 The energy density, 𝑢𝐸 = 2 𝜀0 𝐸 2
 The energy density depends only on the electric field and not on the size of the plates of the capacitor.

16. What are the applications of capacitor?

 Capacitors are used as flash capacitors in digital camera to release the energy as flash.
 Capacitors are used in heart defibrillator device to give a sudden surge of a large amount electrical
energy to the patient’s chest to retrieve the normal heart function.
 Capacitors are used in the ignition system of automobile engines to eliminate sparking.
 Capacitors are used to reduce power fluctuations in power supplies and to increase the efficiency of
power transmission.

17. Discuss the various properties of conductors in electrostatic equilibrium.

 The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor. This is true regardless of whether the
conductor is solid or hollow.
 There is no net charge inside the conductors. The charges must reside only on the surface of the
conductors.
 The electric field outside the conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the conductor and has a
𝜍
magnitude of 𝜀
0

 The electrostatic potential has the same value on the surface and inside of the conductor.

18. Write a short note on electrostatic shielding.

 Consider a cavity inside the conductor
 Whatever the charges at the surfaces and whatever the electrical disturbances outside, the electric
field inside the cavity is zero.
 A sensitive electrical instrument which is to be protected from external electrical disturbance is kept
inside this cavity.
 This is called electrostatic shielding.
 Faraday cage is an instrument used to demonstrate this effect.

19. Is it safer to be sit inside a bus than standing under a tree during lightning accompanied by thundering?
 During lightning accompanied by a thunderstorm, it is always safer to sit inside a bus than in open
ground or under a tree.
 The metal body of the bus provides electrostatic shielding.
 Since, the electric field inside is zero.
 During lightning, the charges flow through the body of the conductor to the ground with no effect on
the person inside that bus.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 11

 FIVE MARKS
1. Explain in detail Coulomb’s law and its various aspects.
Coulomb’s law:
Coulomb’s law states that the electrostatic force is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitude of the two point charges and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
the two point charges.
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
F21 = r
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 12

Important aspects of Coulomb’s law:

 The force on the charge q2 exerted by the charge q1 always lies along the line joining the two charges.
1
 In SI units, 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀 and its value is 9 x 109 N m2 C−2 .
0
 Here 𝜀0 is the permittivity of fee space or vacuum and the value of 𝜀0 = 8.85 x 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2
 The magnitude of the electrostatic force between two charges each of one coulomb and separated by
a distance of 1 m is 9 x 109 N
 This is a huge quantity, almost equivalent to the weight of one million ton.
 We never come across 1 coulomb of charge in practice.
 Most of the electrical phenomena in day – to – day life involve electrical charges of the order of 𝜇𝐶
or 𝑛𝐶.
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
 In vacuum , F21 = 4𝜋𝜀 r12 .
0 𝑟2
1 𝑞 1 𝑞2
 In a medium of permittivity 𝜀, F21 = 4𝜋𝜀 r12
𝑟2
 Since 𝜀 > 𝜀0 , the force between two point charges in a medium other than vacuum is always less than
that in vacuum.
𝜀
 Relative permittivity, 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀
0
 For vacuum or air, 𝜀𝑟 = 1
 For all other media, 𝜀𝑟 > 1

Gravitational force Coulomb force

It can be attractive or repulsive, depending upon
It is always attractive between two masses.
the nature of charges
G = 6.626 x 10−11 N m2 kg −2 k = 9 x 109 N m2 C −2
It depends on nature of the medium in which the
It is independent of the medium
two charges are kept at rest.
If the charges are in motion, yet another force
It is same whether two point masses are at rest
(Lorentz force) comes into play in addition to
or in motion
coulomb force.
 The electrostatic force obeys Newton’s third law. F12 = −F21
 The expression for Coulomb force is true only for point charges.

2. Define electric field and discuss its various aspects.

Electric field:
 The electric field at the point P at a distance r form the point charge q is the force experienced by a
1 𝑞
unit charge and is given by 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
r
0𝑟

 It is a vector quantity
 Its SI unit is NC-1

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 12

 Important aspects of Electric field:
 If the charge q is positive then the electric filed points away from the source charge
 If q is negative, the electric filed points towards the source charge q.
 If the electric field at a point P is 𝐸 , then the force experienced by the test charge q0 placed at the
point P is 𝐹 = q 0 𝐸
 This is the Coulomb’s law in terms of electric filed.
 The electric field is independent of the test charge q 0 and it depends only on the source charge q.
 As distance increases, the electric filed decreases in magnitude.
 Test charge is made sufficiently small so such that it will not modify the electric field of the source
charge.
 For continuous and finite charge distributions, integration techniques must be used.
Uniform electric field Non – uniform electric field
It will have the same direction and constant It will have different directions or
magnitude at all points in space. different magnitudes or both at different
points in space

3. Calculate the electric field due to an electric dipole at points on its axial line.
 AB is an electric dipole.
 A point C is located at a distance r from the midpoint O of the dipole along the axial line.

𝑞
 𝐸+ = 𝑘 𝑝
(𝑟−𝑎)2
𝑞
 𝐸 − = −𝑘 𝑝
(𝑟+𝑎)2

 E tot = E + + E –

1 1
 𝐸 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘𝑞 − (𝑟+𝑎)2 𝑝
(𝑟−𝑎)2

4𝑟𝑎
 𝐸 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘𝑞 (𝑟 2 −𝑎 2 )2
𝑝
 If r >> a, then (r − 𝑎2 )2 = r 4
2

4𝑎𝑞
 𝐸 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘 𝑝 (𝑟 ≫ 𝑎)
𝑟3
1
 2𝑎𝑞 𝑝 = 𝑝 and 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀
0
1 2𝑝
 𝐸 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 ≫ 𝑎)
0 𝑟3

4. Calculate the electric field due to an electric dipole

at points on its equatorial line.
 AB is an electric dipole.
 A point C is located at a distance r from the
midpoint O of the dipole on the equatorial plane.
𝑞
 𝐸+ = 𝑘 (along BC)
𝑟 2 +𝑎 2

𝑞
 𝐸− = 𝑘 (along CA)
𝑟 2 +𝑎 2

 E tot = − E + cos θ 𝑝 − E − cos θ 𝑝

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 13

  E tot = −2 E + cos θ 𝑝 (∵ E + = E − )

2𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
 𝐸 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = −𝑘 𝑝
𝑟 2 +𝑎 2

2𝑞𝑎 𝑎
 𝐸 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = −𝑘 3 𝑝 ∵ cos θ =
r 2 +𝑎 2
𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 2

𝑝
 𝐸 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = −𝑘 3 ∵ 𝑝 = 2𝑞𝑎𝑝
𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 2
 At very large distances, r >> a
1 𝑝 1
 𝐸 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 4𝜋𝜀 3
𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 (𝑘 = )
0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀 0

5. Derive an expression for electrostatic potential due to an electric dipole.

 Consider two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance 2a.
 The point P is located at a distance r from the midpoint of the dipole.
𝑞
 𝑉1 = 𝑘 𝑟
1
𝑞
 𝑉2 = −𝑘 𝑟
2
1 1
 𝑉 = 𝑘𝑞 −𝑟
𝑟1 2

1 1
calculation for calculation for
r1 r2
By the cosine law for triangle BOP By the cosine law for triangle AOP

r12  r 2  a 2  2 ra cos  r22  r 2  a 2  2 ra cos 

 a2 2a   a2 2a 
r12  r 2 1  2  cos   r22  r 2 1  2  cos  
 r r   r r 
a2 a2
Neglecting , since r >> a Neglecting , since r >> a
r2 r2
 2a   2a 
r12  r 2 1  cos   r22  r 2 1  cos  
 r   r 
1 1

 2a 2  2a 2
r1  r1  cos   r2  r1  cos  
 r   r 
 12  12
1 1 2a  1 1 2a 
 1  cos    1  cos  
r1 r  r  r2 r  r 
1 1 a  1 1 a 
 1  cos    1  cos  
r1 r  r  r2 r  r 
1 a  1 a 
 𝑉 = 𝑘𝑞 1  cos    1  cos  
r r  r r 

2 aq cos 
 Vk
r2
p cos 
 Vk p  q2a 
r2

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 14

 1 p cos   1 
 V  k  
4 0 r 2  4 0 
 
 V
1 p .ˆr
r  a   p cos   p .ˆr 
4 0 r 2

Special cases:

1 p
 If   0 , then V 
4 0 r 2
1 p
 If   180  , then V  
4 0 r 2
 If   90 , then V  0

6. Obtain Gauss’s law form Coulomb’s law.

𝐹 1 𝑄
 From Coulomb’s law, 𝐸 = 𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
0 0𝑟
2 𝑄
 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 =𝜀
0
 Total electric flux through the closed surface of the sphere
 
is  E   E .dA   E dA cos 
 The electric field of the point charge is directed radially
outward at all points on the surface of the sphere.
 Therefore , the direction of the area element 𝑑A is along the
electric field E and θ = 0°

  E   E dA cos 0  1
  E  E  dA
1 Q
  dA  4r and E 
2

4 0 r 2
 ϕE = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑄
 From Coulomb’s law, 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜀
0
Q
 E 
0
 The above equation is called Gauss’s law.
 The above equation is equally true for any arbitrary shaped surface which encloses the charge Q.

 It is seen that the total electric flux is the same for closed surfaces A1, A2 and A3.
 Gauss’s law states that if a charge Q is enclosed by an arbitrary closed surface, then the total electric
Q
flux 𝜙𝐸 through the closed surface is  E  encl
0
 Q encl denotes the charges inside the closed surface.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 15

7. Obtain the expression for electric field due to an infinitely long charged wire.
 Consider an infinitely long straight wire having uniform linear charge density 𝜆.
 Let P be a point located at a perpendicular distance r from the wire.
 The electric field at the point P can be found using Gauss’s law.
 Let us choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and length L.
 
 The total electric flux in this closed surface is  E   E . dA
     
  E   E . dA   E . dA   E . dA
Curved T op Bottom
surface surface surface

 
 For the curved surface, E . dA  E . dA   0, cos 0  1
 
 For the top and bottom surfaces, E . dA  0   90, cos 90  0
 Therefore, the total electric flux through the curved surface is
  Q
  E   E . dA  encl
Curved
0
surface

 Q encl  L
L
 E  dA  
Curved 0
surface


Curved
 dA  2rL
surface

L
 E .2rL 
0
1 
 E
2 0 r
 1 
 E ˆr
2 0 r

8. Obtain the expression for electric field due to a charged infinite plane sheet.
 Consider an infinite plane sheet of charges with uniform surface charge density ς.
 Let P be a point at a distance of r from the sheet.
 Since the plane is infinitely large, the electric field should be same at all points equidistant from the
plane and radially directed at all points.
 A cylindrical shaped Gaussian surface of length 2r and area A of the flat surfaces is chosen such that
the infinite plane sheet passes perpendicular through the middle part of the Gaussian surface.
 
 E   E . dA
      Q encl
 E
Curved
. dA  
P
E . dA  
P'
E . dA 
0
surface
 
 At curved surfaces, E . dA  0   90, cos 90  0
 
 At P and P’, E . dA  E . dA   0, cos 0  1
Q encl
  E .dA   E .dA 
P P'
0

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 16

  Q encl  A
A
 2E  dA 
P
0
  dA  A
P

A
 2EA 
0

 E
2 0
  
 E n
2 0
9. Obtain the expression for electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell.
At a point outside the spherical shell (r >R):
 Let us choose a point P outside the shell at a distance r from the center.
 The charge is uniformly distributed on the surface of the sphere.
 Hence the electric field must point radially outward if Q > 0 and point radially inward if Q < 0.
  Q
  . dA   0
E
Gaussian
surface

Q
 E  . dA  
Gaussian 0
surface

  dA 4r
2

Gaussian
surface

Q
 E .4r 2 
0
1 Q
 E
4 0 r 2
 1 Q
 E r
4 0 r 2
At a point on the surface of the spherical shell ( r = R):
 1 Q
E r (r = R)
4 0 r 2
At a point outside the spherical shell (r <R):
 Consider a point P inside the shell at a distance r form the
center.
 A Gaussian sphere of radius r is constructed.
  Q
  . dA   0
E
Gaussian
surface

Q
 E .4r 2 
0
 Since Gaussian surface encloses no charge, Q = 0.
 E = 0.
 The electric field due to the uniformly charged spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 17

10. Explain in detail the effect of a dielectric placed in a parallel plate capacitor When the capacitor is
disconnected from the battery:
 Consider a capacitor with two parallel plates each of cross –sectional area A and are separated by a
distance d.
 The capacitor is charged by a battery of voltage Vo and the charge stored si Qo.
 The capacitance of the capacitor without the dielectric is Co = Vo / Qo
 The battery is then disconnected from the capacitor and the dielectric is inserted between the plates.
 The introduction of dielectric between the plates will decrease the electric field.
E
 E 0
r
 E0 is the electric field inside the capacitors when there is no dielectric.
  r is the relative permeability of the dielectric.
 Since  r  1, E  E 0
 As a result, the electrostatic potential difference between the plates is also reduced.
 But at the same time, the charge will remain constant once the battery is disconnected.
E V
 V  Ed  0 d  0
r r
Q0
 C
V
Q
 C   r 0   r C0
V0
 C   r C0
 Since  r  1, C  C 0
 Thus insertion of the dielectric increases the capacitance.
  A A
 C r 0 
d d
1 Q 02
 The energy stored in the capacitor before the insertion of dielectric is U 0 
2 C0
Uo
 The energy stored in the capacitor after the insertion of dielectric is U 
r
 Since  r  1, U  U 0
 There is a decrease in energy because, when the dielectric is inserted, the capacitor spends some
energy in pulling the dielectric inside.

11. Explain in detail the effect of a dielectric placed in a parallel plate capacitor when the battery remains
connected to the capacitor.
 The potential difference V0 across the plates remains
constant.
 But it is found experimentally that when dielectric is
inserted, the charge stored in the capacitor is increased
by a factor  r .
 Q  rQ0
 C   r C0

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 18

 0A
 C0 
d
A
 C
d
1
 The energy stored in the capacitor before the insertion of dielectric is U 0  C 0 V02
2
 The energy stored in the capacitor after the insertion of dielectric is U   r U o

12. Derive the expression for the resultant capacitance, when capacitors are connected in series and in
parallel.
Capacitors in series Capacitors in parallel
Three capacitors of capacitance
Three capacitors of capacitance C1, C2
C1, C2 and C3 are connected in
and C3 are connected in parallel.
series.
Charge Q across each capacitor is Potential difference across each
same capacitor is same.
V  V1  V2  V3 Q  Q1  Q 2  Q 3
Q = CV Q = CV
Q Q Q Q  C1V  C 2 V  C 3 V
V  
C1 C 2 C 3
Q Q  CP V
V
CS
Q Q Q Q C P V  C1V  C 2 V  C 3 V
  
C S C1 C 2 C 3
1 1 1 1 C P  C1  C 2  C 3
  
C S C1 C 2 C 3

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 19

13. Explain in detail how charges are distributed in a conductor and the principle behind the lightning
conductor.
Distribution of charges in a conductor:
 Consider two conducting spheres A and B or radii r1 and r2.
 They are connected to each other by a thin conducting wire.
 The distance between the spheres is much greater than the radii of either spheres.
 If a charge Q is introduced into any one of the spheres, this charge Q is redistributed into both the
spheres such that the electrostatic potential is same in both the spheres.
 They are now uniformly charged and attain electrostatic equilibrium.
 Let q1 be the charge residing on the surface of sphere A.
 Let q2 be the charge residing on the surface of sphere B.
 Q = q1 + q2
 The charges are distributed only on the surface and there is no net charge inside the conductor.
1 𝑞1
 𝑉𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟1
1 𝑞2
 𝑉𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟2
 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵
𝑞1 𝑞
 = 2
𝑟1 𝑟2
 𝑞1 = 4𝜋𝑟12 𝜍1
 𝑞2 = 4𝜋𝑟22 𝜍2
 𝜍1 𝑟1 = 𝜍2 𝑟2
 𝜍𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 Thus the surface charge density is inversely proportional to the radius of the sphere.

Lightning Conductor:

 Lightning arrester is a device used to protect tall buildings from lightning strikes.
 It works on the principle of action at points or corona discharge.
 This device consists of a long thick copper rod passing from top of the building to the ground.
 The upper end of the rod has a sharp spike or a sharp needle.
 The lower end of the rod is connected to the copper plate which is buried deep into the ground.
 When a negatively charged cloud is passing above the building, it induces a positive charge on the
spike.
 Since the induced charge density on thin sharp spike is large, it results in a corona discharge.
 This positive charge ionizes the surrounding air which in turn neutralizes the negative charge in the
cloud.
 The negative charge pushed to the spikes passes through the copper rod and is sagely diverted to the
Earth.
 The lightning arrester does not stop the lightning: rather it diverts the lightning to the ground safely.

14. Explain in detail the construction and working of a Van de Graff generator.
Principle: Action of points and Electrostatic induction.
Construction:
 A hollow metallic sphere A is mounted on insulating pillars.
 A pulley B is mounted at the centre of the sphere.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 20

  Another pulley C is mounted near the bottom.
 A silk belt moves over the pulleys.
 The pulley C is driven continuously by an electric motor.
 The comb shaped conductors D and E are mounted near the
pulleys.
 A positive potential of 104 V is given to D by a power supply.
 E is connected to the inner side of the hollow sphere.
WORKING:

ACTION OF POINTS:

 Because of high electric field near D, the air gets ionized due to
action of points.
 The negative charges in air move towards the needles and positive charges are repelled on towards
the belt.
 These positive charges stick to the belt, move up and reach near E.

ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION:

 As a result of electrostatic induction, the comb E acquires negative charge and the sphere acquires
positive charge.
 The acquired positive charge is distributed on the outer surface of the sphere.
 The high electric field at E ionizes the air.
 The negative charges are repelled to the belt, neutralizes the positive charge on the belt before the belt
passes over the pulley.
 Hence the descending belt will be left uncharged.

Leakage of electric charge:

 Thus the machine continuously transfers the positive charge to the sphere.
 As a result, the potential of the sphere keeps increasing till it attains a limiting value.
 After this stage leakage of charge to the surrounding starts due to the ionization of the air.

Prevention of leaking electric charge:

 The leakage of charge from the sphere can be reduced by enclosing it in a gas filled steel chamber
at a very high temperature.

Uses:
 It is used to produce large electrostatic potential difference of the order of 107 V.
 This high voltage is used to accelerate positive ions (protons, deuterons) for the purpose of
nuclear disintegration.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 21

 UNIT – 2. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
TWO MARK QUESTIONS:
1. Define drift velocity.
Drift velocity is defined as the velocity with which free electrons get drifted towards the positive
terminal, when an electric field is applied. Its unit is m s-1

2. Define mobility.
2 -1 - 1
Mobility is defined as the drift velocity acquired per unit electric field. Its unit is m V s
3. Define current density.
 The current density is defined as the current per unit area of cross section of the conductor.
 It is a vector quantity.
 Its unit is A m-2
4. Write the microscopic form Ohm’s law:
 𝑱 = 𝝈𝑬
 𝑱 is the current density
 𝝈 conductivity of the conductor
 𝑬 is the electric field in the conductor

5. State macroscopic form of Ohm’s law.

At constant temperature, the steady current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference between the two ends of the conductor. 𝑰 ∝ 𝑽

6. Define resistance of a conductor.

Resistance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of potential difference across the conductor to the
current flowing through it. Its unit is ohm.

7. Define electrical resistivity.

The electrical resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance offered to current flow by a
conductor of unit length having unit area of cross section. Its unit is Ω 𝑚.

8. What is superconductivity?
The ability of certain metals, their compounds and alloys to conduct electricity with zero resistance
at very low temperature is called superconductivity.

9. Define temperature coefficient of resistance.

The temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the ratio of increase in resistivity per degree
rise in temperature to its resistivity at 𝑇0 . Its unit is per °𝐶 .

10. What is internal resistance of a cell?

During the process of flow current inside the cell, a resistance offered to current flow by the
electrolyte of the cell is known as the internal resistance of the cell.

11. State Kirchoff’s first rule or current rule or junction rule.

It states that the algebraic sum of the currents at any junction of a circuit is zero.

12. Kirchoff’s second rule or voltage rule or loop rule:

The algebraic sum of the products of resistance and current in each part of any closed circuit is equal
to the algebraic sum of the emf’s in that closed circuit.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 22

13. Distinguish between electric energy and electric power.
Electric energy Electric power
It is the capacity to do work. It is the rate of doing electric work.
Its unit is J Its unit is watt.
1 kWh = 36 x 105 J P = VI

14. Why current is a scalar?

 The electric current does not obey the laws of vector addition.
 Also, 𝐼 = J. A = JA cos θ
 Hence, current is a scalar.
15. What are ohmic and non ohmic conductors?
 The devices which obey the Ohm’s law are called ohmic conductors.
 Example: Copper wire, Metals
 The devices which do not obey the Ohm’s law are called non – ohmic conductors.
 Example: Diodes, Filament lamp, Semiconductor.
16. Derive expression for power P = VI in electrical circuit.
𝑑𝑈 𝑑
 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 (𝑉. 𝑑𝑄)
𝑑𝑄
 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 ∵𝐼= 𝑑𝑡

17. Write down the various forms of expression for power in electrical circuit.
 P = VI
 P = I2 R
 P = V2/R
18. State the principle of potentiometer.
 The emf of the cell is directly proportional to the balancing length.
 ε∝𝑙
19. State Joule’s law of heating.
Joule’s law heating states that the heat developed in an electrical circuit due to the flow of electric
current varies directly as
 the square of the current
 the resistance of the circuit
 the time of flow

20. What is thermoelectric effect?

Conversion of temperature differences into electrical voltage and vice versa is known as
thermoelectric effect.

21. What is Seebeck effect?

Seebeck discovered that in a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, when the junctions are
maintained at different temperatures an emf is developed.

22. What is Peltier effect?

When an electric current is passed through a circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one junction
and absorbed at other junction. This is Peltier effect.

23. What is Thomson effect?

If two points in a conductor are at different temperatures, the density of electrons at these points will
differ and as result the potential difference is created between these points. Thomson effect is also
reversible.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 23
 THREE MARK QUESTIONS:

1. Describe the microscopic model of current and obtain the microscopic form of Ohm’s law.
 A is the area of cross section of the conductor.
 An electric field E is applied from right to left
 𝑣𝑑 is the drift velocity of the free electrons.
 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
 𝑛 is the number of free electrons per unit volume.
 The electrons available in the volume of length dx is = nAdx = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡

 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
 𝐼= 𝑑𝑡

 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑

Current density:
 The current density is defined as the current per unit area of cross section of the conductor.
 It is a vector quantity.
 Its unit is A m-2
𝐼
 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝐴

 J = nevd

 J = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝑒𝜏
 𝑣𝑑 = − 𝑚 𝐸

𝑛𝑒 2𝜏
 J=− 𝐸
𝑚
 𝑱 = −𝝈𝑬
 Conventionaly we take the direction of current density as the direction of electric field.
 The above equation can be written as 𝑱 = 𝝈𝑬

2. Obtain the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law from its microscopic form and discuss its limitations.
 Ohm’s law can be derived from 𝐽 = 𝜍𝐸
 Consider a segment for wire of length l and area of cross section A.
 When a potential difference V is applied across the wire, a net electric field is created in the wire
which constitutes the current.
 The electric field is uniform in the entire length of the wire.

 V = El

 𝐽 = 𝜍𝐸

𝑉
 𝐽=𝜍𝑙
𝐼
 𝐽=𝐴
𝐼 𝑉
 =𝜍𝑙
𝐴

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 24

 𝑙
 𝑉=𝐼 𝜍𝐴

𝑙
 = 𝑅, R is the resistance.
𝜍𝐴

 The resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and

 Inversely proportional to area of cross section.
 The macroscopic from of Ohm’s law, V= IR
 From the above equation, R = V / I
 The unit of resistance is ohm.
 The resistance is the ratio of the potential difference across the given conductor to the current passing
through the conductor.
 The graph between current versus voltage is straight line.
 Its slope is equal to the inverse of resistance R of the conductor.

3. Explain the effective resistance of a series network and parallel network.

RESISTORS IN SERIES RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
Three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 Three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and
are connected in series connection. R3 are connected in parallel connection.
The potential difference V across each
The current I through each resistor is same
resistor is same.
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 , 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 , 𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3 , 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉

𝐼1 = 𝑅 , 𝐼2 = 𝑅 , 𝐼3 = 𝑅 ,
1 2 3

𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑆 𝐼=
𝑅𝑃

𝑉 1 1 1
𝐼𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 =𝑉 + +
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = + +
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 25

4. Explain the determination of internal resistance of a cell using voltmeter.

* The circuit connections are made as shown in figure.

* The emf of ε cell is measured by connecting a high

resistance voltmeter across it without connecting the
external resistance R.
* Since the voltmeter draws very little current for deflection,
the circuit may be considered as open..
* Hence the voltmeter reading gives the emf of the cell.
* Then external resistance R is included in the circuit and
current I is established in the circuit.
* The potential difference across R is equal to potential difference across cell.
* The potential drop across R, V = IR
* Due to internal resistance r of the cell, the voltmeter reads a value V, less than the emf of cell.
* V=ε–I
* Ir = ε – V
ε−𝑉
* 𝑟= 𝑉 𝑅
* Since ε, V and R are known, r of the cell can be determined.

5. State and explain Kirchoff’s first law.

Kirchoff’s first law:
The law states that the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction of a circuit is zero.
Explanation:
 It is a statement of conservation of electric charge.
 All charges that enter a given junction in a circuit
must leave that junction.
 Current entering the junction is taken as positive.
 Current leaving the junction is taken as negative.
 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5

6. State and explain Kirchoff’s second law.

Kirchoff’s second law:
 The law states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the products of current and resistance of
each part of the circuit is equal to the to the total emf include in the circuit.
 This law is a consequence of conservation of energy.
Explanation:
 The product of current and resistance is taken as positive when the direction of the current is
followed.
 Suppose if the direction of current is opposite to the direction of the loop, then product of current and
voltage across the resistor is negative.
 Kirchhoff’s voltage rule has to be applied only when all currents in the circuit reach a steady state
condition.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 26

7. Obtain an expression for the balancing condition of Wheatstone’s bridge.
Principle:
An important application of Kirchoff’s rule is the Wheatstone’s bridge.
Uses:
It is used to compare resistances and also helps in determining the unknown resistance in electrical
network.
Construction:
* Wheatstone’s network consists of resistances P, Q, R and S connected to form a closed path.
* A galvanometer G is connected between B and D.
* The battery is connected between A and C.
* G is the galvanometer resistance.
* I G is the current through the galvanometer.
* 𝐼1 −𝐼𝐺 −𝐼3 = 0
* 𝐼2 +𝐼𝐺 −𝐼4 = 0
* 𝐼1 𝑃+𝐼𝐺 𝐺−𝐼2 𝑅 = 0
* 𝐼1 𝑃+𝐼3 𝑄−𝐼4 𝑆−𝐼2 𝑅 = 0
* 𝐼𝐺 = 0
* 𝐼1 = 𝐼3
* 𝐼2 = 𝐼4
* 𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
* 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) = 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆)
𝐼1 (𝑃+𝑄) 𝐼2 (𝑅+𝑆)
* =
𝐼1 𝑃 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑃 𝑅
* =
𝑄 𝑆

8. Describe an experiment to find unknown resistance and temperature coefficient of resistance using Metre
Bridge.
Principle:
Metre bridge is one form of Wheatstone’s bridge. It works on the principle of Kirchoff’s laws.
Construction:
* It consists of thick strips of copper, of negligible
resistance, fixed to a wooden board.
* G1 and G2 are the two gaps between these strips.
* AB is a uniform manganin wire of length 1 metre.
* The temperature coefficient of the wire is low.
* The wire is stretched along a metre scale and its ends
are soldered to two copper strips.
* P is an unknown resistance connected in the gap G1.
* Q is a standard resistance connected in the gap G2.
* A metal jockey J is connected to B through a
galvanometer (G), and high resistance (HR) and it can make contact at any point on the wire AB.
* Across the two ends of the wire, a Leclanche cell and a key are connected.

Working:
* Adjust the position of the jockey on metre bridge wire so that the galvanometer shows zero
deflection.
* Let the point be J.
* AJ and JB of the wire now replace the resistances R and S of Wheatstone’s bridge.
P R R ′ AJ
* = = R ′ JB
Q S
P AJ 𝑙
* = JB = 𝑙1
Q 2

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 27

 𝑙
* P = Q 𝑙1
2
Conclusion:
* The bridge wire is soldered at the ends of the copper strips.
* Due to imperfect contact, some resistance might be introduced at the contact.
* These are called end resistances.
* This error can be eliminated, if another ser of readings are taken with P and Q interchanged and the
average value of P is found.
𝑙
* Resistance, 𝑅 = ρ 𝐴
πr 2
* Resistivity: ρ=P L

9. Explain the principle of potentiometer.

* The potentiometer is an instrument to measure the
potential differences.
* It consists of a ten metre long uniform wire of manganin
stretched in ten segments.
* A battery Bt is connected between the ends C and D of
a potentiometer wire through a key K.
* A steady current I flows through the wire.
* This forms the primary circuit.
* A primary cell ε is connected in series with the positive
terminal C of the potentiometer, a galvanometer, a high resistance and jockey.
* This forms the secondary circuit.
* If the potential difference between C and J is equal to the emf of the cell, no current flows through the
galvanometer. It shows zero deflection.
* CJ is called the balancing length.
* CJ = Irl
* r is the resistance per unit length of the potentiometer wire and I is the current in the primary circuit.
* ε = Irl
* ε∝𝑙
* Emf of the cell is directly proportional to the balancing length.

10. Explain the comparison of emfs of two given cells using potentiometer.
Principle: Emf of the cell is directly proportional to its
balancing length.
Construction:
 CD is the potentiometer wire connected in series with a
battery (Bt), key (K), rheostat (Rh).
 This forms the primary circuit.
 The end C of potentiometer is connected to the terminal
M of a DPDT switch.
 The terminal N is connected to the jockey (J) through a
galvanometer (G) and high resistance (HR).
 The cell of emf E1 is connected between M1 and N1 of
the DPDT switch.
 The cell of emf E2 is connected between M2 and N2 of
the DPDT switch.
 This forms the secondary circuit.
Working:
 The DPDT switch is pressed towards ε 1 so that it is included in the circuit.
 The balancing length 𝑙1 is determined.
 The DPDT switch is pressed towards ε 2.
 The balancing length 𝑙2 is determined.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 28

  Let I be the current flowing through the primary circuit and r be the resistance per unit length of the
potentiometer wire.
 ε1 = 𝐼𝑟𝑙1

 ε2 = 𝐼𝑟𝑙2

ε1 𝑙
 = 𝑙1
ε2 2

11. Explain series and parallel combination of cells.

Cells in series connection Cells in parallel connection

Total emf = 𝑛ε Total emf = ε

𝑟
Total resistance = 𝑛𝑟 + 𝑅 Total resistance = 𝑅 + 𝑛

𝑛ε 𝑛ε
𝐼= 𝐼=
𝑛𝑟 + 𝑅 𝑟 + 𝑛𝑅

𝐼𝑓 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, 𝐼𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑅,
𝑛ε 𝑛ε
𝐼= ≈ 𝑛𝐼1 𝐼= = 𝑛𝐼1
𝑅 𝑟

𝐼𝑓 𝑟 ≫ 𝑅 , 𝐼𝑓 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅 ,

ε ε
𝐼= 𝐼=
𝑟 𝑅

12. How will you determine the internal resistance of a cell using potentiometer?
* The circuit connections are made as shown in the figure.
* A resistance box R and key K2 are connected across the cell ε.
* With key K1 open, the balancing point J is obtained and balancing length CJ = l1 is measured.
* Since the cell is in open circuit,
* ε ∝ 𝑙1 ---------------- (1)
* A suitable resistance in the resistance box is included and the key K2 is closed.
* r is the internal resistance of the cell.
ε
* 𝐼 = 𝑅+𝑟
ε𝑅
* 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑅+𝑟
* 𝑉 ∝ 𝑙2 ----------------(2)
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 29
 ε𝑅
* ∝ 𝑙2
𝑅+𝑟

(1) ε 𝑙
* ⟹ 𝑉 ∝ 𝑙1
(2) 2

𝑅+𝑟 𝑙
* = 𝑙1
𝑅 2
𝑙 1 −𝑙 2
* 𝑟=𝑅 𝑙2

13. What are the applications of Seebeck effect?

* Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric generators.
* Thers thermoelectric generators are used in power plants to convert waste heat into electricity.
* This effect is utilized in automobiles as automotive thermoelectric generators.
* Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and thermopiles to measure the temperature difference
between the two objects.

3. MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Two mark questions:
1. What is magnetic declination?
The angle between magnetic meridian at a point and geographical meridian is called the magnetic
declination (D).
2. What is dip or magnetic inclination?
The angle subtended by the Earth’s total magnetic field with the horizontal direction in the magnetic
meridian is called dip or magnetic inclination (I).

3. Define magnetic field.

 The magnetic field 𝐵 at appoint is defined as a force experienced by the bar magnet of unit pole
strength.
𝐹
 𝐵=𝑞
𝑚
 Its unit is N A-1 m-1

4. Define magnetic flux.

 The number of magnetic field lines crossing a given area is defined as magnetic flux 𝛷𝐵
 It is a scalar quantity.
 Its SI unit is Wb.

5. Define magnetic dipole moment.

 The magnetic dipole moment is defined as the product of its pole strength and magnetic length.
 It is a vector quantity.
 𝑝𝑚 = 𝑞𝑚 2𝑙
 Its unit is A m2

6. State Coulomb’s inverse square law in magnetism.

 The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is
 directly proportional to the product of their pole strengths and
 inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
𝑞 𝑞
 𝐹 ∝ 𝑚 𝐴𝑟 2 𝑚 𝐵 𝑟

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 30

7. Define magnetic susceptibility.
 It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetization 𝑀 induced in the material due to the
magnetizing field 𝐻 .
𝑀
 𝜒𝑚 = 𝐻

8. State Biot – Savart law

Biot – Savart law states that the magnetic induction dB at point due to the element of length dl is
 directly proportional to the current (I)
 directly proportional to the length of the element (dl)
 directly proportional to the sine of the angle between 𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟
 inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point P and the element𝑑𝑙
𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑟 2

9. What is magnetic permeability?

 The magnetic permeability is the measure of ability of the material to allow the passage of magnetic
field lines through it.
 Its unit is Hm-1

10. State Ampere’s circuital law.

 The line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop is 𝜇0 times net current enclosed by the loop.
 𝐶 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜

11. What is hysteresis?

The phenomenon of lagging of magnetic induction behind the magnetizing field is called hysteresis.

12. Define magnetic flux density.

 The magnetic flux density is defined as the number of magnetic field lines crossing unit area kept
normal to the direction of line of force.
 Its unit is Wb m-2 or tesla.

13. What is magnetizing field?

 The magnetic field which is used to magnetize a sample is called the magnetizing field.
 It is a vector quantity.
 Its unit is A m-1

14. What is intensity of magnetization?

 The net magnetic moment per unit volume of the material is known as intensity of magnetization.
 It is a vector quantity.
 Its unit is A m-1

15. State Curie - Weiss law

 As temperature increases, the ferromagnetism decreases due to the increased thermal agitation of the
atomic dipoles.
 At a particular temperature, ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic.
 This temperature is known as Curie temperature Tc.
𝐶
 𝜒𝑚 = 𝑇−𝑇 ---- This Curie – Weiss law.
𝐶

16. State Maxwell’s right hand cork screw rule.

The law states that if we rotate a right – handed screw using a screw driver, then the direction of
current is same as the direction in which screw advances and the direction of rotation of the screw gives
the direction of the magnetic field.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 31

17. State right hand thumb rule.
If we hold the current carrying conductor in our right hand such that the thumb points in the direction
of current flow, then the fingers encircling the wire points in the direction of the magnetic field lines
produced.

18. Define one tesla

 The strength of the magnetic field is one tesla if unit charge moving in it with unit velocity
experiences unit force.
 1 T = 1 N A-1 m-1

19. State Fleming’s left hand rule.

Stretch forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left hand such that they are in mutually
perpendicular directions, If
 forefinger points the direction of magnetic field,
 the middle finger points in the direction of the electric current, then
 thumb will point in the direction of the force experienced by the conductor.

20. Define one ampere.

One ampere is defined as that current when it is passed through each of the two infinitely long
parallel straight conductors kept at a distance of one meter apart in vacuum causes each conductor to
experience a force of 2 x 10-7 N m-1 of the conductor.

21. State tangent’s law

When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely suspended in two mutually perpendicular uniform
magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the direction of the resultant of the two fields.

22. State Curie’s law

 As temperature is increased, thermal vibration will upset the alignment of magnetic dipole
moments.
 Therefore, the magnetic susceptibility decreases with increase in temperature.
𝐶
 𝜒𝑚 = 𝑇 --- This is Curie’s law.

23. Define remanence or retentivity.

It is defined as the ability of the materials to retain the magnetism in them even magnetizing field
vanishes.

24. What is coercivity?

The magnitude of the reverse magnetizing field for which the residual magnetism of the material
vanishes is called its coercivity.

25. What are the limitations of cyclotron?

 The speed of the ion is limited.
 Electron cannot be accelerated
 Uncharged particles cannot be accelerated.

26. What is resonance condition in cyclotron?

The important condition in cyclotron operation is that when the frequency f at which the positive ion
circulates in the magnetic field must be equal to the constant frequency of the electrical oscillator fosc.
This is called resonance condition in cyclotron.

27. Define figure of merit of a galvanometer.

It is defined as the current which produces a deflection of one scale division in the galvanometer.
28. Define current sensitivity of galvanometer.
It is defined as the deflection produced per unit current flowing through it.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 32

29. Define voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer.
It is defined as the deflection produced per unit voltage applied across it.

30. How can we increase the current sensitivity of a galvanometer?

 By increasing the number of turns N
 By increasing the magnetic induction B
 By increasing the area of the coil A
 By decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension wire K.

31. Is an ammeter connected in series or parallel in a circuit? Why?

 An ammeter is connected in series in circuit.
 Because, it must offer low resistance such that it will not change the current passing through it.

32. What happens to the domains in a ferromagnetic material in the presence of external magnetic field?
 Domains having magnetic moments parallel to the field grow bigger in size
 The other domains ( not parallel to field) are rotated so that they are aligned with the field.

3 MARKS
1. What are the properties of magnet?
 A freely suspended bar magnet will always point along the north – south direction.
 A magnet attracts another magnet or magnetic substances towards itself.
 The attractive force is maximum near the end of the bar magnet.
 When a bar magnet is dipped into iron filling, they cling to the ends of the magnet.
 When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece behaves like a magnet with poles at its ends.
 Two poles of a magnet have pole strength equal to one another.
 The length of the bar magnet is called geometrical length
 The length between two poles in a bar magnet is called magnetic length.
 Magnetic length is always slightly smaller than geometrical length.
 The ratio of magnetic length and geometrical length is 5/6.

2. What are the properties of magnetic field lines?

1. Magnetic field lines are continuous closed curves.
2. The direction of magnetic field lines is from North pole to South pole outside the magnet and South
pole to North pole inside the magnet.
3. The direction of magnetic field at any point on the curve is known by drawing tangent to the
magnetic line of force at the point.
4. Magnetic field lines never intersect each other.
5. The magnetic field is strong where magnetic field lines crowd and weak where magnetic field lines
thin out.

3. Differentiate Uniform and Non-uniform magnetic fields.

Uniform Magnetic field Non – Uniform magnetic field

Magnetic field is said to be uniform if it has Magnetic field is said to be non – uniform if
same magnitude and direction at all the the magnitude or direction or both varies at
points in a given region. all points

4. Why is the path of a charged particle not a circle when its velocity is not perpendicular to the magnetic
field?
 If a charged particle moves in a region of uniform magnetic field such that its velocity is not
perpendicular to the magnetic field,
 Then the velocity of the particle is split up into two components
 One component is parallel to the field while the other component perpendicular to the field.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 33
  The component of velocity parallel to field remains unchanged and the component perpendicular to
the field keeps changing due to Lorentz force.
 Hence the path of the particle is not a circle.

5. Obtain an expression for torque acting on a bar magnet when it is placed in a uniform magnetic field.
 𝜏 = 𝑂𝑁 x FN + (𝑂𝑆 x FS )
 𝜏 = 𝑂𝑁 x 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 + [𝑂𝑆 x −𝑞𝑚 𝐵 ]
 𝜏 = 𝑂𝑁 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 + 𝑂𝑆 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃
 𝜏 = 2𝑙𝑞𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃
 𝜏 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 ∵ 𝑝𝑚 = 2𝑙𝑞𝑚
 𝜏=𝑝 x 𝐵

6. Obtain an expression for potential energy of a bar magnet when it is placed in a uniform magnetic field.

W    ext d
'

𝜏𝐵 = 𝑝 𝑚 x 𝐵

𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝜏𝐵 = 𝑝 𝑚 x 𝐵 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃

W   p m B sin  d
'


W  p m B cos '  cos  
𝑈 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐵(cos 𝜃 ′ − cos 𝜃)

𝐼𝑓 𝜃 ′ = 90°> 𝑈 = −𝑝𝑚 𝐵 cos 𝜃

𝑈 = −𝑝𝑚 . 𝐵
𝐼𝑓 𝜃 = 0°, ℎ
𝑈 = −𝑝𝑚 𝐵
𝐼𝑓 𝜃 = 180°,; 𝑈 𝜃 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐵

7. Compare the properties of Dia, Para and Ferro magnetic materials.

Ferro magnetic
Magnetic properties Dia magnetic materials Para magnetic materials
materials

Magnetic susceptibility Negative positive and small positive and large

Relative permeability slightly less than unity greater than unity Large

magnetic field lines are magnetic field lines are magnetic field lines are
When placed in a
repelled by these attracted into these strongly attracted into
magnetic field
materials materials these materials

susceptibility is susceptibility is susceptibility is

Temperature independent of inversely proportional inversely proportional
temperature to temperature. to temperature.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 34

8. Differentiate between soft and hard ferromagnetic materials.
Properties Soft ferromagnetic materials Hard ferromagnetic materials
When external field is removed Magnetisation disappears Magnetisation persists
Area of the loop Small Large
Retentivity Low High
Coercivity Low High
Susceptibility High Low
Permeability High Low
Hysteresis loss Less More
Uses Solenoid core, transformer Permanent magnets
core, electromagnets
Examples Soft iron, Mumetal, Stalloy Steel, Alnico, Lodestone

9. What are the applications of hysteresis loop?

Permanent magnets:
 The materials with high retentivity, high coercivity and high permeability are suitable for making
permanent magnets.
 Example: Steel and Alnico
Electromagnets:
 The materials with high initial permeability, low retentivity, low coercivity and thin hysteresis loop
with smaller area are preferred to make electromagnets.
 Examples: Soft iron and Mumetal ( Nickel Iron alloy)
Core of the transformer:
 The materials with high initial permeability, large magnetic induction and thin hysteresis loop with
smaller area are needed to design transformer cores.
 Examples: soft iron

10. Differentiate between Coulomb’s law and Biot – Savart law.

Coulomb’s law Biot – Savart law
Produced by a scalar source Produced by a vectos source
Produced by an electric charge q Produced by a current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙
It is directed along the position vector It is directed perpendicular to the position
joining the source and the point at which
the field is calculated vector 𝑟 and the current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙
Depends on the angle between the position
Does not depend on angle
vector 𝑟 and the current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙

11. What are the special features of magnetic Lorentz force?

 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞 𝑣 𝑋 𝐵
 𝐹𝑚 is directly proportional to the magnetic field 𝐵
 𝐹𝑚 is directly proportional to the velocity 𝑣
 𝐹𝑚 is directly proportional to sine of the angle between the velocity and magnetic field
 𝐹𝑚 is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge q
 The direction of 𝐹𝑚 is always perpendicular to 𝑣 and 𝐵
 The direction of force on negative charge is opposite to the direction of force on positive charge.
 If velocity 𝑣 of the charge q is along 𝐵, then 𝐹𝑚 is zero.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 35

 5 MARKS
1. Obtain the magnetic induction at a point on the axial line of a bar magnet.
 NS is a bar magnet.
 C is the point at a distance r from the midpoint of the bar magnet on its axial line.
𝑞𝑚
 𝐵𝑁 = 𝑘 𝑖
𝑟−𝑙 2
𝑞𝑚
 𝐵 𝑆 = −𝑘 𝑖
𝑟+𝑙 2

 B = 𝐹 𝑁 + 𝐹𝑆

1 1
 B = 𝑘𝑞𝑚 − (𝑟+𝑙)2 𝑖
(𝑟−𝑙)2

𝑞 𝑚 2𝑙
 B = 𝑘2𝑟 𝑖
(𝑟 2 −𝑙 2 )2

2𝑟𝑝 𝑚
 B =𝑘 𝑖 (𝑞𝑚 2𝑙 = 𝑝𝑚 )
(𝑟 2 −𝑙 2 )2

 If r >> l, (r 2 − 𝑙 2 )2 = r 4

2𝑝 𝑚
 B axial = 𝑘 𝑖
𝑟3

𝜇 2𝑝 𝑚 𝜇
 𝐵 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 4𝜋0 (𝑘 = 4𝜋0 )
𝑟3

 (𝑝𝑚 = 𝑝𝑚 𝑖)

2. Obtain the magnetic induction at a point on the equatorial line of a bar magnet.
 NS is a bar magnet.
 C is the point at a distance r from the midpoint of the bar magnet on its axial line.

 𝐵 𝑁 = −𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑁 sin 𝜃 𝑗

 𝐵 𝑆 = −𝐵𝑆 cos 𝜃 𝑖 − 𝐵𝑆 sin 𝜃 𝑗

 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑁 + 𝐵𝑆

 B = − 𝐵 𝑁 + 𝐵 𝑠 cos θ 𝑖

μ qm
 B = −2𝐵 𝑁 cos θ 𝑖 (∵ 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐵𝑆 = 4π0 2 )
r′

 𝑟 ′ = 𝑟 2 + 𝑙2 2

μ 2𝑞 𝑚
 𝐵 = − 4π0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑖
𝑟 2 +𝑙 2

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 36

 μ 2𝑞 𝑚 𝑙 𝑙
 𝐵 = − 4π0 3 𝑖 ∵ cos θ = 1
𝑟 2 +𝑙 2 2 𝑟 2 +𝑙 2 2

 ∵ 𝑝𝑚 = 2𝑞𝑚 𝑙

μ0 𝑝𝑚
 𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 =− 3 𝑖
4π
𝑟 2 +𝑙 2 2

3
 If r >> l , 𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 2 ≈ 𝑟3

μ 0 𝑝𝑚
 𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 =− 𝑖
4π 𝑟 3
 𝑝𝑚 𝑖 = 𝑝𝑚
𝜇 𝑝𝑚
 𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 = − 4𝜋0 𝑟3

3. Deduce the relation for the magnetic induction at a point due to an infinitely long straight conductor
carrying current.
 Let Y𝑌 ′ be an infinitely long straight conductor
 I be the steady current through the conductor.
 Let P be the point at a distance a from the point O.
 Consider a small element of length d𝑙 (segment AB)
 Then, the magnetic field at P due to this
element is
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟 2 𝑛
B
 In triangle △ABC 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃

 In triangle △APC 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑟𝑑𝜙

 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑑𝜙
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝜙
A
 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟
𝑛

𝑎 𝑎
 In triangle △OPA 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = , 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
𝑟

𝜇 𝐼
 0
𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑑𝜙 𝑛
2
𝜇0𝐼
 𝐵= 4𝜋𝑎  cos  d n̂
 1

𝜇0𝐼 𝜙2
 𝐵= 4𝜋𝑎
sin 𝜙 −𝜙 1

𝜇0𝐼
 𝐵= sin 𝜙1 + sin 𝜙2 𝑛
4𝜋𝑎

 For infinitely long conductor, 𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 90°

𝜇0𝐼
 𝐵= 𝑛
2𝜋𝑎

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 37

4. Deduce the relation for the magnetic induction at a point along the axis of a circular coil carrying current.
 Consider a current carrying circular loop of radius R.
 Let I be the current flowing through the wire in the direction as shown in the figure.
 The magnetic field at a point P on the axis of the circular coil at a distance z from its center of the coil
O.
 Let 𝑟 be the vector joining the current element at C to the point P.
𝜇 0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 x 𝑟
 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝜇 0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋 𝑟 2
 The magnitude of magnetic field due to current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙 at C and D are equal because of equal
distance from the coil.
 The magnetic field due to each current element is resolved into two components.
 𝑑𝐵 cos 𝜙 along y – direction
 𝑑𝐵 sin 𝜙 along z – direction.
 Horizontal components of each current element cancel out while the vertical components alone
contribute to total magnetic field at the point P.
𝜇0𝐼
 𝐵= 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝐵 sin 𝜙 𝑘
4𝜋

𝜇0𝐼 𝑑𝑙
 𝐵= sin 𝜙 𝑘
4𝜋 𝑟2

𝑅
 sin 𝜙 = 1
𝑅 2 +𝑧 2 2

 𝑟 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2

𝜇0𝐼 𝑅
 𝐵= 3 𝑘 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋
𝑅 2 +𝑧 2 2

 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑅

𝜇0𝐼 𝑅2
 𝐵= 3 𝑘
2
𝑅 2 +𝑧 2 2

𝜇 0 𝑁𝐼 𝑅2
 For N turns, 𝐵 = 3 𝑘
2
𝑅 2 +𝑧 2 2

𝜇 0 𝑁𝐼
 𝐵= 𝑘 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑧 = 0)
2𝑅

5. Find the magnetic induction due to a long straight conductor using Ampere’s circuital law.
 Consider a straight conductor of infinite length carrying current I and the direction of magnetic field
lines shown in figure.
 Since the wire is geometrically cylindrical in shape and symmetrical about its axis,
 We construct an Amperian loop in the form of a circular shape at a distance r from the centre of the
conductor.
 From Ampere’s law, 𝐶
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
 The angle between magnetic field and vector and line element is zero.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 38

  𝐶
𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

 Due to symmetry, the magnitude of the magnetic field is uniform over the Amperian loop.

 𝐵 𝐶
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

 𝐶
𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟

 𝐵. 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼

𝜇 𝐼
 0
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟

𝜇 𝐼
 0
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑛

6. Find the magnetic induction due to a long current carrying solenoid using Ampere’s circuital law.
 Consider a solenoid of length L and having number of turns N.
 The diameter of the solenoid is assumed to be much smaller when compared to its length and the coil
is wound very closely.
 In order to calculate the magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid, we use the Ampere’s circuital
law.
 𝐶
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝑏 𝑐
 𝐶
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑎
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 + 𝑏
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 +
𝑑 𝑎
𝑐
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 + 𝑑
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙
 The elemental lengths along bc and da
are perpendicular to the magnetic field.
𝑐 𝑎
 𝑏
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0
 Outside the solenoid> 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0
 For the path along ab, the integral is
𝑏 𝑏
 𝑎
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑎
𝑑𝑙
𝑏
 𝑎
𝑑𝑙 = 𝐿
𝑏
 𝑎
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵𝐿
 Let NI be the current passing through the solenoid of N
𝑏
 𝑎
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝜇 0 𝑁𝐼
 𝐵= 𝐿
𝑁
 =𝑛
𝐿
 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 39

7. Find the magnetic induction at a point inside and outside of a current carrying toroid using Ampere’s
circuital law.
 A solenoid is bent in such a way its ends are joined together to
form a closed ring shape is called a toroid.
 The magnetic field has constant magnitude inside the toroid
whereas in the interior region and exterior region the magnetic
field is zero.

Open space interior to the Open space exterior to the Inside the toroid:
toroid: toroid:

𝐿1 = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿3 = 2𝜋𝑟3 𝐿2 = 2𝜋𝑟2

B
loop1
P .dl   0 I enclosed B
loop3
Q .dl   0 I enclosed B
loop2
S .dl   0 I enclosed

I enclosed  0 I enclosed  0 I enclosed  NI

B
loop1
P .dl  0 B
loop3
Q .dl  0 B
loop2
S .dl   0 NI

BS   0 nI
BP  0 BQ  0

8. Explain the construction and working of a cyclotron.

 Cyclotron is used to accelerate the charged particles to gain large kinetic energy.
 It is also called as high energy accelerator.
Principle:
When a charged particle moves normal to the magnetic field, it experiences magnetic Lorentz force.
Construction:
 The schematic diagram of cyclotron is shown in figure.
 The particles are allowed to move in between two semi-circular metal containers called Dees.
 Dees are enclosed in an evacuated chamber and it is kept in a region with uniform magnetic field
controlled by an electromagnet.
 The direction of magnetic field is normal to the plane of the Dees.
 The two Dees are kept separated with a gap and the source S is placed at the center in the gap
between the Dees.
 Dees are connected to high frequency alternating potential difference.

Working:
 Let us assume that the ion ejected from source S is positively charged.
 As soon as ion is ejected, it is accelerated towards a Dee which has negative potential at that time.
 Since the magnetic field is normal to the plane of the Dees, the ion undergoes circular path.
 After one semi – circular path in Dee -1, the ion reaches the gap between Dees.
 At this time, the polarities of the Dees are reversed so that the ion is now accelerated towards Dee – 2
with a greater velocity.
 For this circular motion, the centripetal force of the charged particle q is provided by Lorentz force.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 40

 𝑚 𝑣2
 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑟

𝑚𝑣
 𝑟= 𝑞𝐵

 𝑟∝𝑣
 From the above equation, the increase in
velocity increases the radius of circular path.
 This process continues and hence the particle
undergoes spiral path of increasing radius.
 Once it reaches near the edge, it is taken out
either the help of deflector plate and allowed to
hit the target T.
 Very important condition in cyclotron operation
is the resonance condition.
 It happens when the frequency at which the positive ion circulates in the magnetic field must be equal
to the constant frequency of the electrical oscillator.
Bq
 osc  2m
2𝜋𝑚
 𝑇= 𝐵𝑞

1 𝐵2 𝑞 2 𝑟 2
 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2𝑚

Limitations of Cyclotron:

 the speed of the ion is limited

 electron cannot be accelerated
 uncharged particles cannot be accelerated

9. Obtain an expression for the force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the force experienced by the wire is
equal to the sum of Lorentz forces on the individual charge carriers in the wire.
 Consider a small segment of wire of length dl, with cross-sectional area A and current I.
 The free electrons drift opposite to the direction of current.
* 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑
* 𝐹 = −𝑒 𝑣𝑑 𝑋 𝐵
𝑁
* 𝑛= 𝑉
* 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑉 = 𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑙

* 𝑑𝐹 = −𝑒𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑙 𝑣𝑑 𝑋 𝐵

* 𝐼𝑑𝑙 = −𝑒𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑙
* 𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑋 𝐵
* 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙 𝑋 𝐵
* 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 sin 𝜃

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 41

 Special cases:
* 𝐼𝑓 𝜃 = 0°> 𝐹 = 0
* 𝐼𝑓 𝜃 = 90°> ; 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙

Fleming’s left hand rule:

Stretch forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left hand such that they are in mutually
perpendicular directions, If
 forefinger points the direction of magnetic field,
 the middle finger points in the direction of the electric current, then
 thumb will point in the direction of the force experienced by the conductor.

10. Explain the principle, construction and working of a moving coil galvanometer.
 Moving coil galvanometer is a device which is used to indicate the flow of current in an electrical
circuit.

Principle:
When a current carrying loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field it experiences a torque.

Construction:
 A moving coil galvanometer consists of a rectangular coil PQRS of insulated thin copper wire.
 The coil contains a large number of turns wound over a light metallic frame.
 A cylindrical soft – iron core is placed symmetrically inside the coil.
 The rectangular coil is suspended freely between two pole pieces of a horse – shoe magnet.
 The upper end of the rectangular coil is attached to one end of fine strip of phosphor bronze and the
lower end of the coil is connected to a hair spring which is also made up of phosphor bronze.
 In a fine suspension strip W, a small plane mirror is attached to order to measure the deflection of the
coil with the help of lamp and scale arrangement.
 The other end of the mirror is connected to a
torsion head T.
 In order to pass electric current through the
galvanometer, the suspension strip W and the
spring S are connected to terminals.
Working:
 Consider a single turn of the rectangular coil
PQRS whose length be l and breadth b
 PQ = RS = l and QR = SP = b
 Let I be the electric current flowing through the rectangular coil PQRS.
 The horse- shoe magnet has semi-spherical magnetic poles which produces a radial magnetic field.
 Due to this radial field, the sides QR and SP are always parallel to the B – field and experience no
force.
 The sides PQ and RS are always perpendicular to the B – field and experience force and due to this
torque is produced.
 𝜏 = 𝑏𝐹 = 𝑏𝐵𝐼𝑙 = 𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝐼 = 𝐴𝐵𝐼
 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑏
 For N turns> 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐴𝐵𝐼
 Due to this deflecting torque, the coil gets twisted and restoring torque is developed.
 𝜏 = 𝐾𝜃

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 42

  K is torsional constant of the spring.
 At equilibrium, 𝑁𝐴𝐵𝐼 = 𝐾𝜃
𝐾
 𝐼 = 𝑁𝐴𝐵 𝜃
 𝐼 = 𝐺𝜃
𝐾
 𝐺 = 𝑁𝐴𝐵 is the figure of merit of the galvanometer.
𝜃 1
 Current sensitivity: 𝐼𝑆 = =𝐺
𝐼
𝜃 𝜃 1 𝐼
 Voltage sensitivity: 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐺𝑅 = 𝑅𝑆
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

11. How will you convert a galvanometer into an ammeter?

 Ammeter is an instrument used to measure current flowing in the electrical circuit.
 The ammeter must offer low resistance such that it will not change the current passing through it.
 SO ammeter is connected in series to measure the circuit current.
 A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in parallel with the
galvanometer.
 This low resistance is called shunt resistance S.
 The scale is now calibrated in ampere and the range of ammeter depends on the values of the shunt
resistance.
 Let I be the current passing through the circuit.
 When current I reaches the junction A, it divides into two components.
 Let Ig be the current passing through the galvanometer of resistance Rg through a path AGE
 The remaining current ( I- Ig) passes along the path ACDE through shunt resistance S.
 The value of shunt resistance is so adjusted that current Ig produces full scale deflection in the
galvanometer.
 The potential difference across galvanometer is same as the potential difference across shunt
resistance.
 Vg = VS
 Ig Rg = (I – Ig) S

𝐼𝑔
 𝑆= 𝑅𝑔
𝐼−𝐼𝑔

𝑆
 𝐼𝑔 = 𝐼
𝑆+𝑅𝑔

 𝐼𝑔 ∝ 𝐼
 Since, the deflection in the galvanometer is
proportional to the current passing through it.
𝐼𝑔
 𝜃= 𝐺
 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼𝑔
 𝜃∝𝐼
 So, the deflection in the galvanometer measures the current I passing through the circuit.
 Shunt resistance is connected in parallel to galvanometer.
 Therefore, resistance of ammeter can be determined by computing the effective resistance, which is
Rg S
 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = R = Ra
g +S

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 43

 S
 The Shunt resistance is a very low resistance and the ratio R is also small.
g

 This means Rg is also small.

 So, when we connect ammeter in series, the ammeter will not change the resistance appreciably and
also the current in the circuit.
 For an ideal ammeter, the resistance must be equal to zero.
 Hence, the reading in ammeter is always lesser than the actual current in the circuit.
 Let Iideal be current measured from ideal ammeter and Iactual be the actual current measured in the
circuit by the ammeter.
 Then, the percentage error in measuring a current through an ammeter is
ΔI 𝐼𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 −𝐼𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
 x 100 % = x 100 %
I 𝐼𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙

12. How will you convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter?

 A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure potential difference across any two points in the
electrical circuits.
 It should not draw any current from the circuit otherwise the value of potential difference to be
measured will change.
 Voltmeter must have high resistance and when it is connected in parallel, it will not draw appreciable
current so that it will indicate the true potential difference.
 A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting high resistance R h in series with
galvanometer.
 The scale is now calibrated in volt and the range of voltmeter depends on the values of the resistance
connected in series.
 The value of resistance is so adjusted that only current Ig produces full scale deflection in the
galvanometer.
 Let Rg be the resistance of galvanometer and Ig be the current with which the galvanometer produces
full scale deflection.
 Since galvanometer is connected in series with high resistance, the current in the electrical circuit is
same as the current passing through the galvanometer.
 I = Ig
 The voltmeter resistance is Rv = Rg + Rh
𝑉
 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑅
𝑔 +𝑅 𝑕

𝑉
 𝑅𝑕 = 𝐼 − 𝑅𝑔
𝑔

 𝐼𝑔 ∝ 𝑉
 The deflection in the galvanometer is proportional to current Ig.
 But current Ig is proportional to the potential difference.
 Hence, the deflection in the galvanometer is proportional to potential difference.
 Since the resistance of voltmeter is very large, a voltmeter connected in an electrical circuit will draw
least current in the circuit.
 An ideal voltmeter is one in which has infinite resistance.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 44

13. State Tangent’s law and explain it in detail.
Tangent’s law:
When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely suspended in two mutually perpendicular uniform
magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the direction of the resultant of the two fields.
 The working of tangent galvanometer is based on tangent’s law.
 Let B be the magnetic field produced by passing current
through the coil of the tangent galvanometer.
 BH be the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field.
 Under the action of two magnetic fields, the needle comes to
rest making angle θ with BH.
 𝐵 = 𝐵𝐻 tan 𝜃
 When no current is passed through the coil, the small
magnetic needle lies along horizontal component of Earth’s
magnetic field.
 When the circuit is switched ON, the electric current will
pass through the circular coil and produce magnetic field.
* When an electric current is passed through a circular coil of radius R having N truns, the magnitude
𝑁𝐼
of magnetic field at the center is 𝐵 = 𝜇0 2𝑅
𝜇0𝑁 𝐼
* 𝐵𝐻 = 2𝑅 tan 𝜃

14. Obtain the expressions for time period, frequency and angular frequency of a charged particle moving in
a uniform magnetic field.
 Consider a charged particle of charge q having mass m enters into a region of uniform magnetic field
𝐵 with velocity 𝑣 such that velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
 As soon as the particle enters into the field, Lorentz force acts on it in a direction perpendicular to
both magnetic field 𝐵 and velocity 𝑣 .
 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 x 𝐵 )
 Magnitude of Lorentz force is 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
 This Lorentz force acts as centripetal force for the particle to execute circular motion.
𝑚 𝑣2
 𝑞𝑣𝐵 = 𝑟
𝑚𝑣 𝑝
 𝑟= = 𝑞𝐵
𝑞𝐵
 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
2𝜋𝑟
 Time period> 𝑇 = 𝑣
2𝜋𝑚
 𝑇= 𝐵𝑞
1 𝐵𝑞
 Frequency> 𝑓 = 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑚
𝐵𝑞
 Angular frequency> 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 𝑚

15. Obtain an expression for the force between two long parallel current carrying conductors.
 Two long straight parallel current carrying conductors separated by a distance r are kept in air.
 Let I1 and I2 be the electric currents passing through the conductors A and B in same direction.
 The net magnetic field at a distance r due to current I1 in conductor A is
𝜇 0 𝐼1
 𝐵1 = − 𝑖
2𝜋𝑟
 From thumb rule, the direction of magnetic field is along negative 𝑖 direction.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 45

  Lorentz force on the element dl of conductor B is
 𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙 x 𝐵1
 𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙 𝑘 x 𝐵1 −𝑖
 𝑑𝐹 = −𝐼2 𝑑𝑙 𝐵1 𝑘 x𝑖
𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
 𝑑𝐹 = − 𝑗
2𝜋𝑟
 The force per unit length of the conductor B due to the
conductor A is
𝐹 𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝐼2
 =− 𝑗
𝑙 2𝜋𝑟
 The net magnetic field at a distance r due to current I2 in
conductor B is
𝜇 0 𝐼1
 𝐵2 = 𝑖
2𝜋𝑟
 From thumb rule, the direction of magnetic field is along
positive 𝑖 direction.
 Lorentz force on the element dl of conductor A is
 𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙 x 𝐵2
 𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙 𝑘 x 𝐵2 𝑖
 𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙 𝐵2 𝑘 x𝑖
𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑗
2𝜋𝑟
 The force per unit length of the conductor B due to the conductor A is
𝐹 𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝐼2
 = 𝑗
𝑙 2𝜋𝑟
 The force experienced by two parallel current carrying conductors is attractive if the direction of the
electric current passing through them is same.
 The force experienced by two parallel current carrying conductors is repulsive if the direction of the
electric current passing through them is opposite.

16. Derive the expression for the torque on a current carrying coil in a magnetic field.
 Consider a single rectangular loop PQRS carrying current I is placed in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵.
 The unit vector n normal to the plane of the loop.
 Let the loop be divided into four sections PQ, QR, RS and SP.
Parts 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
𝑏
𝑃𝑄 𝐹𝑃𝑄 = 𝐼𝑎𝐵 𝜏𝑃𝑄 = sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑎𝐵
2

𝑄𝑅 𝐹𝑄𝑅 = 𝐼𝑏𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝜏𝑅𝑄 = 0

𝑏
𝑅𝑆 𝐹𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼𝑎𝐵 𝜏𝑅𝑆 = sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑎𝐵
2
𝑆𝑃 𝐹𝑆𝑃 = 𝐼𝑏𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝜏𝑆𝑃 = 0

 The total torque acting on the entire loop about an axis

AB is 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑃𝑄 + 𝜏𝑅𝑆
 𝜏 = 𝐼𝑎 𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝐵
 𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 (A = ab, area of the loop)

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 46

  𝜏 = IA x B
 𝜏 = 𝑝m x B
 𝑝m = IA is magnetic dipole moment
 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑁 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠, 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃
Special cases:
(a) When 𝜃 = 90°, 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵
(b) When 𝜃 = 0° 𝑜𝑟 180°, 𝜏 = 0

4. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNNATING CURRENT

1. What is electromagnetic induction?
 Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed coil changes, an emf is induced and hence an
electric current flows in the circuit.
 This current is called an induced current and the emf giving rise to such current is called an induced
emf.
 This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.

2. State Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction.

Whenever magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in the circuit.

3. State Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction.

The magnitude of induced emf in a closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with the circuit.

4. State Lenz’s law.

Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced current is such that it always opposes the cause
responsible for its production.

5. State Fleming’s right hand rule.

 The thumb, index finger and middle finger of right hand are stretched out in mutually perpendicular
directions.
 If the index finger points the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb indicates the direction of
motion of the conductor, then the middle finger will indicate the direction of the induced current.

6. What are eddy currents?

The induced currents flow in concentric circular paths called eddy currents or Foucault current.

7. What is self - induction?

 If the flux linked with the coil is changed, an emf is induced in that same coil.
 This phenomenon is known as self – induction.
 The emf induced is called self – induced emf

8. Define inductance.
Inductance of a coil is defined as the opposing emf induced in the coil when the rate of change of
current through the coil is 1 As-1.

9. Define one henry based on self - induction.

The inductance of the coil is one henry if a current changing at the rate of 1 As-1 induces an opposing
emf of 1 V in it.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 47
10. What for an inductor is used?
Inductor is a device used to store energy in a magnetic field when an electric current flows through it.

11. What is mutual induction?

When an electric current passing through a coil changes with time, an emf is induced in the
neighbouring coil. This phenomenon is known as mutual induction and the emf is called mutually
induced emf.

12. Define one henry based on mutual induction.

The mutual inductance between two coils is one henry if a current changing at the rate of 1 A s-1 in
coil 1 induces an opposing emf of 1 V in coil 2.

13. What are the methods of producing induced emf?

Induced emf can be produced by changing magnetic flux in any of the following ways.
 By changing the magnetic field B
 By changing the area A of the coil
 By changing the relative orientation 𝜃 of the coil with magnetic field.

14. Give the principle of AC generator.

 Alternator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 The relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field changes the magnetic flux linked with
the conductor which in turn, induces an emf.

15. What is transformer?

Transformer is a device used to transform electrical power form one circuit to another without
changing its frequency.

16. What are step – up and step – down transformers?

Step – up transformer Step – down transformer
If the transformer converts an alternating If the transformer converts an alternating
current with low voltage into an alternating current with high voltage into an alternating
current with high voltage, it is called step – up current with low voltage, it is called step –
transformer. down transformer.

17. Define - Efficiency of a transformer.

The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the useful output power to the input power.

18. Define – mean or average value of alternating current.

The average value of alternating current is defined as the average of all values of current over a
positive half – cycle or negative half - cycle.

19. Define – RMS value of an alternating current.

The root mean square value of an alternating current is defined as the square root of the mean of the
squares of all currents over one cycle.

20. What are phasors?

A sinusoidal alternating voltage can be represented by a vector which rotates about the origin in anti –
clockwise direction at a constant angular velocity. Such a vector is called a phasor.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 48

21. Define – electric resonance.
When the frequency of the applied alternating source is equal to the natural frequency of the RLC
circuit, the current in the circuit reaches its maximum value. Then the circuit is said to be in electrical
resonance.

22. Define – resonant frequency.

The frequency at which resonance takes place is called resonant frequency.

23. Define Q – factor or quality factor.

Q – factor is defined as the ratio of voltage across L or C to the applied voltage.

24. What is wattles current?

The current in an AC circuit is said to be wattles current if the power consumed by it is zero.

25. Give any one definition of power factor.

 Power factor = cosine of the angle of lead or lag
 Power factor = Resistance / Impedance

26. Define - inductive reactance.

The resistance offered by an inductor to an alternating current in a circuit is called inductive
reactance. Its unit is ohm.

27. Define – capacitive reactance.

The resistance offered by a capacitor to an alternating current in a circuit is called capacitive
reactance. Its unit is ohm

28. What are LC oscillations?

Whenever energy is given to a LC circuit, the electrical oscillations of definite frequency are
generated. These oscillations are called LC oscillations.

3 MARK QUESTIONS

1. Show that the Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
 According to Lenz’s law, when a magnet is moved either towards or away from a coil, the induced
current produced opposes its motion.
 As a result, there will always be a resisting force on the moving magnet.
 Work has to be done by some external agency to move the magnet against this resisting force.
 Here the mechanical energy of the moving magnet is converted into the electrical energy which in
turn, gets converted into Joule heat in the coil.
 That is energy is converted from one form to another.
 On the contrary to Lenz’s law, let us assume that the induced current helps the cause responsible for
its production.
 Now when we push the magnet little bet towards the coil, the induced current helps the movement of
the magnet towards the coil.
 Then the magnet starts moving towards the coil without any expense of energy.
 This, then, becomes a perpetual motion machine.
 In practice, no such machine is possible.
 Therefore, the assumption that the induced current helps the cause is wrong.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 49

2. Obtain the expression for motional emf from Lorentz force.
 Consider a straight conducting rod AB of length l in a uniform magnetic field which is directed
perpendicularly into the plane of the paper.
 The length of the rod is normal to the magnetic field.
 Let the rod move with a constant velocity 𝑣 towards right side.
 FB = −e 𝑣 x 𝐵
 FE = −e 𝐸
 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐸
 𝑣𝐵 sin 90° = 𝑒𝐸
 𝐸 = 𝑣𝐵
 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑙
 𝑉 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
 𝜀 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
 𝜀 is the motional emf obtained from Lorentz force.
𝜀 𝐵𝑙𝑣
 𝑖=𝑅= 𝑅

3. Define self – inductance of a coil in terms of (1) magnetic flux and (2) induced emf.

Self – inductance in terms of magnetic flux:

Self – inductance of a coil is defined as the flux linkage of the coil when 1A current flows through it.

Self – inductance in terms of induced emf:

It is defined as the opposing emf induced in the coil when the rate of change of current through the
coil is 1 A s-1.

4. What do you understand by self – inductance of a coil? Give its physical significance.
 The inductance plays the same role in a circuit as mass and moment of inertia play in mechanical
motion.
 When a circuit is switched ON, the increasing current induces an emf which opposes the growth of
current in a circuit.
 Likewise, when circuit is broken, the decreasing current induces an emf in the reverse direction.
 The emf now opposes the decay of current.
 Thus, inductance of the coil opposes any change in current and tries to maintain the original state.

5. Assuming that the length of the solenoid is large when compared to its diameter, find the equation for its
inductance.
 Consider a long solenoid of length l and cross – sectional
area A.
 Let n be the number of turns per unit length of the
solenoid.
 The magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid is given
by
 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖
 Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴
 Φ𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖 𝐴
 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑙

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 50

  𝑁Φ𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 𝑖
 𝑁Φ𝐵 = 𝐿𝑖
 𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙
 𝐿 = 𝜇 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙
 𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙

6. An inductor of inductance L carries an electric current i. How much energy is stored while establishing
the current in it?
 Whenever a current is established in the circuit, the inductance opposes the growth of the current.
 In order to establish a current in the circuit, work is done against this opposition by some external
agency.
 This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy.
𝑑𝑖
 𝜀 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝑊 = −𝜀𝑑𝑞
 𝑑𝑊 = −𝜀 𝑖𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐿 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑖
 𝑊= 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐿 0
𝑖𝑑𝑡
1
 𝑊 = 2 𝐿 𝑖2
1
 𝑈𝐵 = 2 𝐿 𝑖 2
 The energy density is the energy stored per unit volume of the space
𝑈𝐵
 𝑢𝐵 = 𝐴𝑙
𝐵2
 𝑢𝐵 = 2𝜇
0

7. How will you induce an emf changing the area enclosed by the coil?
 Consider a conducting rod of length l mobbing with a velocity v towards left on a rectangular metallic
framework.
 The whole arrangement is placed in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 whose magnetic lines are
perpendicularly directed into the plane of the paper.
 As the rod moves from AB to DC in a time dt, the area enclosed by the loop and hence the magnetic
flux through the loop decreases.
 dΦ𝐵 = 𝐵 x 𝑑𝐴
 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑙 𝑣𝑑𝑡
 dΦB = 𝐵 𝑙𝑣 𝑑𝑡
dΦ 𝐵
 𝜀= 𝑑𝑡
 𝜀 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣

8. What are the advantages of stationary armature – rotating

field alternator?
 Alternators are generally high current and high voltage
machines.
 The current is drawn directly from fixed terminals on the stator without the use of brush contacts.
 The insulation of stationary armature winding is easier.
 The number of sliding contacts is reduced.
 Moreover, the sliding contacts are used for low – voltage DC source.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 51
  Armature windings can be constructed more rigidly to prevent deformation due to any mechanical
stress.

9. What are the advantages of three – phase alternator?

 For a given dimension of the generator, three – phase machine produces higher power output than a
single – phase machine.
 For the same capacity, three – phase alternator is smaller in size when compared to single phase
alternator.
 Three – phase transmission system is cheaper.
 A relatively thinner wire is sufficient for transmission of three – phase power.

10. Discuss the different energy losses in transformer.

Core loss or Iron loss:
 This loss takes place in transformer core.
 Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss are known as core loss or iron loss.
 When transformer core is magnetized and demagnetized repeatedly by the alternating voltage applied
across primary coil, hysteresis takes place due to which some energy is lost in the form of heat.
 Hysteresis loss is minimized by using steel of high silicon content in making core.
Eddy current loss:
 Alternating magnetic flux in the core induces eddy currents in it.
 Therefore there is energy loss due to the flow of eddy current, called eddy current loss.
 This can be minimized by using very thin laminations of transformer core.
Copper loss:
 Transformer windings have electrical resistance.
 When an electric current flows through them, some amount of energy is dissipated due to Joule
heating.
 This energy loss is called copper loss.
 This can be minimized by using wires of larger diameter.
Flux leakage:
 Flux leakage happens when the magnetic lines of primary coil are not completely linked with
secondary coil.
 Energy loss due to this flux leakage is minimized by winding coils one over the other.

11. Find out the phase relationship between voltage and current in a pure resistive circuit ( AC circuit
containing resistor only).
 Consider a circuit containing a pure resistor or resistance R connected across an alternating voltage
source.
 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅
 𝑣 − 𝑉𝑅 = 0

 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅

𝑉𝑚
 𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅

 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 52

 𝑉𝑚
 𝐼𝑚 = is the peak value of alternating current.
𝑅
 In a resistive circuit, applied voltage and the current are in phase with each other.

12. Obtain an expression for average power of AC over a cycle. Discuss its special cases.
 Power of a circuit is defined as the rate of consumption of electric energy in that circuit.
 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + ϕ

 𝑃=𝑣𝑖

 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + ϕ

 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos ϕ sin2 𝜔𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin ϕ

 The average of sin2 𝜔𝑡 over a cycle is ½

 The average value of sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 over a cycle is zero.

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = cos ϕ
2

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = cos ϕ
2 2

 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 cos ϕ

 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 is the apparent power
 cos ϕ is the power factor.
 The average power of an AC circuit is also known as the true power of the circuit.
Special cases:
For a purely resistive circuit:
 ϕ = 0> cos 0° = 1> ∴ 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
For a purely inductive circuit:
𝜋 𝜋
 ϕ = ± 2 > cos ± 2 = 0> ∴ 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 0
For series RLC circuit at resonance:
 ϕ = 0> cos 0° = 1> ∴ 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆

13. Write the different definitions of power factor. Give some examples.
 The power factor of a circuit is defined in one of the following ways.
 Power factor = cos ϕ = cosine of the angle of lead or lag
𝑅 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
 Power factor = 𝑍 = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝐼 cos ϕ
 Power factor =
𝑉𝐼
Some examples for power factor:
 For a pure resistive circuit, Power factor = cos 0° = 1 if ϕ = 0
𝜋 𝜋
 For a pure inductive circuit, Power factor = cos ± 2 = 0 if ϕ = ± 2

Power factor lies between 0 and 1 for a circuit having R, L and C in varying proportions.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 53

14. What are the advantages of AC over DC?
Advantages:
 The generation of AC is cheaper than that of DC
 When AC is supplied at higher voltages, the transmission losses are small compared to DC
transmission.
 AC can easily be converted into DC with the help of rectifiers.
Disadvantages:
 Alternating voltages cannot be used for certain applications.
 E.g. charging of batteries, electroplating, electric traction etc.
 At high voltages, it is more dangerous to work with AC than DC.

15. Prove that energy is conserved during electromagnetic induction.

𝑞2 2
𝑄𝑚
 𝑈𝐸 = 2𝐶 = cos 2 𝜔𝑡 + ϕ
2𝐶

1 2
𝑄𝑚
 𝑈𝐵 = 2 𝐿 𝑖 2 = sin2 𝜔𝑡 + ϕ
2𝐶

 If the two energies are plotted with an assumption of ϕ = 0, we obtain the following figure.

 From the graph,

2
𝑄𝑚
 At any instant, 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑈𝐵 = = constant.
2𝐶

2
𝑄𝑚
 The maximum values of 𝑈𝐸 and 𝑈𝐵 are both 2𝐶

 When 𝑈𝐸 is maximum, 𝑈𝐵 is zero and vice versa

5 MARK QUESTIONS
1. Show that the mutual inductance between a pair of coils is same (M12 = M21)
 Consider two long co-axial solenoids of same length l.
 The length of these solenoids is large when compared to their radii so that the magnetic field
produced inside the solenoid is uniform and the fringing effect at ends may be ingnored.
 Let A1 and A2 be the area of cross section of the solenoids with A1 being greater than A2.

Calculation for M21 Calculation for M12

𝐵1 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑖1 𝐵2 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝑖2
Φ21 = 𝐵1 𝐴2 Φ12 = 𝐵2 𝐴2
Φ21 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑖1 𝐴2 Φ12 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝑖2 𝐴2
𝑁2 = 𝑛2 𝑙 𝑁1 = 𝑛1 𝑙
𝑁2 Φ21 𝑁1 Φ12
= 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙 𝑖1 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙 𝑖2
𝑁2 Φ21 = M21 𝑖1 𝑁1 Φ12 = M12 𝑖2
M21 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙 M12 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙

M12 = M21 = 𝑀
 𝑀 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 54
  𝑀 = 𝜇 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙
 𝑀 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙

2. Show mathematically that the rotation of a coil in a magnetic field over one rotation induces an
alternating emf of one cycle.
 Consider a rectangular coil of N turns kept in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵.
 The coil rotates in anti-clockwise direction with an angular velocity ω about an axis, perpendicular to
the field.
 At time t = 0, the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field.
 The flux linked with the coil has its maximum value Φ𝑚 = 𝐵𝐴.
 In a time t seconds, the coil is rotated through an angle 𝜃(= 𝜔𝑡) in anti – clockwise direction.
 In this position, the flux linked is Φ𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 .
 This is the component of Φ𝑚 normal to the plane of the coil.
 𝑁Φ𝐵 = Φ𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑
 𝜀 = − 𝑑𝑡 (NΦ𝐵 ) = 𝑁Φ𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
 When the coil is rotated through 90° from initial position, sin 𝜔𝑡 = 1
 𝜀𝑚 = 𝑁Φ𝑚 𝜔
 𝜀𝑚 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 𝜔
 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
 The graph between induced emf and time angle for one rotation of coil will be a sine curve.
 The emf varying in this manner is called sinusoidal emf or alternating emf.
 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

3. Elaborate the standard construction details of AC generator.

 AC generator ro alternator is an energy conversion device.
 It converts mechanical energy used to rotate the coil or field magnet into electrical energy.

Principle:
 It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 The relative motion between a conductor and magnetic field changes the magnetic flux liked with the
conductor which in turn, induces an emf.
 The magnitude of the induced emf is given by Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
 The direction of induced emf is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
Construction:

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 55

  Alternator consists of two major parts namely stator and rotor.
 In any standard construction of commercial alternators, the armature winding is mounted on stator
and the field magnet on rotor.
Stator:
 The stationary part which has armature windings mounted in it is called stator.
 It has three components, namely stator frame, stator core and armature winding.
Stator core:
 Stator core or armature core is made up of iron or steel alloy.
 It is a hollow cylinder and is laminated to minimize eddy current loss.
 The slots are cut on inner surface of the core to accommodate armature windings.
Rotor:
 Rotor contains magnetic field windings.
 The magnetic poles are magnetized by DC source.
 The ends of field windings are connected to a pair of slip rings, attached to a common shaft about
which rotor rotates.
 To maintain connection between the DC source and field windings, two brushes are used which
continuously slide over the slip rings.

4. Explain the working of single phase AC generator with necessary diagrams.

Single phase AC generator:
 In a single phase AC generator, the armature conductors are connected in series so as to form a
single circuit which generates a single – phase alternating emf and hence it is called single phase
alternator.
 Consider a stator core consisting of 2 slots in which 2 armature conductors PQ and RS are mounted
to form single – turn rectangular loop PQRS.
 Rotor has 2 salient poles with field windings which can be magnetized by means of DC source.
Working:
 The loop PQRS is stationary and is perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
 When field windings are excited, magnetic field is produced around it.
 Let the field magnet be rotated in clockwise direction by the prime mover.
 The direction of total induced emf is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
Orientation of
Direction of
Rotation of

the current

the plane of the

Induced
the loop

loop with
emf
respect to
magnetic field
zero
0° perpendicular
(point O )
positive
PQR
90° parallel maximum
S
(point A )
zero
180° perpendicular
(point B )
negative
SRQ
270° parallel maximum
P
(point C )
zero
360° perpendicular
(point D )
 From the graph it is clear that emf induced in PQRS is alternating in nature.
 Therefore, when field magnet completes one rotation, induced emf in PQRS finishes one cycle.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 56
5. How are the three different emfs generated in a three phase AC generator? Show the graphical
representation of these three emfs.
 Some AC generators may have more than one coil in the armature core and each coil produces an
alternating emf.
 In these generators, more than one emf is produced.
 Thus they are called poly – phase generators.
 If there are two alternating emfs produced in a generator, it is called two – phase generator.
 In some AC generators, there are three separate coils, which would give three separate emfs.
 Hence they are called three – phase AC generators.
 In the simplified construction of three phase AC generator, the armature core has 6 slots, cut on its
inner rim.
 Each slot is 600 away from one another.
 Six armature conductors are mounted in these slots.
 The conductors 1 and 4 are joined in series to form coil 1.
 The conductors 3 and 6 form coil 2 while the conductors 5 and 2 form coil 3.
 So, these coils are rectangular in shape and are 1200 apart from one another.
 The initial position of the coil magnet is horizontal and field direction is perpendicular to the plane
of the coil 1.
 As it is seen in single phase AC generator, when field magnet is rotated from that position in
clockwise direction, alternating emf 𝜀1 in coil 1 begins a cycle from origin O.
 The corresponding cycle for alternating emf 𝜀2 in coil 2 starts at point A after field magnet has
rotated through 1200.
 Therefore the phase difference between𝜀1 and 𝜀2 is 1200.
 Similarly, emf 𝜀3 in coil 3 would begin its cycle at point B after 2400 rotation of field magnet from
initial position.
 Thus these emfs produced in the three phase AC generator have 1200 phase difference between one
another.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 57

6. Explain the construction and working of transformer.
Principle:
 The principle of transformer is the mutual induction between two coils.

Construction:

 In the simple construction of transformers, there

are two coils of high mutual inductance wound
love the same transformer core.
 The core is generally laminated and is made up of a
good magnetic material like silicon steel.
 Coils are electrically insulated but magnetically
linked via transformer core.
 The coils across which alternating voltage is
applied is called primary coil P and the coil from
which output power is drawn out is called
secondary coil S.
 The assembled core and coils are kept in a container which is filled with suitable medium for better
insulation and cooling purpose.

Working:
 If the primary coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage, an alternating magnetic flux is set
up in the laminated core.
 If there is no magnetic flux leakage, then whole of magnetic flux linked with primary coil is also
linked with secondary coil.
 This means that rate at which magnetic flux changes through each turn is same for both primary and
secondary coils.
 As a result of flux change, emf is induced in both primary and secondary coils.
𝑑𝜙 𝐵
 𝑣𝑃 = 𝜀𝑃 = −𝑁𝑃 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙 𝐵
 𝑣𝑆 = 𝜀𝑆 = −𝑁𝑆 𝑑𝑡
 For an ideal transformer,
 Input power = Output power
 𝑣𝑃 𝑖𝑃 = 𝑣𝑆 𝑖𝑆

𝑣𝑆 𝑁 𝑖𝑃
 = 𝑁𝑆 =
𝑣𝑃 𝑃 𝑖𝑆

𝑉𝑆 𝑁 𝐼𝑃
 In terms of amplitude, = 𝑁𝑆 = =𝐾
𝑉𝑃 𝑃 𝐼𝑆
Step – Up transformer Step – Down transformer

𝑁𝑆 > 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑆 < 𝑁𝑃
𝐾>1 𝐾<1
𝑉𝑆 > 𝑉𝑃 𝑉𝑆 < 𝑉𝑃
𝐼𝑆 < 𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑆 > 𝐼𝑃
Voltage is increased Voltage is decreased
Corresponding current is decreased Corresponding current is increased

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 58

7. Deduce an expression for RMS value of alternating current.
 The term RMS refers to time-varying sinusoidal currents and voltages and not used in DC systems.
 The root mean square value of an alternating current is defined as the square root of the mean of the
squares of all currents over one cycle.
 It is denoted by 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 .
 For alternating voltages, the RMS value is given by 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆
 The alternating current 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin θ is represented graphically in Figure.
 The sum of the squres of all currents over one cycle is given by the area of one cycle of squared
wave.
Area of one cycle of squared wave
 I 
RMS Base length of one cycle
 An elementary area of thickness 𝑑𝜃 is considered in the first half-cycle of the squared current wave
as shown in Figure.
 Let 𝑖 2 be the mid-ordinate of the element.
 Area of the element = 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 2
 Area of one cycle of squared wave = 0
𝑖 𝑑𝜃
2
  I 2m  sin 2  d
0
2
1  cos 2 
  I 2m    d
0  2
2
I 2m  sin 2 
    2 
2 0

I 2m
  x 2
2
  I 2m 
I 2m  I 2m
 I RMS  
2 2
 I RMS  0.707 I m
 For a symmetrical sinusoidal current RMS value of current is 70.7 % of its peak value.
 VRMS  0.707 Vm

8. Find out the phase relationship between voltage and current in a pure inductive circuit.
 Consider a circuit containing a pure inductor of inductance L connected across an alternating source.
 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑑𝑖
 𝜀 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡

 𝑣+𝜀 =0

𝑑𝑖
 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 59

 𝑉𝑚
 𝑑𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿

𝑉𝑚
 𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿

𝑉
 𝑚
𝑖 = 𝐿𝜔 − cos 𝜔𝑡 + constant

𝑉 𝜋
 𝑚
𝑖 = 𝐿𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 2

𝜋
 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 2

𝑉
 𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = 𝐿𝜔 is the peak value of the alternating current in the circuit.
𝜋
 In an inductive circuit, current lags behind the applied voltage by 2 .

Indcutive reactance:

 The resistance offered by an inductor to the alternating current in a circuit is called inductive
reactance.
 Its unit is ohm.
 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝐿
 𝑓 is the frequency of alternating current.
 For a steady current, 𝑓 = 0.
 𝑋𝐿 = 0
 Thus an ideal inductor offers no resistance to steady DC current.

9. Find out the phase relationship between voltage and current in a pure capacitive circuit.
 Consider a circuit containing a capacitor of capacitance C connected across an alternating source.
 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑞
 𝑣−𝐶 =0

 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑑𝑞
 𝑖= 𝑑𝑡

 𝑖 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑉 𝜋
 𝑚
𝑖 = 1/𝜔𝐶 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 2

𝜋
 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 2

𝑉
 𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = 1/𝜔𝐶 is the peak value in the circuit.

𝜋
 In a capacitive circuit, the current leads the applied voltage by 2
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 60
 Capacitve reactance:
 The resistance offered by a capacitor to alternating current in a circuit is called capacitive reactance.
 Its unit is ohm.
1 1
 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
 𝑓 is the frequency of alternating current.
 For direct current 𝑓 = 0.
 𝑋𝐶 = ∞
 A capacitive circuit offers infinite resistance to the steady current.

10. Derive an expression for phase angle between the applied voltage and current in a series RLC circuit.
 Consider a circuit containing a resistor of resistance R, a inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of
capacitance C connected across an alternating voltage source.
 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
 Voltage across R (VR) is in phase with i.
𝜋
 Voltage across L (𝑉𝐿 ) leads i by 2 .
𝜋
 Voltage across C (𝑉𝐶 ) lags i by 2 .
 The phasor diagram is drawn with current as the
reference phasor.
 The current is represented by the phasor OI.
 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑉𝐿 and 𝑉𝐶 are represented by OA, OB and OC
respectively.
 The circuit is either effectively inductive or capacitive or resistive that depends on the value of 𝑉𝐿
and 𝑉𝐶 .
 Let us assume that 𝑉𝐿 > 𝑉𝐶 so that net voltage drop across L-C combination is 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 .
 It represented by a phasor AD.
 𝑉𝑚2 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 2
 𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2
𝑉𝑚
 𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅 2 + 𝑋 𝐿 −𝑋 𝐶 2
𝑉𝑚
 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑍
 𝑍 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2
 𝑍 is the impedance of the circuit.
 Z is the effective opposition to the circuit current by the series RLC circuit.
𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶 𝑋 𝐿 −𝑋 𝐶
 tan 𝜙 = =
𝑉𝑅 𝑅
Special cases:
1. If 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 then 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 and 𝜙 are positive
o The circuit is inductive.
 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 ; 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙
2. If 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶 then 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 and 𝜙 are negative.
 The circuit is capacitive.
 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 ; 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
3. If 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 then 𝜙 is zero.
 The circuit is resistive.
 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 ; 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 61

11. Show that the total energy is conserved during LC oscillations.
 During LC oscillations in LC circuits, the energy of the system oscillates between the electric field
of the capacitor and magnetic field of the inductor.
 Although, these two forms of energy vary with time, the total energy remains constant.
𝑞2 1
 𝑈 = 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑈𝐵 = 2𝐶 + 2 𝐿𝑖 2
CASE 1: 𝑞 = 𝑄𝑚 and 𝑖 = 0
2
𝑄𝑚
 𝑈= = 𝑈𝐸
2𝐶

CASE 2: 𝑞 = 0 and 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚
1 2
𝑄𝑚
 2
𝑈 = 2 𝐿𝐼𝑚 = = 𝑈𝐵
2𝐶

CASE 3:
𝑞 = 𝑄𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖 = 𝑄𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

2 cos 2 𝜔𝑡
𝑄𝑚 𝐿𝜔 2 𝑄𝑚
2 sin 2 𝜔𝑡
 𝑈= +
2𝐶 2

1
 𝜔2 = 𝐿𝐶

2 cos 2 𝜔𝑡
𝑄𝑚 2 sin 2 𝜔𝑡
𝑄𝑚
 𝑈= +
2𝐶 2𝐶
2
𝑄𝑚
 𝑈= 2𝐶

 From the above three cases, it is clear that the total energy of the system remains constant.

12. Give the advantage of AC in long distance power transmission with an example.
 Electric power is produced in a large scale at electric power stations with the help of AC generators.
 These power stations are classified based on the type of fuel used as thermal, hydro electric and
nuclear power stations.
 Most of these stations are located at remote places.
 Hence the electric power generated is transmitted over long distances through transmission lines to
reach towns or cities where it is actually consumed.
 This process is called power transmission.
 But there is a difficulty during power transmission.
 A sizble fraction of electric power is lost due to Joule heating in the transmission lines which are
hundreds ok kilometer long.
 This power loss can be tackled either by reducing current i or by reducing resistance R of the
transmission lines.
 The resistance R can be reduced with thick wires of copper or aluminium.
 But this increases the cost of production of transmission lines and other related expenses.
 So this way of reducing power loss is not economically viable.
 Since power produced is alternating in nature, there is a way out.
 The most important property of alternating voltage that it can be stepped up and stepped down by
using transformers could be exploited in reducing current and thereby reducing power losses to a
greater extent.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 62
  At the transmitting point, the voltage is increased and the corresponding current is decreased by
using step – up transformer.
 Then it is transmitted through transmission lines.
 This reduced current at high voltage reaches the destination without any appreciable loss.
 At the receiving point, the voltage is decreased and the current is increased to appropriate values by
using to consumers.
 Thus power transmission is done efficiently and economically.

Example:
 𝑃 = 2 𝑀𝑊; 𝑅 = 40 Ω; 𝑉 = 100 𝑘𝑉
𝑃 2 x 10 6
 𝐼 = 𝑉 = 100 x 10 3 = 20 𝐴
 Power loss = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 0.016 x106 𝑊
 % of power loss = 0.8%
 Thus it is clear that when an electric power is transmitted at higher voltage, the power loss is
reduced to a large extent.

13. What are the applications of Focault currents?

Induction stove:
 Induction stove is used to cook the food quickly and safely with less energy consumption.
 Below the cooking zone, there is a tightly wound coil of insulated wire.
 The cooking pan made of suitable material, is placed over the cooking zone.
 When the stove is switched on, an alternating current flowing in the coil produces high frequency
alternating magnetic field which induces very strong eddy currents in the cooking pan.
 The eddy currents in the pan produce so much of heat due to Joule heating which is used to cook the
food.
Eddy current brake:
 This eddy current braking system is generally used in high speed trains and roller coasters.
 Strong electromagnets are fixed just above the rails.
 To stop the train, electromagnets are switched on.
 The magnetic field of these magnets induces eddy currents in the rails which oppose or resist the
movement of the train.
 This is Eddy current linear brake.
 In some cases, the circular disc, connected to the wheel of the train through a common shaft, is
made to rotate in between the poles of an electromagnet.
 When there is a relative motion between the disc and the magnet, eddy currents are induced in the
disc which stop the train.
 This is Eddy current circular brake.

Eddy current testing:

 It is one of the dimple non-destructive testing methods to find defects like surface cracks, air
bubbles present in a specimen.
 A coil of insulated wire is given an alternating electric current so that it produces an alternating
magnetic field.
 When this coil is brought near the test surface, eddy current is induces in the test surface.
 The presence of defects causes the change in phase and amplitude of the eddy current that can be
detected by some other means.
 In this way, the defects present in the specimen are indentified.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 63
 Electromagnetic damping:
 The armature of the galvanometer coil is wound on a soft iron cylinder.
 Once the armature is deflected, the relative motion between the soft iron cylinder and the radial
magnetic field induces eddy current in the cylinder.
 The damping force due to the flow of eddy current brings the armature to rest immediately and then
galvanometer shows a steady deflection.
 This is called electromagnetic damping.

14. Compare the electromagnetic oscillations of LC circuit with the mechanical oscillations of block spring
system to find the expression for angular frequency of LC oscillators mathematically.
 The electromagnetic oscillations of LC system can be compared with the mechanical oscillations of a
spring – mass system.
 There are two forms of energy involved in LC oscillations.
 One is electrical energy of the charged capacitor
 Another one is magnetic energy of the inductor carrying current.
 Likewise, the mechanical energy of the spring – mass system exists in two forms:
 The potential energy of the compressed or extended spring
 The another one is kinetic energy of the mass

Electrical system Mechanical system

Charge q Displacement x
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑥
Current 𝑖 = Velocity 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Inductance L Mass m
1 Force constant k
Reciprocal of capacitance 𝐶

1 1 1
Electrical energy 2 𝑞2 Potential energy 2 𝑘𝑥 2
𝐶
1 1
Magnetic energy = 2 𝐿 𝑖 2 Kinetic energy = 2 𝑚 𝑣 2

Electromagnetic energy 1 1
Mechanical energy 𝐸 = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 + 2 𝑚 𝑣 2
1 1 1
𝑈= 𝑞2 + 𝐿 𝑖 2
2 𝐶 2
Angular frequency of LC oscillations:
𝑑2𝑞 1
 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝐶 𝑞 = 0
 The general solution of the above equation is 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝑄𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙

𝑑2𝑞
 = −𝑄𝑚 𝜔2 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
𝑑𝑡 2

1
 𝐿 −𝑄𝑚 𝜔2 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + 𝐶 𝑄𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 = 0

1
 𝐿𝑄𝑚 𝜔2 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 = 𝐶 𝑄𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 = 0
1
 𝜔2 = 𝐿𝐶
1
 𝜔 = 𝐿𝐶

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 64

 5.ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

2 mark questions

1. What is displacement current?

Displacement current can be defined as the current which comes into play in the region in which
the electric field and the electric flux are changing with time.

2. What are electromagnetic waves?

An electromagnetic wave is radiated by an accelerated charge which propagates through space as
coupled electric and magnetic fields, oscillating perpendicular to each other adn to the direction of
propagation of the wave.

3. Write down the integral form of modified Ampere’s circuital law.

𝐵 . 𝑑A = 𝜇0 𝐼 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑
𝑆

4. What is electromagnetic spectrum?

Electromagnetic spectrum is an orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves in terms of
wavelength or frequency.

5. What are Fraunhofer lines?

When the spectrum obtained from the Sun is examined, it consists of large number of dark lines.
These dark lines in the solar spectrum are known as Fraunhofer lines.

6. Why are electromagnetic waves non – mechanical?

Since they do not require any material medium for propagation, they are non – mechanical
waves.

7. Write notes on Gauss’s law in magnetism.

Qenclosed
 E .d A   0

 The surface integral of magnetic field over a closed surface is zero.

8. Write a note on Ampere – Maxwell’s law.

𝑑
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑐 + 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑠

3 MARK QUESTIONS
1. Write down the Maxwell equations in integral form.
Q
  E .d A  enclosed - Gauss’s law
0
  B.dA  0 - Gauss’s law in magnetism
S
𝑑𝜙 𝐵
 𝑙
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 = − – Faraday’s law
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑐 + 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 65

 2. Write short note on radio waves.
 It is produced by oscillators in electric circuits.
 Frequency range:𝐻𝑧 − 109 𝐻𝑧
 It obeys reflection and diffraction.
 It is used in radio and television communication systems.
 It is used in cellular phones to transmit voice communication in the ultra high frequency band.

3. Write short note on microwaves.

 It is produced by electromagnetic oscillators in electric circuits.
 Frequency range:109 𝐻𝑧 − 1011 𝐻𝑧
 It obeys reflection and polarisation.
 It is used in radar system for aircraft navigation and speed of the vehicle.
 It is used in microwave oven for cooking.
 It is used in very long distance wireless communication through satellites.

4. Write short note on infrared radiation.

 It is produced from hot bodies.
 It is also known as heat waves.
 It is also produced when the molecules undergo rotational and vibrational transitions.
 Frequency range:1011 𝐻𝑧 − 4 x 1014 𝐻𝑧
 It provides electrical energy to satellites by means of solar cells.
 It is used to produce dehydrated fruits in green houses to keep the plants warm.
 It is used in heat therapy for muscular pain or sprain.
 It is used in TV remote as a signal carrier.
 It is used to look through haze fog or mist.
 It is used in night vision or infrared photography.

5. Write the properties of electromagnetic waves.

 They are produced by accelerated charges.
 They do not require any material medium for propagation.
 They are transverse in nature.
 They travel with speed of light in vacuum.
 v<c
 They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
 They produce interference, diffraction and polarisation.
 They possess energy, linear momentum and angular momentum.

6. Write a short note on visible light.

 It is produced by incandescent bodies .
 Also it is radiated by excited atoms in gases.
 Frequency range: 4 x 1014 𝐻𝑧 − 8 x 1014 𝐻𝑧
 It obeys the laws of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, polarization, photo-electric
effect and photographic action.
 It can be used to study the structure of molecules, arrangement of electrons in external shells of
atoms and sensation of our eyes.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 66

 7. Write a short note on ultraviolet radiation.
 It is produced by Sun, arc and ionized gases.
 Frequency range:8 x 1014 𝐻𝑧 − 1017 𝐻𝑧
 It has less penetrating power.
 It can be absorbed by atmospheric ozone and harmful to human body.
 It is used to destroy bacteria.
 It is used to sterilizing the surgical instruments.
 It is used in burglar alarm.
 It is used to detect the invisible writing, finger prints.
 It is used in the study of molecular structure.

8. Write a short note on X – rays.

 It is produced when there is a sudden deceleration of high speed electrons at high atomic number
target.
 It is also produced by electronic transitions among the innermost orbits of atoms.
 Frequency range: 1017 𝐻𝑧 − 1019 𝐻𝑧
 X – rays have more penetrating power then ultraviolet radiation.
 X – rays are used extensively in studying structures of inner atomic electron shells and crystal
structures.
 It is used in detecting fractures, diseased organs, formation of bones and stones.
 It is used in observing the progress of healing bones.
 In a metal product, it is used to detect faults, cracks, flaws and holes.

9. Write a short note on gamma rays.

 It is produced by transitions of atomic nuclei and decay of certain elementary particles.
 Frequency range: greater than 1018 𝐻𝑧
 They produce chemical reactions on photographic plates, fluorescence, ionisation, diffraction.
 Gamma rays have high penetrating power than X – rays and ultraviolet radiations.
 It has no charge but harmful to human body.
 Gamma rays provide information about the structure of atomic nuclei.
 It is used in radio therapy for the treatment of cancer and tumour.
 It is used in food industry to kill pathogenic microorganism.

5 MARK QUESTIONS:
1. Discuss Hertz experiment.
 Maxwell’s prediction was experimentally confirmed by
Henrich Rudolf Hertz in 1888.
 The experimental set up consists of two metal electrodes which
are made o small spherical metals.
 These are connected to larger spheres and the ends of them are
connected to induction coil with very large number of turns.
 This is to produce very high electromotive force.
 Since the coil is maintained at very high potential, air between
the electrodes gets ionized and spark is produced.
 The gap between electrodes kept at a distance also gets spark.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 67

  This implies that the energy is transmitted form electrode to the receiver as a wave, known as
electromagnetic waves.
 If the receiver is rotated by 900, then no spark is observed by the receiver.
 This confirms that electromagnetic waves are transverse waves as predicted by Maxwell.
 Hertz detected radio waves which is equal to the speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)

2. Explain Maxwell’s modification in Ampere’s circuital law.

 To calculate the magnetic field at a point P near the wire as shown in Figure, let us draw an
amperian loop which encloses the surface S1.
 Therefore, using Ampere’s circuital law
 𝑠1
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝐶 ------------------ (1)
 Here 𝑖𝐶 is the conduction current.

 Suppose the same loop is enclosed by balloon

shaped surface S2 as shown in Figure.
 This means that the boundaries of two surfaces S1
and S2 are same but shape of the enclosing
surfaces are different..
 As the Ampere’s law applied for given closed loop does not depend on shape of the enclosing
surface, the integrals will give the same answer.
 But applying Ampere’s circuital law, we get
 
enclosin g S2
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0 ------------------ (2)

 The right hand side of equation is zero because

the surface S2 no where touches the wire carrying
conduction current and further, there is no current
in between the plates of the capacitor.
 So the magnetic field at a point P is zero.
 Hence there is an inconsistency between equation
(1) and (2) .
 J.C. Maxwell resolved this inconsistency as follows:
 Due to external source, the capacitor gets charged up because of current flowing through the
capacitor.
 This produces an increasing electric field between the capacitor plates.
 So, there must be a current associated with the
changing electric field in between the capacitor
plates.
 In other words, the time varying electric flux existing
between the plates of the capacitor also produces a
current known as displacement current.

 From Gauss’s law,

𝑞
 𝜙𝐸 = 𝑠
𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀
0

𝑑𝜙 𝐸 1 𝑑𝑞
 =𝜀
𝑑𝑡 0 𝑑𝑡

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 68

 𝑑𝜙 𝐸
 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝑑𝑡

 𝑖𝑑 is the displacement current.

 This displacement current can be defined as the current which comes into play in the region in
which the electric field and the electric flux are changing with time.
 Maxwell modified Ampere’s law as
 𝑙
𝐵 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜇0 𝑖 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝐶 + 𝑖𝑑
𝑑𝜙 𝐸
 𝑙
𝐵 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝐶 + 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑑𝑡
 Where i = 𝑖𝐶 + 𝑖𝑑 which means the total current enclosed by the surface is sum of conduction current
and displacement current.
 When a constant current is applied, 𝑖𝑑 = 0
 Hence 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑖
 Between the plates, 𝑖𝐶 = 0
 Hence 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖.
 Between the plates, the conduction current is zero
while the displacement current is non-zero.
 This displacement current or time – varying electric
field can also produce a magnetic field between the
plates of the capacitor.
 The magnetic field at a point inside the capacitor is perpendicular to the electric field.

3. Discuss the sources of electromagnetic spectrum.

 Any stationary source charge produces only electric field.
 When the charge moves with uniform velocity, it produces steady current which gives rise to
magnetic field around the conductor in which charge flows.
 If the charged particle accelerates, in addition to electric field it also produces magnetic field.
 Both electric and magnetic fields are time varying fields.
 Since the electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, the direction of propagation of
electromagnetic waves is perpendicular to the plane containing electric and magnetic field vectors.
 Any oscillatory motion is also an accelerating motion, so, when teh charge oscillates about their
mean position as shown in Figure, it produces electromagnetic waves.
 Suppose the electromagnetic field in free space propagates along z direction, and if the electric field
vector points along y axis then the magnetic field vector will be mutually perpendicular to both
electric field and the propagation vector direction, which means
 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0 sin 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡
 𝐵𝑥 = 𝐵0 sin 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡
 𝐸0 is the amplitude of electric field.
 𝐵0 is the amplitude of magnetic field
 𝑘 is a wave number
 𝜔 is the angular frequency of the wave.
 Note that both electric field and magnetic
field oscillate with a frequency which is
equal to the frequency of the source.
 In free space or in vacuum, the ratio between 𝐸0 and 𝐵0 is equal to the speed of electromagnetic
wave, which is equal to speed of light c.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 69

 𝐸
 𝑐 = 𝐵0
0

 In any medium, the ratio of 𝐸0 and 𝐵0 is equal to the speed of electromagnetic wave in that medium.
𝐸
 Mathematically, 𝑣 = 𝐵0 < 𝑐
0

 Further, the energy of electromagnetic waves comes from the energy of the oscillating charge.
4. Explain the importance of Maxwell’s correction.
 Earth receives radiations from Sun and other stars.
 These radiations travel through empty space where there are no electric charges and hence no electric
current.
 Ampere’s law says that only electric current can produce a magnetic field.
 If Ampere’s law alone is true, there will not be any radiation.
𝑑𝜙 𝐸
 Maxwell’s correction term (𝜇0 𝜀0 ) in Ampere’s law ensures that time – varying electric field or
𝑑𝑡
displacement current can also produce a magnetic field.
 Through conduction current is zero in an empty space, displacement current does exist.
𝑑𝜙 𝐸
 So equation becomes 𝑙
𝐵 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑑𝑡
 In stars, due to thermal excitation of atoms, time – varying electric field is produced which in turn,
produces time – varying magnetic field.
 According to Faraday’s law, this time – varying magnetic field produces again time – varying electric
and magnetic fields travel through empty space with the speed of light and is called electromagnetic
wave.
 Even though Maxwell initially started with purely symmetry argument, his correction term explains
one of the important aspects of the universe, namely existence of electromagnetic waves.
5. What is emission spectra? Explain their types.
Emission spectra:
 When the spectrum of self luminous source is taken, we get emission spectrum.
 Each source has its own characteristic emission spectrum.
Continuous emission spectra:
 If the light from incandescent lamp is allowed to pass through prism, it splits into seven colours.
 Thus, it consists of wavelengths containing all the visible colours ranging from violet to red.
 Examples: spectrum obtained from carbon arc, incandescent solids, liquids gives continuous spectra.
Line emission spectrum:
 Suppose light from hot gas is allowed to pass through prism, line spectrum is observed.
 Line spectra are also known as discontinuous spectra.
 The line spectra are sharp lines of definite wavelengths or frequencies.
 Such spectra arise due to excited atoms of elements.
 These lines are the characteristics of the element which means it is different for different elements.
 These lines are the characteristics of the element which means it is different for different elements.
 Examples: spectra of atomic hydrogen, helium, etc.
Band emission spectrum:
 It consists of several number of very closely spaced spectral lines which overlapped together
forming specific bands which are separated by dark spaces, known as band spectra.
 This spectrum has a sharp edge at one end and fades out at the other end.
 Such spectra arise when the molecules are excited.
 Band spectrum is the characteristic of the molecule hence, the structure of the molecules can be
studied using their band spectra.
 Examples: spectra of hydrogen gas, ammonia gas in the discharge tube, etc.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 70
6. What are absorption spectra? Explain their types.
Absorption spectra:
 When light is allowed to pass through a medium or an absorbing substance then the spectrum
obtained is known as absorption spectrum.
 It is the characteristic of absorbing substance.
Continuous absorption spectrum:
 When the light is passed through a medium, it is dispersed by the prism, we get continuous
absorption spectrum.
 For instance, when we pass white light through a blue glass plate, it absorbs everything except blue.

Line absorption spectrum:

 When light from the incandescent lamp is passed through cold gas, the spectrum obtained through
the dispersion due to prism is line absorption spectrum.
 Similarly, if the light from the carbon arc is made to pass through sodium vapour, a continuous
spectrum of carbon arc with tow dark lines in the yellow region of sodium vapour is obtained.
Band absorption spectrum:
 When the white light is passed through the iodine vapour, dark bands on continuous bright
background is obtained.
 This type of band is also obtained when white light is passed through diluted solution of blood or
chlorophyll or through certain solutions of organic and inorganic compounds.

6. RAY OPTICS

2 MARK QUESTIONS

1. What is angle of deviation due to reflection?

The angle between the incident and deviated light ray is called angle of deviation of the light ray.

2. State laws of refraction.

(a) The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to the reflecting surface all are coplanar.
sin 𝑖 𝑛
(b) = 𝑛2
sin 𝑟 1

3. What is angle of deviation due to refraction of light?

 The angle between the incident and deviated light is called angle of deviation.

4. State the principle of reversibility.

The principle of reversibility state that light will follow exactly the same path if its direction of travel
is reversed.

5. What is Snell’s window?

 When light entering the water from outside is seen from inside the water, the view is restricted to a
particular angle equal to the critical angle ic.
 This restricted illuminated circular area is called Snell’s window.

6. What is power of a lens? Give its unit.

 The power of a lens is a measure of the degree of convergence or divergence of light falling on it.
1
 𝑃=𝑓
 Its unit is dioptre D
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 71
7. What is angle of minimum deviation?
The minimum value of angle of deviation is called angle of minimum deviation D.

8. What is dispersion?
Dispersion is splitting of white light into its constituent colours. This band of colours of light is called
its spectrum.

9. What is Rayleigh’s scattering?

If the scattering of light is by atoms and molecules which have size a very less than that of the
wavelength 𝜆 of light 𝑎 ≪ 𝜆, the scattering is called Rayleigh’s scattering.

10. Why does sky appear blue?

 According to Rayleigh’s scattering law, violet colour which has the shortest wavelength gets much
scattered during day time.
 As our eyes are more sensitive to blue colour than violet colour the sky appears blue during day
time.

11. Why does sky appear reddish in colour during sunrise and sun set?
 During sunrise and sunset, the light from sun travels a greater distance through the atmosphere.
 Hence, the blue light which has shorter wavelength is scattered away and the red light which has
longer wavelength and less-scattered manages to reach our eye.
 This is the reason for the reddish appearance of sky during sunrise and sunset.

12. What is reflection?

The bouncing back of light in the same medium when it encounters a reflecting surface is called
reflection of light.

13. State laws of reflection.

(a) The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the reflecting surface all are coplanar.
(b) The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of reflection r. ( i = r )

14. What is centre of curvature?

The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called the centre of curvature ( C ) of the
mirror.

15. What is radius of curvature?

The radius of the sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part is called the radius of curvature ( R) of
the mirror.
16. What is pole?
The geometrical center of the mirror is called pole (P) of the mirror.

17. What is principal axis?

The line joining the pole and the centre of curvature is called the principal axis of the mirror.

18. What is focal point?

Light rays travelling parallel and close to the principal axis when incident on of spherical mirror
converge at a point for concave mirror or appear to diverge from a point for convex mirror on the
principal axis. This point is called the focus or focal point ( F ) of the mirror.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 72

19. What is focal length?
The distance between the pole and the focus is called the focal length (f) of the mirror.

20. What is focal plane?

The plane through the focus and perpendicular to the principal axis is called the focal plane of the
mirror.

21. What are paraxial rays?

The rays travelling very close to the principal axis and make small angles with it are called paraxial
rays.

22. What are marginal rays?

The rays travelling far away from the principal axis and fall on the mirror far away from the pole are
called as marginal rays.

23. Define magnification in spherical mirrors.

The lateral (or) transverse magnification m is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the
height of the object

24. Define refractive index.

Refractive index of a transparent medium is defined as the ratio of speed o flight in vacuum to the
speed of light in that medium. n = c / v

25. What is refraction?

Refraction is passing of light from one optical medium to another optical medium through a boundary

26. What is simultaneous reflection and simultaneous refraction?

The phenomenon in which a part of light from a source undergoing reflection and the other part of
light from the same source undergoing refraction at the same surface is called simultaneous reflection
(or) simultaneous refraction.

27. What are the conditions to take place total internal reflection?
 Light must travel from denser to rarer medium
 Angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than critical angle. ( 𝑖 > 𝑖𝑐 )

28. On what factors does the lateral displacement depend on?

 The lateral displacement depends upon
 (i) the thickness of the slab,
 (ii) the angle of incidence and
 (iii) the refractive index of the slab which decides the angle of refraction.

29. Define dispersive power.

It is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion for the extreme colours to the deviation for any
mean colour.

30. What is scattering of light?

When sunlight enters the atmosphere of earth, the particles present in the atmosphere change the
direction of the light. This process is known as scattering of light.

31. What is angle of deviation due to refraction of light?

 The angle between the incident and deviated light is called angle of deviation.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 73
  When light travels from rarer to denser medium it deviates towards normal, d = i – r
 When light travels from denser to rarer medium it deviates away from normal, d = r – i

32. What is relative refractive index?

𝑛
In the equation for Snell’s law, the term 𝑛 2 is called relative refractive index of the second medium
1
with respect to the first medium which is denoted as n21

33. Why does sky appear blue?

 According to Rayleigh’s scattering law, violet colour which has the shortest wavelength gets much
scattered during day time.
 As our eyes are more sensitive to blue colour than violet colour the sky appears blue during day
time.

34. Why do rain clouds appear dark?

The rain clouds appear dark because of the condensation of water droplets on dust particles that makes
the cloud become opaque.

35. Why does sky appears dark for astronauts?

 If earth has no atmosphere there would not have been any scattering and the sky would appear dark.
 That is why sky appears dark for the astronauts who could see the sky from above the atmosphere.

3 MARK QUESTIONS:
1. Derive the relation between f and R for a spherical mirror.

 Let C be the centre of curvature of the mirror.

 Consider a light ray parallel to the principal axis is incident on the mirror at M and passes through
the principal focus F after reflection.
 The line CM is the normal to the mirror at M.
 Let i be the angle of incidence and the same will be the angle of reflection.
 ∠𝑀𝐶𝑃 = 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 = 2𝑖
𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝑀
 tan 𝑖 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 2𝑖 =
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐹
 As the angles are small tan 𝑖 ≈ 𝑖
𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝑀
 𝑖= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑖 =
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐹
 2PF = PC
 PF = f and PC = R
 2f = R or f = R/2

2. What are the Cartesian sign conventions for a spherical mirror?

 The incident light is taken from left to right.
 All the distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 74

  The distances measured to the right of pole along the principal axis are taken as positive.
 The distances measured to the left of pole along the principal axis are taken as negative.
 Heights measured in the upward perpendicular direction to the principal axis are taken as positive.
 Heights measured in the downward perpendicular direction to the principal axis, are taken as
negative.

3. What is optical path? Obtain the equation for optical path of a medium of thickness d and refractive
index n.
 Optical path of a medium is defined as the distance d’ light travels in vacuum in the same time it
travels a distance d in the medium.
 Let us consider a medium of refractive index n and thickness d.
 Light travels with a speed v through the medium in a time t.
𝑑 𝑑
 𝑣 = 𝑡 ; 𝑟𝑒𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑣
 In the same time, light can cover a greater distance d’ in vacuum as it travels with greater speed c in
vacuum.
𝑑′ 𝑑′
 𝑐= ; 𝑟𝑒𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑡 =
𝑡 𝑐
𝑑′ 𝑑
 =
𝑐 𝑣
′ 𝑐
 𝑑 = 𝑣𝑑
𝑐
 As 𝑣 = 𝑛
 𝑑 ′ = 𝑛𝑑
 As n is always greater than 1, the optical path d’ of the medium is always greater than d.

4. Why do stars twinkle?

 The stars actually do not twinkle.
 They appear twinkling because of the movement of the atmospheric layers with varying refractive
indices which is clearly seen in the night sky.
5. What is critical angle and total internal reflection?
Critical angle:
The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the refracted ray graces the boundary is called
critical angel ic
Total internal reflection:
 If the angle of incidence in the denser medium is increased beyond the critical angle, there is no
refraction possible in to the rarer medium.
 The entire light is reflected back into the denser medium itself.
 This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
6. Obtain the equation for critical angle.
 𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛2 sin 90°
 𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛2
𝑛
 sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛 2
1
 𝑛1 > 𝑛2
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 75
  For air, refractive index is 1.
 𝑛2 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛1 = 𝑛
1
 sin 𝑖𝑐 =
𝑛
−1 1
 𝑖𝑐 = sin 𝑛

7. Explain the reason for glittering of diamond.

 Diamond appears dazzling because the total internal reflection of light happens inside the diamond.
 The refractive index of only diamond is about 2.417.
 It is much larger than that for ordinary glass which is about only 1.5.
 The critical angle of diamond is about 2.40.
 It is much less than that of glass.
 A skilled diamond cutter makes use o f this larger range of angle of incidence ( 24.40 to 900 inside
the diamond). to ensure that light entering the diamond is total internally reflected from the many
cut faces before getting out.
 This gives a sparkling effect for diamond.

8. What is mirage and looming?

Mirage:
 The refractive index of air increases with its density.
 In hot places, air near the ground is hotter than air at a height.
 Hot air is less dense.
 Hence, in still air the refractive index of air increases with height.
 Because of this, light from tall objects like a tree, passes through a medium whose refractive index
decreases towards the ground.
 Hence, a ray light successively deviates away from the normal at different layers of air and
undergoes total internal reflection when the angle of incidence near the ground exceeds the critical
angle.
 This give an illusion as if the light comes from somewhere below the ground.
 For of the shaky nature of the layers of air, the observer feels as if the object is getting reflected by a
pool of water or wet surface beneath the object.
 This phenomenon is called mirage.
Looming:
 In the cold places the refractive index increases towards the ground because the termperature of aire
close to the ground is lesser than the temperature above the surface of earth.
 Thus, the density and refractive index of air near the ground is greater than at a height.
 In the cold regions like glaciers and frozen lakes and seas, the reverse effect of mirage will happen.
 Hence, an inverted image is formed little above the surface.
 This phenomenon is called looming.

9. Write a short notes on the prisms making use of of total internal reflection.
 Prisms can be designed to reflect light by 900 or by 1800 by making use of total internal reflection.
 In the first two cases, the critical angle for the material of the prism must be less than 450.
 The critical angle for crown glass and flint glass is less than 450.
 Prisms are also used to invert images without changing their size.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 76

10. Explain the working of endoscope.
 An endoscope is an instrument used by doctors which has a bundle of optical fibres that are used to
see inside a patient’s body.
 Endoscopes work on the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
 The optical fibres are inseted in to the body through mouth, nose or a special hole made in the body.
 Even operations could be carried out with the endoscope cable which has the necessary instruments
attached at their ends.

11. What are primary focus and secondary focus?

Primary focus:
The primary focus F1 is defined as a point where an object should be placed to give parallel emergent
rays to the principal axis.
Secondary focus:
The secondary focus F2 is defined as a point where all the parallel rays travelling close to the
principal axis.

12. What are the sign conventions followed for lenses?

 The sign of focal length is not decided on the direction of measurement of the focal length from the
pole of the lens.
 They have two focal lengths, one to the left and another to the right.
 The focal length of the thin lens is taken as positive for a converging lens and negative for a
diverging lens.

13. Obtain lens formula from lens makers formula.

1 1 𝑛2 1 1
 −𝑢 = −1 − ------------------- (1)
𝑣 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 𝑛2 1 1
 𝑢 = ∞, 𝑣 = 𝑓, = −1 − 𝑅 -------------------- (2) (lens makers formula)
𝑓 𝑛1 𝑅1 2
1 1 1
 From (1)>(2)> − 𝑢 = 𝑓 (lens formula)
𝑣

Obtain the equation for lateral magnification of a thin lens.

 The lateral or transverse magnification m is defined as
the ratio of the height of the image to that of the object.
𝐼𝐼 ′
 𝑚 = 𝑂𝑂 ′
𝐼𝐼 ′
 𝑚 = 𝑂𝑂 ′
𝐼𝐼 ′ 𝑃𝐼
 = 𝑃𝑂
𝑂𝑂 ′

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 77

 𝑕 𝑣
 𝑚 = 𝑕2 = 𝑢
1
 m is negative for real image an d positive for virtual image.
 In the case of concave lens, m is always positive and less than one.
𝑕 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
 From lens equation, 𝑚 = 𝑕 2 = 𝑓+𝑢 =
1 𝑓
15. How does rainbow formed?
 Rainbow appears in sky during mild shower (or) near the fountains/falls where there are water
droplets remain suspended in air.
 A rainbow is seen when the sun is at the back of the observer.
 Dispersion occurs when sunlight enters a water droplet and the white light is split into its constituent
seven colours.
 A primary rainbow is formed when the light entering a droplet undergoes one total internal
reflection inside it.
 Sometimes, a secondary rainbow is also formed enveloping the primary rainbow as shown in the
figure.
 The secondary rainbow is formed when light entering a raindrop undergoes two total internal
reflections.
 The order of colour in primary rainbow is from violet to red whereas in secondary rainbow it is from
red to violet.
 The angle of view in primary rainbow from violet to red is from 40o to 42o.
 The angle of view for secondary rainbow from red to violet is from 52o to 54o.

16. Why do clouds appear white?

 If light is scattered by large particles like dust and water droplets present in the atmosphere which
have size a greater than the wavelength 𝜆 of light 𝑎 ≫ 𝜆, the intensity of scattering is equal for all
the wavelengths.
 It is happening in clouds which contains large amount of dust and water droplets.
 Thus, in clouds all the colours get equally scattered irrespective of wavelength.
 This is the reason for the whitish appearance of cloud.

5 MARK QUESTIONS
1. Derive the mirror equation and the equation for lateral magnification.
 The mirror equation establishes a relation among object distance u, image distance v and focal
length f for a spherical mirror.
 An object AB is considered on the principal axis of a concave mirror beyond the centre of the
curvature C.
 Let us consider three paraxial rays from point B on the object.
 The first ray BD travelling parallel to principal axis is incident on the concave mirror at D, close to
the pole P.
 After reflection the ray passes through the focus F.
 The second BP incident at the pole P is reflected along PB’.
 The third ray BC passing through centre of curvature C, falls normally on the mirror at E is reflected
back along the same path.
 The three rays intersect at the point B’.
 A perpendicular drawn as A’B’ to the principal axis is the real, inverted image of the object AB.
 ∠𝐵𝑃𝐴 = ∠𝐵 ′ 𝑃𝐴′

𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝑃𝐴′
 =
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 78

 𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝐴′ 𝐹
 =
𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐹

 PD = AB
𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝐴′ 𝐹
 =
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐹

𝑃𝐴′ 𝐴′ 𝐹
 =
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹

 𝐴′ 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴′ − 𝑃𝐹
𝑃𝐴′ 𝑃𝐴′ −𝑃𝐹
 =
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹

 PA = - u, 𝑃𝐴′ = -v , PF = - f

−𝑣 −𝑣−(−𝑓)
 =
−𝑢 𝑓

1 1 1
 +𝑢 =𝑓
𝑣
 The above equation is called mirror equation.

2. Obtain the equation for apparent depth.

 It is a common observation that the bottom of a tank filled with water appears raised.
 An equation could be derived for the apparent depth for viewing in the near normal direction.
 Light from the object O at the bottom of the tank passes from denser medium to rarer medium to
reach our eyes.
 It deviates away from the normal in the rarer medium at the point of incidence B.
 The refractive index of the denser medium is n1 and rarer medium is n2.
 Here n1 > n2
 The angle of incidence in the denser medium is i and the angle of refraction in the rarer medium is r.
 The lines NN’ and OD are parallel.
 The angles i and r are very small as the diverging light from O entering the eye is very narrow.
 The Snell’s law in product form for this refraction is
 𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟
 As the angles i and r are small, sin 𝑖 ≈ tan 𝑖
 𝑛1 tan 𝑖 = 𝑛2 tan 𝑟
 In triangles DOB and DIB
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵
 tan 𝑖 = 𝐷𝑂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝑟 = 𝐷𝐼
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵
 𝑛1 𝐷𝑂 = 𝑛2 𝐷𝐼
𝑛1 𝑛2
 =
𝑑 𝑑′
𝑑′ 𝑛2
 =𝑛
𝑑 1
′ 𝑛2
 𝑑 =𝑛 𝑑
1
 𝑛2 = 1, 𝑛1 = 𝑛
𝑑
 𝑑′ = 𝑛
 The bottom appears to be elevated by 𝑑 − 𝑑 ′
1
 𝑑 − 𝑑′ = 𝑑 1 − 𝑛
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 79
3. Describe the Fizeau’s method to determine speed of light.
Apparatus:
 The light from the source S was first allowed to fall on a partially silvered glass plate G kept at an
angle of 450 to the incident light from the source.
 The light then was allowed to pass through a rotating toothed – wheel with N teeth and N cuts of
equal widths whose speed of rotation could be varied through an external mechanism.
 The light passing through one cut in the wheel will get reflected by a mirror M kept at a long
distance d, about 8 km from the toothed wheel.
 If the toothed wheel was not rotating, the reflected light from the mirror would again pass through
the same cut and reach the eyes of the observer through the partially silver glass plate.

Working:

 The angular speed of rotation of the toothed wheel was increased from zero to a value 𝜔until light
passing through one cut would completely be blocked the adjacent tooth.
 This is ensured the disappearance of light while looking through the partially silvered glass plate.
 Expression for speed of light:
 The speed of light in air v is equal to the ratio of the distance the light travelled from the toothed
wheel to the mirror and back 2d to the time taken t.
2𝑑
 𝑣= 𝑡
 The distance d is a known value from the arrangement.
 The time taken t for the light to travel the distance to and fro is calculated from the angular speed 𝜔
of the toothed wheel.
 The angular speed 𝜔 of the toothed wheel when the light disappeared for the first time is
𝜃
 𝜔= 𝑡
 𝜃 is the angle between the tooth and the slot which is rotated by the toothed wheel within that time t.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
 𝜃= 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑕+𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑠
𝜋
 𝜃=𝑁
𝜋
 𝜔 = 𝑁𝑡
𝜋
 𝑡 = 𝑁𝜔
2𝑑𝑁𝜔
 𝑣= 𝜋

 v = 2.99792 x 108 ms -1

4. Obtain the equation for radius of illumination (or ) Snell’s window.

 When a light source like electric bulb is kept inside a water tank, the light from the source travels in
all direction inside the water.
 The light that is incident on the water surface at an angle less than the critical angle will undergo
refraction and emerge out from the water.
 The light incident at an angle greater than critical angle will undergo total internal reflection.
 The light falling particularly at critical angle graces the surface.
 Thus, the entire surface of water appears illuminated when seen from outside.
 On the other hand, when light entering the water from outside is seen from inside water, the view is
restricted to a particular angle equal to the critical angle ic.
 The restricted illuminated circular area is called Snell’s window.
 The angle of view for water animals is restricted to twice the critical angle 2ic.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 80

  The critical angle for water is 48.60.
 Thus the angle of view is 97.20
 The radius R of the circular area depend on the depth d from which it is seen and also the refractive
indices of the media.
 The radius of Snell’s window can be deduced with illustration as shown in Figure.
 Light is seen from a point A at a depth d.
 𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛2 sin 90°
 𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛2
𝑛
 sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛 2
1
 From right angle triangle ABC,
𝑅
 sin 𝑖𝑐 =
𝑑 2 +𝑅 2
𝑅 𝑛2
 =
𝑑 2 +𝑅 2 𝑛1
𝑅2 𝑛2 2
 Squaring on both sides, 𝑑 2 +𝑅 2 = 𝑛1
𝑅 2 +𝑑 2 𝑛1 2
 Taking reciprocal, =
𝑅2 𝑛2
𝑑2 𝑛12− 𝑛22
 =
𝑅2 𝑛22
 Taking reciprocal and rearranging,
𝑛22
 𝑅=𝑑 𝑛12− 𝑛22
 If the rarer medium outside is air, n2 = 1,
 n1 = n
𝑑
 𝑅=
𝑛 2 −1

5. Derive the equation for acceptance angle and numerical aperture of optical fiber.
 To ensure the critical angle incidence in the core – cladding boundary inside the optical fibre, the
light should be incident at a certain angel at the end of the optical fiber while entering in to it.
 This angle is called acceptance angle.
 It depends on the refractive indices of the core n1, cladding n2 and the outer medium n3.
 Assume the light is incident at an angle called acceptance angle ia at the outer medium and core
boundary at A.
 For point A, 𝑛3 sin 𝑖𝑎 = 𝑛1 sin 𝑟𝑎
 To have the total internal reflection inside optical fibre, the angle of incidence at the core – cladding
interface at B should be at least critical angle 𝑖𝑐 .
 For point B, 𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛2 sin 90°
 𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛2
𝑛
 sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛 2
1
 𝑖𝑐 = 90° − 𝑟𝑎
𝑛
 sin 90° − 𝑟𝑎 = 𝑛 2
1
𝑛2
 cos 𝑟𝑎 = 𝑛
1

 sin 𝑟𝑎 = 1 − cos2 𝑟𝑎
𝑛12− 𝑛22
 sin 𝑟𝑎 = 𝑛12

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 81

 𝑛12− 𝑛22
 𝑛3 sin 𝑖𝑎 = 𝑛1 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
𝑛12

𝑛12− 𝑛22
 sin 𝑖𝑎 = 𝑛32

𝑛12− 𝑛22
 𝑖𝑎 = sin−1 𝑛32

 If outer medium is air, then n3 = 1.

 𝑖𝑎 = sin−1 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
 Light can have any angle of incidence from 0 to with
the normal at the end of the optical fibre forming a
conical shape called acceptance cone as shown in Figure.
 The term 𝑛3 sin 𝑖𝑎 is called numerical aperture NA of the optical fibre.
 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛3 sin 𝑖𝑎 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
 If outer medium is air, then n3 =1
 𝑁𝐴 = sin 𝑖𝑎 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2

6. Obtain the equation for lateral displacement of light passing through a glass slab.
 When a ray of light passes through a glass slab it refracts at two refracting surfaces.
 When the light ray enters the slab it travels from rarer medium (air) to denser medium ( glass).
 This results in deviation of ray towards the normal.
 When the light ray leaves the slab it travels from denser medium to rarer medium resulting in
deviation of ray away from the normal.
 After the two refractions, the emerging ray has the same direction as that of the incident ray on the
slab with a lateral displacement or shift L.
 There is no change in path of the incident ray and refracted ray are different and parallel to each
other.
 To calculate the lateral displacement , a perpendicular
is drawn in between the paths of incident ray and
refracted ray.
 Consider a glass slab of thickness t and refractive
index n is kept in air medium.
 The path of the light is ABCD and the refractions
occur at two points B and C in the glass slab.
 The angles of incidence i and refraction r are
measured with respect to the normal N1 and N2 at the
two points B and C respectively.
 The lateral displacement L is the perpendicular
distance CE drawn between the path of light and the
undeviated path of light at point C.
 In the right angle triangle BCE,
𝐿
 sin 𝑖 − 𝑟 = 𝐵𝐶
𝐿
 𝐵𝐶 = sin 𝑖−𝑟
 In right angle triangle BCF,
𝑡
 cos 𝑟 = 𝐵𝐶
𝑡
 𝐵𝐶 = cos 𝑟

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 82

 𝐿 𝑡
 = cos 𝑟
sin 𝑖−𝑟
sin 𝑖−𝑟
 𝐿=𝑡 cos 𝑟
 Lateral displacement depends upon the thickness of the slab.
 Thicker the slab, greater will be the lateral displacement.
 Greater the angle of incident, larger will be the lateral displacement.

7. Derive the equation for refraction at single spherical surface.

 Let us consider two transparent media having refractive indices n1 and n2 are separated by a
spherical surfaces.
 Let C be the centre of curvature of the spherical surface.
 Let a point object O be in the medium n1.
 The line OC cuts the spherical surface at the pole P of the surface.
 As the rays considered are paraxial rays the perpendicular dropped for the point of incidence to the
principal axis is very close to the pole or passes through the pole itself.
 Light from O falls on the refracting surface at N.
 The normal drawn at the point of incidence passes through the centre of curvature C.
 As light in denser medium deviates towards the normal and meets the principal axis at I where the
image is formed.
 For the point N, 𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟
 As angles are small, 𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟
 ∠𝑁𝑂𝑃 = 𝛼; ∠𝑁𝐶𝑃 = 𝛽; ∠𝑁𝐼𝑃 = 𝛾
𝑁𝑃 𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
 tan 𝛼 = ; tan 𝛽 = ; tan 𝛾 =
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼
 As these angles are small
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
 𝛼= ; 𝛽= ; 𝛾=
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼
 For the triangle ONC, 𝑖 = 𝛼 + 𝛽
 For the triangle INC, 𝛽 = 𝑟 + 𝛾 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 𝛽 − 𝛾
 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝑛2 𝛽 − 𝛾
 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝛽
𝑛1 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
 + 𝑃𝐼2 = 2𝑃𝐶 1
𝑃𝑂
 𝑃𝑂 = −𝑢, 𝑃𝐼 = +𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐶 = +𝑅
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
 𝑣2 − 𝑢1 = 2 𝑅 1
 𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛, 𝑛1 = 1
 n2 = n
𝑛 1 𝑛 −1
 −𝑢 =
𝑣 𝑅

8. Obtain lens maker’s formula and mention its significance.

 The general equation for the refraction at a spherical surface is given from equation
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
 𝑣2 − 𝑢1 = 2 𝑅 1
 For the refracting surface (1), the light goes from n1 to n2
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
 𝑣2′ − 𝑢1 = 2𝑅 1
1
 For the refracting surface (2), the light goes from medium n2 to n1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
 𝑢2 − 𝑣1′ = 1𝑅 2
2
𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
 − = 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 −𝑅
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 2

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 83

 1 1 𝑛2 1 1
 −𝑢 = −1 −𝑅
𝑣 𝑛1 𝑅1 2
 𝑢 = ∞, 𝑣 = 𝑓

1 𝑛2 1 1
 = −1 −𝑅
𝑓 𝑛1 𝑅1 2

 𝑛2 = 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛1 = 1

1 1 1
 = 𝑛−1 −𝑅
𝑓 𝑅1 2

 The above equation is called lens maker’s formula, because it tells the lens manufacturers what
curvature is need to make a lens of desired focal length with a material of particular refractive index.
 This formula holds good also for a concave lens.

9. Derive the equation for thin lens and obtain its magnification.
Lens equation:
𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 1 1
 −𝒖 = −𝟏 −𝑅 ------ (1)
𝒗 𝒏𝟏 𝑅1 2
1 𝑛2 1 1
 𝑖𝑓 𝑢 = ∞, 𝑣 = 𝑓, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛, 𝑓 = −1 −𝑅 -------------(2) (lens makers formula)
𝑛1 𝑅1 2
1 1 1
 From (1) & (2), −𝑢 =𝑓
𝑣
 The above equation is known as lens equation which relates the object distance u and image distance
v with the focal length of the lens.
 This formula holds good for any type of lens.
Lateral magnification of thin lens:
 The lateral or transverse magnification m is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to that of
the object.
𝐼𝐼 ′
 𝑚 = 𝑂𝑂 ′
𝐼𝐼 ′
 𝑚 = 𝑂𝑂 ′
𝐼𝐼 ′ 𝑃𝐼
 = 𝑃𝑂
𝑂𝑂 ′
𝑕 𝑣
 𝑚 = 𝑕2 = 𝑢
1
 m is negative for real image an d positive for virtual image.
 In the case of concave lens, m is always positive and less than one.
𝑕 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
 From lens equation, 𝑚 = 𝑕 2 = 𝑓+𝑢 =
1 𝑓

10. Derive the equation for effective focal length for lenses in out of contact.
 Let us consider two lenses (1) and (2) of focal lengths f1 and f2 placed coaxially in contact with each
other so that they have a common principal axis.
 For a point object placed at O beyond the focus of the lens (1) on the principal axis, an image is
formed by it at I'.
 This image I' acts as an object for the lens (2) and the final image is formed at I.
 As these two lenses are thin, the measurements are done with respect to the common optic centre P
between the two lenses.
 For the lens (1), the object distance PO is u and the image distance PI' is v′.
 For the lens (2) , the object distance PI' is v′ and the image distance PI is v.
 Writing the lens equation for lens (1),

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 84

 1 1 1
 −𝑢 =𝑓
𝑣′ 1

1 1 1
 : − =
𝑣 𝑣′ 𝑓2
1 1 1 1
 −𝑢 =𝑓 +𝑓
𝑣 1 2

1 1 1
 −𝑢 =𝑓
𝑣
1 1 1
 =𝑓 +𝑓
𝑓 1 2
 The above equation can be extended for any number of lenses in contact as,.
1 1 1 1 1
 =𝑓 +𝑓 +𝑓 +𝑓 +⋯
𝑓 1 2 3 4

11. Derive the equation for angle of deviation produced by a prism and thus obtain the equation for
refractive index of material of the prism.
Angle of deviation produced by prism:
 The angle between the direction of the incident ray PQ and the emergent ray RS is called the angle
of deviation d.
 The two normals drawn at the point of incidence Q and emergence R are QN and RN.
 They meet at point N.
 The incident ray and the emergent ray meet at a point M
 𝑑1 = 𝑖1 − 𝑟1
 𝑑2 = 𝑖2 − 𝑟2
 𝑑 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
 𝑑 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
 In the quadrilateral AQNR, ∠𝐴 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°
 From the triangle ∆QNR, 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°
 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝐴
 𝑑 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 𝐴
 The angle of deviation depends on these following factors.
 the angle of incidence
 the angle of the prism
 the material of the prism
 the wavelength of the light
Refractive index of the material of the prism:
 At minimum deviation, 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 𝑖, 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟
 𝐷 = 2𝑖 − 𝐴
𝐴+𝐷 𝐴
 𝑖= , 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑟 =
2 2
sin 𝑖
 From Snell’s law, 𝑛 = sin 𝑟
𝐴 +𝐷
sin
 𝑛= 2
𝐴
sin
2

12. What is dispersion? Obtain the equation for dispersive power of a medium.
 Dispersion is splitting of white light into its constituent colours.
Dispersive power:
 Consider a beam of white light passes through a prism; it gets dispersed into constituent colours.
 Let 𝛿𝑣 , 𝛿𝑅 are the angles of deviation for violet and red light.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 85

  Let 𝛿𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝛿𝑅 refractive indices for the violet and red light respectively.
𝐴 +𝐷
sin
 𝑛= 2
𝐴
sin
2

 If the angle of prism is small of the order of 100, the prism is said to be a small angle prism.
 When rays of light pass through such prisms, the angle of deviation also becomes small.
 If A be the angle of small angle prism and 𝛿 the angle of
deviation, then
𝐴 +𝛿
sin
 𝑛= 2
𝐴
sin
2
𝐴+𝛿 𝐴+𝛿
 For small angles, sin ≈
2 2
𝐴 𝐴
 sin ≈
2 2
𝐴 +𝛿

 𝑛= 2
𝐴
2
𝛿
 𝑛 = 1+𝐴
 𝛿 = 𝑛−1 𝐴
 When white light enters the prism, the deviation is different for different colours.
 𝛿𝑣 = 𝑛𝑣 − 1 𝐴
 𝛿𝑅 = 𝑛𝑅 − 1 𝐴
 𝛿𝑣 − 𝛿𝑅 = 𝑛𝑣 − 𝑛𝑅 𝐴
 The term 𝛿𝑣 − 𝛿𝑅 is the angular separation between the two extreme colours in the spectrum is
called the angular dispersion.
 The angular dispersion produced by a prism depends upon
 Angle of the prism
 Nature of the material of the prism.
 If we take is the angle of deviation for any middle ray ( green or yellow) and n the corresponding
refractive index
 𝛿 = 𝑛−1 𝐴
 Dispersive power is the ability of the material of the prism to cause dispersion.
 It is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion for the extreme colours to the deviation for any
mean colour.
𝛿 𝑣 −𝛿 𝑅
 Dispersive power 𝜔 = 𝛿
𝑛 𝑣 −𝑛 𝑅
 𝜔= 𝑛 −1
 Dispersive power is a dimensionless quantity.
 It has no unit.
 Dispersive power is always positive.
 The dispersive power of a prism depends only on the nature of material of the prism and it is
independent of the angle of the prism.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 86

 7. WAVE OPTICS
2 – Mark questions
1. What is wavefront?
A wavefront is the locus of points which are in the same state or phase of vibration.

2. What are the shapes of wavefront for (a) source at infinite, (b) point source and (c) line source?
(a) source at infinite – plane wavefront
(b) point source – spherical wavefront
(c) line source – cylindrical wavefront

3. State Huygens’s principle.

According to Huygens principle, each point of the wavefront is the source of secondary wavelets
emanating from these points spreading out in all directions with the speed of the wave. These are called
as secondary wavelets.

4. What is interference of light?

The phenomenon of addition of superposition of two light waves which produces increase in intensity
at some points and decrease in intensity at some other points is called interference of light.

5. What is phase of a wave?

Phase is the angular position of a vibration.

6. Obtain the relation between phase difference and path difference.

 2
 Relation between phase difference and path difference:   x or   x 
2 
 For constructive interference:   n where, n  0,1,2,..

 For destructive interference:   (2n  1) where, n  1,2,3,..
2
7. What are coherent sources?
Two light sources are said to be coherent if they produce waves which have same phase or constant
phase difference, same frequency or wavelength, same waveform and probably same amplitude.

8. What is bandwidth of interference pattern?

The band width is defined as the distance between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes.

9. What is diffraction?
Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp edges into the geometrically shadowed region.

10. Differentiate between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.

Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction
Spherical or cylindrical wavefront undergoes Plane wavefront undergoes diffraction
diffraction
Light wave is from a source at finite distance Light wave is from a source at infinity
Convex lenses are not used Convex lenses are used.
Difficult to observe Easy to observe

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11. Mention the difference between interference and diffraction.
Interference Diffraction
Superposition of two waves Bending of waves around edges
Superposition of waves from two coherent Superposition of waves from various points of
sources the same wavefront
Intensity of all the bright fringes is same Intensity falls rapidly for higher orders.
Large number of fringes are obtained Less number of fringes are obtained

12. What is diffraction grating?

Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque rulings are made with affine
diamond pointer.

13. What are resolution and resolving power?

Resolution:
 Two point sources must be imaged in such a way that their images are sufficiently far apart that their
diffraction pattersn do not overlap.
 This is called resolution.
Resolving power:
 The ability of an optical instrument to separate or distinguish small or closely adjacent objects
through the image formation is said to be resolving power of the instrument.

14. What is Rayleigh’s criterion?

 According to Rayleigh’s criterion, the two points on an image are said to be just resolved when the
central maximum of one diffraction pattern coincides with the first minimum of the other and vice-
versa
1.22 𝜆
 Angular resolution: 𝜃 = 𝑎
1.22 𝜆
 Spatial resolution: 𝑟0 = 𝑎

15. What is polarisation?

The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of light to a particular direction perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of wave is called polarization of light.

16. Differentiate between polarised and unpolarised light.

Polarised light Unpolarised light
Consists of waves having their electric field Consists of waves having their electric field
vibrations in a single plane normal to the direction vibrations equally distributed in all directions
of ray normal to the direction of ray
Asymmetrical about the ray direction Symmetrical about the ray direction
It is obtained from unpolarised light with the help Produced by conventional light sources
of polarisers

17. Discuss polarisation by selective absorption or dichroism

 Selective absorption is the property of a material which transmits waves whose electric fields vibrate
in a plane parallel to a certain direction of orientation and absorbs all other waves.
 The polaroids or polarisers are thin commercial sheets which make use of the property of selective
absorption to produce an intense beam of plane polarised light.
 Selective absorption is also called dichroism.

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18. What are polariser and analyser?
Polariser:
The Polaroid which plane polarises the unpolarised light passing through it is called polariser.
Analyser:
The Polaroid which is used to examine whether a beam of light is polarised or not is called an
analyser.

19. What are plane polarised, unpolarised and partially polarised light?
Plane polarised light:
A light is said to be plane polarised if the intensity varies from maximum to zero for every 90o rotation
of the analyser.

Unpolarised light:
An unpolarised light is a transverse wave which has vibrations in all directions in a plane perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of wave.

Partially polarized light:

If the intensity of light varies between maximum and minimum (not zero) for every 90o rotation of the
analyser, the light is said to be partially polarised light

20. What is the angle of polarisation and obtain the equation for angle of polarisation.
Angle of polarisation:
 The angle of incidence for which the reflected light is found to be plane polarised is called
polarizing angle ip.
 𝑖𝑝 = tan−1 (𝑛)

21. What is double refraction or birefringence?

When a ray of unpolarised light is incident on a crystal, two refracted rays are produced. Hence, two
images o a single object are formed. This phenomenon is called double refraction.

22. Mention the types of optically active crystals with example.

Uniaxial crystals: calcite, quartz, tourmaline and ice having only one optic axis.
Biaxial crystals: mica, topaz, selenite and aragonite having tow optic axes.

23. What are near point and normal point focusing?

Near point focusing:
 The eye is least strained when image is formed at near point, i.e. 25 cm.
 The near point is also called as least distance ofdistinct vision.
Normal point focusing:
 The eye is most relaxed when the image is formed at infinity.
 The focusing is called normal focusing when the image is formed at infinity.

24. Why is oil immersed objective preferred in a microscope?

 The ability of microscope depends not only in magnifying the object but also in resolving two
points on the object separated by a small distance .
 That is, smaller the value of ′𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 ′ better will be the resolving power of the microscope.
 To further reduce the value of ′𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 ′ , the optical path of the light is increased by immersing
the objective of the microscope in to a bath containg oil of refractive index ‘n’.

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25. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a reflecting telescope?
 A telescopes which has a concave mirror objective is called reflecting telescope.
 It has several advantages.
 Only one surface is to be polished and maintained for a mirror where as it to be done for two
surfaces for a lens.
 Support can be given from the entire back of the mirror whereas it is given only at the rim for lens.
 A mirror weighs much less compared to a lens.
 But, the one obvious problem with a reflecting telescope is that the objective mirror would focus the
light inside the telescope tube.
 One must have an eye piece inside the tube obstructing some light.
 This problem could also be overcome by introducing a secondary mirror which would take the light
outside the tube for view.

26. What is the use of an erecting lens in a terrestrial telescope?

 A terrestrial telescope is used to see object at long distance on the surface of earth.
 Hence, image should be erect.
 A terrestrial telescope has an additional erecting lens to make the final image erect.

27. What is the use of collimator?

The collimator is an arrangement to produce a parallel beam of light.

28. What are the uses of spectrometer?

The spectrometer is an optical instrument used to study the spectra of different sources of light and to
measure the refractive indices of materials.

29. What is myopia? What is its remedy?

 A person suffering from nearsightedness (or) myopia cannot see distant objects clearly.
 This may be due to the short focal length of the eye lens (or) larger diameter of the eyeball than
usual.
 These people have difficulty in relaxing their eye to the extent of what is needed.
 This effect can be reduced by using the concave lens of suitable focal length.

30. What is hypermetropia? What is its remedy?

 A person suffering from farsightedness (or) hypermetropia (or) hyperopia cannot see closer object
clearly.
 It occurs when the eye lens has long focal length (or) shortening of the eyeball than usual.
 The closest distance for clear vision for these people is appreciably more than 25 cm.
 Thus, reading books (or) viewing smaller things held in the hands is difficult for them.
 This effect can be reduced by using the convex lens of suitable focal length.

31. What is astigmatism?

Astigmatism is the defect arising due to different curvatures along different planes in the eye lens.

3 – Mark questions:

1. What are the salient features of corpuscular theory?

 According Newton’s corpuscular theory, light is emitted as tiny, massless and perfectly elastic
particles called corpuscles.
 As the corpuscles are very small, the source of light does not suffer appreciable loss of mass even if
it emits light for a long time.

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  On account of high speed, they are unaffected by the force of gravity and their path is a straight line
in a medium of uniform refractive index.
 The energy of light is the kinetic energy of these corpuscles.
 When these corpuscles impinge on the retina of the eye, the vision is produced.
 The different size of the corpuscles is thge reason for different colours of light.
 When the corpuscles approach a surface between two media, they are either attracted or repelled.
 The reflection of light is due to the repulsion of the corpuscles by the medium and refraction of light
is due to the attraction of the corpuscles by the medium.
 This theory could not explain the reason why the speed of light is lesser in denser medium than in
rarer medium and also the phenomena like interference, diffraction and polarisation.

2. What is wave theory of light?

 According to Huygens wave theory, light is a disturbance from a source that travels as longitudinal
mechanical waves through the ether medium that was presumed to pervade all space as mechanical
wave requires medium for its propagation.
 The wave theory could successfully explain phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference and
diffraction of light.
 Later, the existence of ether in all space was proved to be wrong.
 Hence, this theory could not explain the propagation of light through vacuum.
 The phenomenon of polarisation could not be explained by this theory as it is property of only
transverse waves.

3. What is electromagnetic wave theory of light?

 Maxwell proved that light is an electromagnetic wave which is transverse in nature carryiun
electromagnetic energy.
 He could also show that no medium is necessary for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.
 All the phenomenon of light could be successfully explained by this theory.
 Nevertheless, the interaction phenomenon of light with matter like photoelectric effect, Compton
effect could not be explained by this theory.

4. Write a short note on quantum theory of light.

 Albert Einstein, endorsing the views of Max Plank, was able to explain photoelectric effect in
which light interacts with matter as photons to eject the electrons.
 A photon is a discrete packet of energy.
 Each photon has energy 𝐸 = 𝑕𝜈
 Where, h is Plank’s constant (𝑕 = 6.625 𝑥 10−34 𝐽𝑠) )
 𝜈 is the frequency of electromagnetic wave.
 As light has both wave as well as particle nature it is said to have dual nature.
 Thus, it is concluded that light propagates as a wave and
interacts with matter as a particle.

5. How does wavefront division provide coherent sources?

 Wavefront division is the most commonly used method for
producing two coherent sources.
 We know a point source produces spherical wavefronts.
 All the points on the wavefront are at the same phase.

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  If two points are chosen on the wavefront by using a double slit, the two points will act as coherent
sources as shown in Figure.

6. What is intensity or amplitude deviation?

 If we allow light to pass through a partially silvered mirror, both reflection and refraction take place
simultaneously.
 As the two light beams are obtained from the same light source, the two divided light beams will be
coherent beams.
 They will be either in-phase or at constant phase difference as shown in Figure.
 Instruments like Michelson’s interferometer, Fabray – Perrot etalon work on this principle.

7. How do source and images behave as coherent sources?

 In this method a source and its image will act as a set of coherent source, because the source and its
image will have waves in-phase or constant phase difference as shown in Figure.
 The instrument, Fresnel’s biprism uses two virtual sources as two coherent sources and the
instrument, Lloyd’s mirror uses a source and its virtual image as two coherent sources.

8. Discuss the special cases on first minimum in Fraunhofer diffraction.

 Let us consider the condition for first minimum with ( n = 1), a sin   

 The first minimum has an angular spread of, sin  
a
 Now, we have special cases to discuss on the above condition.
 When a   , the diffraction is not possible, because can never be greater than 1
 When a   , the diffraction is possible.
 For a   , sin   1 i.e ,  90  . That means the first minimum is at 900.
 Hence, the central maximum spreads fully into the geometrically shadowed region leading to
bending of the diffracted light to 900.
 For a   , sin   1 , the first minimum will fall within the width of the slit itself.
 The diffraction will not be noticed at all.

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  When a   and also comparable, say a  2 , sin   1 ; then. These are practical cases where
2
diffraction could be observed effectively.

9. What is Fresnel distance? Obtain the equation for Fresnel’s distance.

 Fresnel’s distance is the distance up to which the ray

optics is valid in terms of rectilinear propagation of
light.
 As there is bending of light in diffraction, the rectilinear
propagation of light is violated.
 But, this bending is not significant till the diffracted ray
crosses the central maximum at a distance z as shown in
Figure.
 Hence, Fresnel’s distance is the distance upto which ray
optics is obeyed and beyond which ray optics in not
obeyed but, wave optics becomes significant.
 From the diffraction equation for first minimum, sin    ;   
a a
a a
 From the definition of Fresnel’s distance, sin 2  ;2 
z z
 a
 Equating the above two equations gives, 
a 2z
a2
 After rearranging, we get Fresnel’s distance z as, z 
2
10. State and obtain Malus law.
 In 1809, French Physicist E.N Malus discovered that when a beam of plane polarised light of
intensity I0 is incident an analyser, the intensity of light I transmitted from the analyser varies
directly as the square of the cosine of the angle θ between the transmission axes of polariser and
analyser.
 This is known as Malus’ law.
 I = I0 cos2 θ
 The proof of Malus’ law is as follows.
 Let us consider that the transmission axes of the polariser and the analyser are inclined by an angle θ
is as shown in Figure.
 Let I0 be the intensity and a be the amplitude of the electric vector transmitted by the polariser.
 The amplitude a of the incident light has two
rectangular components, a cosθ and a sinθ which are
the parallel and perpendicular components to the axis of
transmission of the analyser.
 Only the component a cosθ will be transmitted by the
analyser.
 The intensity of light transmitted from the analyser is
proportional to the square of the component of the
amplitude transmitted by the analyser.
 𝐼 ∝ (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2
 I =k (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2
 Where k is constant of proportionality.
 I =k a2 cos2 
 I = I0 cos2 

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  Where, I0 = ka2 is the maximum intensity of light transmitted through the analyser.
 The following are few special cases.
 Case (i) When θ = 0o, cos 0o= 1, I = I0
 When the transmission axis of polarizer is parallel to that of the analyser, the intensity of light
transmitted from the analyser is equal to the incident light that falls on it from the polariser.
 Case (ii) When θ = 90o, cos 90o = 0, I = 0
 When the transmission axes of polarizer and analyser are perpendicular to each other, the intensity
of light transmitted from the analyser is zero.

11. List the uses of polaroids.

 s They are used in goggles and cameras to avoid glare of light.
 They are used in holography.
 They are used to improve contrast in old oil paintings.
 They are used in optical stress analysis
 They are used as window glasses to control the intensity of incoming light.
 Polarised laser beam acts as needle to read/wirte in compact discs (CDs).
 They produce polarised lights to be used in liquid crystal display (LCD).

12. State and prove Brewseter’s law.

 The British Physicist, Sir. David Brewster found that at the
polarizing angle, the reflected and the refracted rays are
perpendicular to each other.

 Suppose ip is the polarising angle and rp is the angle of

refraction, from the geometry as shown in Figure, we can
write,
 𝑟𝑝 = 90° − 𝑖𝑝
 From Snell’s law, the refractive index n of the medium with
sin 𝑖 𝑝
respect to air is, =𝑛
sin 𝑟𝑝
sin 𝑖 𝑝 sin 𝑖 𝑝
 = cos 𝑖 = 𝑛
sin (90°−𝑖 𝑝 ) 𝑝
 tan 𝑖𝑝 = 𝑛
 This equation is known as Brewster’s law.
 Brewster’s law states that the tangent of the polarising angle for a transparent medium is equal to its
refractive index.
 The polarizing angle is known as Brewster’s angle which dependes on the nature of the refracting
medium.

13. Discuss about pile of plates.

 Pile of plates makes use of Brewster’s law to convert the

partially polarised refracted light into plane polarised light.
 It consists of several glass plates kept one behind the other at
an angle 90° – ip with the horizontal surfacen as shown in
Figure .
 This arrangement ensures that the parallel light falls on these
plates at ip.
 When this unpolarised light passes successively through these
plates, the few parallel vibrations to the surface which may be
present in the refracted light, get a chance for further
reflections at the succeeding plates.
 Thus, both the reflected and the refracted lights are found to be plane polarized

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14. Discuss about Nicol prism.
 Nicol prism is an optical device which forms a part of many
optical instruments both for producing plane polarised light
and also analysing.
 The construction of a Nicol prism is based on the
phenomenon of double refraction.
 It was designed by William Nicol in 1828.
 Nicol prism is a calcite crystal which has a length three
times its breadth and angles 72o and 108o.
 It is cut into two halves along the diagonal as shown in
Figure.
 The two halves are pasted together with a layer of canada balsam, a transparent cement.
 Let us consider a ray of unpolarised light from a monochromatic source is incident on the Nicol
prism.
 The double refraction takes place and the ray is split into ordinary and extraordinary rays.
 They travel in different directions with different velocities.
 For monochromatic sodium light the refractive index of the crystal for the ordinary ray is 1.658 and
for extraordinary ray is 1.486.
 The refractive index of canada balsam is 1.523.
 The ordinary ray is total internally reflected at the layer of canada balsam and is prevented from
emerging along with extraordinary ray.
 Where as, the extraordinary ray is transmitted through the crystal which is plane polarised.
 Drawbacks of Nicol prism
 (i) Its cost is very high due to scarcity of large and flawless calcite crystals.
 (ii) Due to extraordinary ray passing obliquely through it, the emergent ray is always displaced a
little to one side.
 (iii) The effective field of view is quite limited.
 (iv) The light emerging out of it is not uniformly plane polarised.

15. How is polarisation of light obtained by scattering of light?

When sun light gets scattered by the atmospheric
molecules, the electrons of these molecules are influenced
by the vibrating components of the electric field present in
the sun light.
 As the sunlight is unpolarised, it produces these
vibrations in all directions.
 These vibrating electrons radiate energy only in the
direction perpendicular to their vibrations.
 When an observer views a beam of sunlight
perpendicular to its direction of travel, the radiations
produced by the electrons vibrating in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of view will only reach
the observer.
 Hence, the light reaching the observer is plane polarised.

16. Obtain the equation for bandwidth in Young’s double slit experiment.
Equation for bandwidth
 The bandwidth β is defined as the distance between any two consecutive bright (or) dark
fringes.
 The distance between (n+1)th and nth consecutive bright fringes from O is given by,
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
 𝛽 = 𝑦 𝑛 +1 − 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑛+1 − 𝑛
𝑑 𝑑
𝜆𝐷
 𝛽 For bright, 𝛽 = 𝑑
 Similarly, the distance between (n+1)th and nth consecutive dark fringes from O is given by,
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 (2(𝑛+1)−1) 𝜆𝐷 (2𝑛−1) 𝜆𝐷
 𝛽 = 𝑦 𝑛 +1 − 𝑦𝑛 = −
2 𝑑 2 𝑑
𝜆𝐷
 𝛽 For dark, 𝛽 = 𝑑
 Bright and dark fringes are of same width equally spaced on either side of the central bright fringe.
Conditions for obtaining clear and broad interference fringes:
 (i) The distance D between the screen and double slit should be as large as possible.
 (ii) The wavelength λ of light used must be as long as possible.
 (iii) The distance d between the two slits must be as small as possible.

5 – Mark questions

1. Prove the laws of reflection using Huygens’s principle.

 Let us consider a parallel beam of light is incident on a reflecting plane surface such as a plane
mirror XY as shown in Figure.
 The incident wavefront is AB and the reflected
wavefront is ′𝐵′ .
 These wavefronts are perpendicular to the incident rays
L, M and reflected rays ′ , 𝑀′ respectively.
 By the time point A of the incident wavefront touches
the reflecting surface, the point B is yet to travel a
distance 𝐵𝐵′ to touch the reflecting surface at 𝐵′ .
 When the point B touches the reflecting surface at ′ , the
point A would have reached 𝐴′ .
 This is applicable to all the points on the wavefront.
 Thus, the reflected wavefront 𝐴′𝐵′ emanates as a plane
wavefront.
 The two normals N and 𝑁′ are considered at the points where the rays L and M fall on the reflecting
surface.
 As reflection happens in the same medium, the speed of light is same before and after the reflection.
 The time taken for the light to travel from B to 𝐵′ and A to 𝐴′ are the same.
 Thus, the distance BB_ is equal to the distance 𝐴′; (𝐴𝐴′= 𝐵𝐵′).
 (i) The incident rays, the reflected rays and the normal are in the same plane.
 (ii) Angle of incidence,
 ∠i = ∠NAL = 90o – ∠NAB = ∠ BA 𝐵′
 Angle of reflection,
 ∠r = ∠ 𝑁′𝐵′𝑀′ = 90o – ∠ 𝑁′𝐵′𝐴′ = ∠ 𝐴′𝐵′𝐴
 For the two right angle triangles, Δ 𝐴𝐵𝐵′ and Δ 𝐵′𝐴′𝐴, the two right angles, ∠B and ∠ 𝐴′ are equal,
 (∠B and ∠ 𝐴′ = 90o); the two sides, 𝐴𝐴′ and 𝐵𝐵′ are equal, (𝐴𝐴′=𝐵𝐵′); the side 𝐴𝐵′ is common.
 Thus, the two triangles are congruent.
 As per the property of congruency, the two angles, ∠ BA 𝐵′ and ∠ 𝐴′ 𝐵′A must also be equal.
 i=r
 Hence, the laws of reflection are proved.

2. Prove the laws of refraction using Huygens’s

principle.
 Let us consider a parallel beam of light is
incident on a refracting plane surface XY such as
a glass as shown in Figure.
 The incident wavefront AB is in rarer medium
(1) and the refracted wavefront 𝐴′𝐵′ is in denser
medium (2).
 These wavefronts are perpendicular to the
incident rays L, M and refracted rays 𝐿′ ,M ′
respectively.
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  By the time the point A of the incident wavefront touches the refracting surface, the point B is yet to
travel a distance 𝐵𝐵′to touch the refracting surface at 𝐵′.
 When the point B touches the refracting surface at 𝐵′, the point A would have reached A′in the other
medium.
 This is applicable to all the points on the wavefront.
 Thus, the refracted wavefront 𝐴𝐵′emanates as a plane wavefront.
 The two normals N and 𝑁′are considered at the points where the rays L and M fall on the refracting
surface.
 As refraction happens from rarer medium (1) to denser medium (2), the speed of light is v1 and v2
before and after refraction and v1 is greater than v2, (v1>v2).
 But, the time taken t for the ray to travel from B to 𝐵′ is the same as the time taken for the ray to
travel from A to 𝐴′
𝐵𝐵′ 𝐴𝐴′
 𝑡= 𝑣 = 𝑣
1 2
𝐵𝐵′ 𝑣1
 =𝑣
𝐴𝐴′ 2
 (i) The incident rays, the refracted rays and the normal are in the same plane.
 (ii) Angle of incidence, i = ∠NAL = 90o – ∠NAB = ∠ BA 𝐵′
 Angle of refraction, r = ∠ 𝑁′𝐵′𝑀′= 90 o – ∠ 𝑁′𝐵′𝐴′ = ∠ 𝐴′𝐵′𝐴
𝑐
sin 𝑖

𝑣2
For the two right angle triangles Δ AB 𝐵′and ΔAA'B', sin 𝑟 = 𝑐
𝑣1
 Here, c is speed of light in vacuum.
 The ratio c/v is a constant, called refractive index of the medium.
 The refractive index of medium (1) is, c/v1 = n1 and that of medium (2) is, c/v2 = n2.
 In ratio form,
sin 𝑖 𝑛
 = 𝑛2
sin 𝑟 1
 In product form, 𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟
 Hence, the laws of refraction are proved.
 In the same way the laws of refraction can be proved for wavefront travelling from denser to rarer
medium also.
1
 The speed of light is inversely proportional to the refrative index of the medium (𝑣 ∝ 𝑛 ) and also
directly proportional to wavelength of light (𝑣 ∝ 𝜆) .
𝜆 𝑛
 Hence, 𝜆 1 = 𝑛 2
2 1

3. Obtain the equation for resultant intensity due to interference of light.

 The phenomenon of superposition of two light waves which produces increase in intensity at
some points and decrease in intensity at some other
points is called interference of light.
 Superposition of waves refers to addition of waves.
 When two waves simultaneously pass through a
particle in a medium, the resultant displacement of that
particle is the vector addition of the displacements due
to the individual waves.
 The resultant displacement will be maximum or
minimum depending upon the phase difference
between the two superimposing waves.
 These concepts hold good for light as well.

 Let us consider two light waves from the two sources

S1 and S2 meeting at a point P as shown in Figure.
 The wave from S1 at an instant t at P is, 𝑦1 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡
 The wave form S2 at an instant t at P is, 𝑦2 = 𝑎2 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 97

  The two waves have different amplitudes a1 and a2, same angular frequency ω, and a phase
difference of ϕ between them.
 The resultant displacement will be given by,
 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙

 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃

 𝐴= 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 cos 𝜙

𝑎 2 sin 𝜙
 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑎 1 +𝑎 2 cos 𝜙
2
 The resultant amplitude is maximum,𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 when 𝜙 = 0, •± 2𝜋, , ±4𝜋. . . ,
2
 The resultant amplitude is minimum, 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎1 – 𝑎2 when 𝜙 = 𝜋, •± 3𝜋, , ±5𝜋. . .,
 The intensity of light is proportional to square of amplitude, 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
 If the phase difference, 𝜙 = 0, •± 2𝜋, , ±4𝜋. . ., it corresponds to the condition for maximum
intensity of light called constructive interference.
 The resultant maximum intensity is,
2
 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ 𝑎1 + 𝑎2
 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2
 If the phase difference, 𝜙 = •± 𝜋, •± 3𝜋, •± 5𝜋. . ., it corresponds to the condition for minimum
intensity of light called destructive interference.
 The resultant minimum intensity is,
2
 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ 𝑎1 − 𝑎2
 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2 𝐼1 𝐼2
 As a special case, if 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎 , then 𝐴 = 2𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 cos 𝜙 = 2𝑎2 (1 + cos 𝜙) =
2𝑎2 2 cos 2 𝜙/2
 𝐴 = 2𝑎 cos 𝜙/2
 𝐼 ∝ 4𝑎2 cos 2 𝜙/2 ∵ 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
 𝐼 = 4 𝐼0 cos 2 𝜙/2 ∵ 𝐼0 ∝ 𝑎2
 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4 𝐼0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝜙 = 0, •± 2𝜋, , ±4𝜋. . . ,
 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0, 𝑖𝑓 𝜙 = 𝜋, •± 3𝜋, , ±5𝜋. . .,

4. Explain the Young’s double slit experimental setup and obtain the equation for path difference.
Experimental setup
 Thomas Young, a British Physicist in 1801 used an
opaque screen with two small openings called double
slit S1 and S2 kept equidistance from a source S as
shown in Figure.
 The width of each slit is about 0.03 mm and they are
separated by a distance of about 0.3 mm.
 As S1 and S2 are equidistant from S the same wavefront
is cut by S1 and S2.
 The light waves at S1 and S2 are in-phase.
 So, S1 and S2 act as coherent sources which is the
requirement for obtaining interference pattern.
 Wavefronts from S1 and S2 spread out and overlap on the other side of the double slit.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 98

  When a screen is placed at a distance of about 1 m from the slits, alternate bright and dark fringes
which are equally spaced appear on the screen.
 These are called interference fringes (or) bands.
 Using an eyepiece, the fringes can be seen directly.
 At the center point O on the screen, the waves from S1 and S2 travel equal distances and arrive in-
phase as shown in Figure.
 These two waves constructively interfere and a bright fringe is observed at O.
 This is called central bright fringe.
 When one of the slits is closed, the fringes disappear and there is uniform illumination on the screen.
 This shows clearly that the bands are due to interference.
Equation for path difference
 The schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Figure.
 Let d be the distance between the double slits S1 and S2 which act as coherent sources of wavelength
λ.
 A screen is placed parallel to the double slit at a distance D from it.
 The mid-point of S1 and S2 is C and the mid-point of the screen O is equidistant from S1 and S2.
 P is any point at a distance y from O.
 The waves from S1 and S2 meet at P either in-phase or out-of-phase depending upon the path
difference between the two waves.
 The path difference δ between the light waves from S1 and S2 to the point P is, δ = S2P – S1P
 A perpendicular is dropped from the point S1 to the line S2P at M to find the path difference more
precisely.
 δ = S2P – MP = S2M
 The angular position of the point P from C is θ. ∠OCP = θ.
 From the geometry, the angles ∠OCP and ∠S2S1M are equal.
 ∠OCP = ∠S2S1M = θ.
 In right angle triangle ΔS1S2M, the path difference, S2M = d sin θ
 δ = d sin θ
 If the angle θ is small, sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ θ
 From the right angle triangle ΔOCP,
𝑦
 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝐷
𝑦
 𝛿 = 𝑑𝐷
 Based on the condition of the path difference, the point P may have a bright (or) dark fringe.
Condition for bright fringe or maxima:
 𝛿 = 𝑛𝜆, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
𝑑
 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑛𝜆
𝐷
 𝑦 = 𝑛𝑑 𝜆
𝐷
 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑑 𝜆
Condition for dark fringe or minima:
𝜆
 𝛿 = 2𝑛 − 1 2 , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
𝑑 𝜆
 𝑦 = 2𝑛 − 1
𝐷 2
2𝑛−1 𝐷
 𝑦= 𝜆
2 𝑑
2𝑛 −1 𝐷
 𝑦𝑛 = 𝜆
2 𝑑

5. Obtain the equations for constructive and destructive interference for transmitted and reflected waves in
thin films.
 Let us consider a thin film of transparent material of refractive index μ (here refractive index is not
represented as n, not to confuse with order of fringe n) and thickness d.
 A parallel beam of light is incident on the film at an angle i as shown in Figure.
 The wave is divided into two parts at the point of incidence, as reflected and refracted lights.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 99

  The refracted part, which enters into the film, again gets divided at the lower surface into two parts;
one is transmitted out of the film and the other is reflected back into the film.
 The reflected as well as refracted parts are further formed as multiple reflections take place inside
the film.
 The interference occurs in both the reflected and transmitted light.
For transmitted light

 The light transmitted may interfere to

produce a resultant intensity.
 Let us consider the path difference
between the two light waves transmitted
from B and D.
 The two waves moved together and
remained in phase up to B where the
splitting occurred.
 The extra path travelled by the wave
transmitted from D is the path inside the
film, BC + CD.
 If we approximate the incidence to be nearly normal (i = 0) and the flim of small thickness, then the
points B and D are very close to each other.
 The extra distance travelled by the wave is approximately twice thickness of the film, BC + CD =
2d.
 As this extra path is traversed inside the medium of refractive index μ, the optical path difference is,
δ = 2μd.
 The condition for constructive interference in transmitted ray is, 2μd = nλ
 Similarly, the condition for destructive interference in transmitted ray is,
𝜆
 2𝜇𝑑 = 2𝑛 − 1 2
For reflected light
 It is experimentally and theoretically proved that a wave while travelling in a rarer medium and
getting reflected by a denser medium, undergoes a phase change of π.
 Hence, an additional path difference of λ/2 should be considered for reflected light.
 Let us consider the path difference between the light reflected by the upper surface at A and the
other coming out at C after passing through the film.
 The additional path travelled by the light coming out from C is the path inside the film, AB + BC.
 For near normal incidence and film of small thickness, this distance could be approximated as, AB +
BC = 2d.
 As this extra path is travelled in the medium of refractive index μ, the optical path difference is, δ =
2μd.
𝜆 𝜆
 The condition for constructive interference for reflected ray is 2μd + 2 = 𝑛𝜆 or 2μd = 2𝑛 − 1 2
 The additional path difference λ/2 is due to the phase change of π in rarer to denser reflection taking
place at A.
𝜆 𝜆
 The condition for destructive interference for reflected ray is, 2μd + 2 = 2𝑛 + 1 2 or 2μd = 𝑛𝜆

6. Discuss diffraction at single slit and obtain the condition for nth minimum.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 100
  Let a parallel beam of light (plane wavefront) fall normally on a single slit AB of width a as shown
in Figure.
 The diffracted beam falls on a screen kept at a distance D from the slit.
 The center of the slit is C.
 A straight line through C perpendicular to the plane of slit meets the center of the screen at O.
 Consider any point P on the screen.
 All the light reaching the point P from different points on the slit make an angle θ with the normal
CO.
 All the light waves coming from different points on the slit interfere at point P (and other points) on
the screen to give the resultant intensities.
 The point P is in the geometrically shadowed region, up to which the central maximum is spread
due to diffraction as shown Figure.
 We need to give the condition for the point P to be of various minima.
 The basic idea is to divide the slit into even number of smaller parts.
 Then, add their contributions at P with the proper path difference to show that destructive
interference takes place at that point to make it minimum.
 To explain maximum, the slit is divided into odd number of parts.
Condition for P to be first minimum
 Let us divide the slit AB into two halves AC and CB.
 Now the width of each part is a/2.
 We have different points on the slit which are separated by the same width a/2 called as
corresponding points.
 The light waves from different corresponding points meet at point P and interfere destructively to
make it a minimum.
𝑎
 The path difference δ between the waves from these corresponding points is, 𝛿 = 2 sin 𝜃
𝑎 𝜆
 The condition for P to be first minimum is, 2 sin 𝜃 = 2
 a sin θ = λ
Condition for P to be second minimum
 Let us divide the slit AB into four equal parts.
 Now, the width of each part is a/4.
 We have several corresponding points on the slit which are separated by the same width a/4.
𝑎
 The path difference δ between the waves from these corresponding points is, 𝛿 = 4 sin 𝜃
𝑎 𝜆
 The condition for P to be second minimum is, 4 sin 𝜃 = 2
 a sin θ = 2λ
Condition for P to be third minimum
 The same way the slit is divided in to six equal parts to explain the third minimum.
𝑎 𝜆
 The condition for P to be third minimum is, 6 sin 𝜃 = 2
 a sin θ = 3λ
Condition for P to be nth minimum
 Dividing the slit into 2n number of (even number of) equal parts makes the light produced by one of
the corresponding points to be cancelled by its counterpart.
𝑎 𝜆
 Thus, the condition for nth minimum is, 2𝑛 sin 𝜃 = 2,
 a sin θ = nλ
 Where, n = 1, 2, 3 ... is the order of diffraction minimum.

7. Discuss the diffraction at single slit and obtain the condition for mth maximum.
 A grating has multiple slits with equal widths of comparable size to the wavelength of diffracting
light.
 A grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque rulings are made.
 A modern commercial grating contains about 6000 lines per centimetre.
 The transparent space between the rulings act as slit of width a and the rulings act as obstacles
having a definite width b.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 101
  The combined width of a slit and a ruling is called grating element e, (e = a + b).
 The points on the slit separated by a distance equal to the grating element are called
corresponding points.
 A plane transmission grating is represented as AB in Figure.
 Let, a planewavefront of monochromatic light with wavelength λ be incident on the grating.
 As the width of the slit is comparable to that of wavelength, the incident light undergoes diffraction.
 A diffraction pattern is obtained on the screen when the diffracted waves are focused on a screen
using a convex lens.
 Let us consider a point P at an angle θ with the perpendicular drawn from the center of the grating to
the screen.
 The path difference δ between the diffracted waves from one pair of adjacent corresponding points
is, δ = (a + b) sinθ
 This path difference is the same for any pair of adjacent corresponding points.
 The point P on the screen will be maximum when, δ = m λ where m = 0, 1, 2, 3
 Combining the above two equations, we get, (a + b) sinθ = m λ
 Here, m is called order of diffraction maximum.
Condition for P to be zeroth maximum, m = 0
 Now, (a+b) sinθ = 0 thus, sinθ = 0, its position, θ = 0.
 This is called zeroth diffraction (or) central maximum.
 It is formed at an angle 0.
Condition for P to be first maximum, m = 1
 Now, (a+b) sinθ1 = λ.
 The first maximum is obtained at an angle θ1.
Condition for P to be second maximum, m = 2
 Now, (a+b) sinθ2 = 2λ.
 The second maximum is obtained at an angle θ2.
Condition for P to be mth maximum
 On either side of central maximum, different higher order diffraction maxima are formed at different
angular positions.
1
 𝑁 = 𝑎+𝑏
 Then, N gives the number of grating elements or rulings drawn per unit width of the grating.
 Normally, this number N is specified on the grating itself.
 Now, the equation becomes,
 sin θ = m λ

8. Discuss the experiment to determine the wavelength of monochromatic light using diffraction grating.
 The wavelength of a spectral line can be very accurately determined with the help of a plane
transmission grating.
 For that we need to use an instrument called spectrometer.
 After preliminary adjustments, the slit of collimator is
illuminated by a monochromatic light, whose wavelength is to
be determined.
 The telescope is brought in line with collimator to view the
image of the slit.
 The given grating is then mounted on the prism table with its
plane perpendicular to the incident beam of light coming from
the collimator.

 The telescope is turned to one side until the first order

diffraction image of the slit is seen.
 The reading of the position of the telescope is noted.
 Similarly, the first order diffraction image on the other side is
captured and the reading is noted.
 The difference between two readings gives 2θ.
 Half of its value gives θ.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 102
  The angle for first order maximum is shown in Figure .
sin 𝜃
 The wavelength of light is calculated from the equation, 𝜆 = 𝑁𝑚
 Here, N is the number of rulings per metre in the grating and m is the order of the diffraction image.

9. Discuss the experiment to determine the wavelength of

different colours using diffraction grating.
 The diffraction pattern for white light consists of a white
central maximum and continuous coloured diffraction
pattern on its both sides.
 The central maximum is white as all the colours
constructivelymeet at centre with no path difference.
 As θ increases, the path difference fullfills the condition
for maxima of different orders for all colours from violet
to red.
 It produces a spectrum of diffraction pattern from violet
to red on either side of central maximum as shown in
Figure.
 By measuring the angle at which these colours appear for
various orders of diffraction, the wavelength of different colours could be calculated using the
sin 𝜃
formula given by equation, 𝜆 = 𝑁𝑚
 Here, N is the number of rulings per metre in the grating and m is the order of the diffraction image.

10. Discuss about simple microscope and obtain the equations for magnification for near point focusing and
normal focusing?
 A simple microscope is a single magnifying (convex) lens of small focal length which must produce
an erect, magnified and virtual image of the object.
 Hence, the object must be placed within the focal length f (between the points F and P) on one side
of the lens and viewed through the other side of it.
 The nearest point where an eye can clearly see is called the near point and the farthest point up to
which an eye can clearly see is called the far point.
 For a healthy eye, the distance of the near point is 25 cm, which is denoted as D and the far point
should be at infinity.
Near point focusing
 The eye is least strained when image is formed at near point, i.e. 25 cm.

 The near point is also called as least distance of distinct vision.

 The object distance u should be less than f.
 The image distance is the near point D.
𝑣
 The magnification m of this lens is given by the equation 𝑚 = 𝑢
 Substituting, v = –D and u = –u, as both the distances are measured to the left of the lens.
−𝐷
 Here , 𝑚 = −𝑢

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 103
 𝐷
 𝑚=𝑢
 We can also write the equation for magnification m in terms of focal length f by using lens equation
𝑣
 𝑚 =1−𝑓
𝐷
 𝑚=1+𝑓
 This is the magnification for near point
focusing.
Normal focusing
 The eye is most relaxed when the image is
formed at infinity.
 The focusing is called normal focusing when the image is formed at infinity.
 To find the magnification m, if we take the ratio
of the height of image to the height of object
𝑕′
𝑚= ,
𝑕
 we will not get a meaningful equation, as the
image is of infinite size and it is also formed at
infinity.
 Hence, we can practically use the angular
magnification.
 The angular magnification is defined as the
ratio of angle θi subtended by the image with
aided eye to the angle θ0 subtended by the
object with unaided eye.
𝜃
 𝑚 = 𝜃𝑖
0
 For unaided eye,
ℎ
 tan 𝜃0 ≈ 𝜃0 = 𝐷
 For aided eye,
ℎ
 tan 𝜃𝑖 ≈ 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑓
𝜃 ℎ 𝑓
 The angular magnification is,𝑚 = 𝜃 𝑖 = ℎ
0 𝐷
𝐷
 𝑚= 𝑓
 This is the magnification for normal focusing.
 The magnification for normal focusing is one less than that of near point focusing.
 But, the viewing is more comfortable in normal focusing than near point focusing.
 For large values of D/f, the difference between the two magnifications is negligibly small.

11. Obtain the equation for resolution of optical instrument.

 The effect of diffraction has an adverse effect in the sharpness of the image formed.
 There is always a spread of central maximum in the image for every point of the object, for every
point of the object acts as a point source.

 The condition for central maximum (or first minimum) produced by rectangular slit is given by the
equation.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 104
  a sinθ = λ
 But, a circular slit (aperture) produces diffraction pattern of concentric circles as shown in Figure.
 These are known as Airy’s discs. Most of the optical instruments form images of objects only
through the circular slits.
 The condition for central maximum (or) first minimum for circular slit is, a sinθ = 1.22 λ
 Here, the numerical value 1.22 appears in the expression for central maximum (or) first minimum
formed by circular slits.
 This involves higher level mathematics that is not shown here.
 For small angles, sin θ ≈ θ, the above equation becomes,
 a θ =1.22 λ
1.22𝜆
 Rewriting further, 𝜃 = 𝑎
𝑟0
 𝜃= 𝑓
1.22𝜆𝑓
 𝑟0 = 𝑎

12. Explain about compound microscope and obtain the equation for magnification.
 The diagram of a compound microscope is shown in Figure.
 The lens near the object is called as objective.
 It forms a real, inverted and magnified image of the object.
 This serves as the object for the lens close to the eye called as eyepiece.
 The eyepiece serves as a simple microscope that produces finally an enlarged and virtual image.
 The first inverted image formed by the objective is to be adjusted within the focus of the eyepiece so
that the final image is formed nearly at infinity (or) at the near point.
 The final image is inverted with respect to the object.
 Magnification in compound microscope
 The lateral magnification produced by the objective is given by the equation,
𝑕′
 𝑚= 𝑕
𝑕 𝑕′
 tan 𝛽 = 𝑓 =
0 𝐿
𝑕′ 𝐿
 =𝑓
𝑕 0
𝐿
 𝑚0 = 𝑓
0

 Here, the distance L is measured between the

focal point of the eyepiece to the focal point of
the objective.
 This is called the tube length of the microscope
as fo and fe are comparatively smaller than L.
 If the final image is formed at the near point,
the magnification me of the eyepiece is,
𝐷
𝑚𝑒 = 1 + 𝑓
𝑒
𝐿 𝐷
 The total magnification m for near point focusing is, 𝑚 = 𝑚0 𝑚𝑒 = 1+𝑓
𝑓0 𝑒
 If the final image is formed at infinity (normal focusing), the magnification me of the eyepiece is,
𝐷
𝑚𝑒 = 𝑓
𝑒
𝐿 𝐷
 The total magnification m for normal focusing is, 𝑚 = 𝑚0 𝑚𝑒 = 𝑓0 𝑓𝑒

13. Obtain the equation for resolving power of microscope.

 A microscope is used to see the details of the object under observation.
 Good microscope should not only magnify the object but also resolve the two points on an object
which are separated by the smallest distance dmin.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 105
  Actually, dmin is the resolution and its reciprocal is the resolving power.
1.22 𝜆 𝑓
 The spatial resolution (radius of central maximum) is already derived in equation 𝑟0 = 𝑎
 In microscope, the object distance is just more than the focal length f and the image is formed at
distance v as shown in the Figure.

 Hence, f in equation is replaced by v.

1.22 𝜆 𝑣
 𝑟0 = 𝑎
 If the distance between the two points on the object to be resolved is dmin, then the magnification m
𝑟
is, 𝑚 = 𝑑 0
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑟 1.22 𝜆 𝑢 𝑣
 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚0 = ∴𝑚=𝑢
𝑎

1.22 𝜆 𝑓
 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∴𝑢≈𝑓
𝑎
𝑎
 On the object side,2 tan 𝛽 ≈ 2 sin 𝛽 = 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓2 sin 𝛽
1.22 𝜆
 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2 sin 𝛽
 To further reduce the value of dmin the optical path of the light is increased by immersing the
objective of the microscope into a bath containing oil of refractive index n.
1.22 𝜆
 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 n sin 𝛽
 Such an objective is called oil immersed objective.
 The term n sin β is called numerical aperture NA
1.22 𝜆
 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2(𝑁𝐴)
1 2(𝑁𝐴) 2 n sin 𝛽
 The resolving power RM of microscope is, 𝑅𝑚 = 𝑑 = =
𝑚𝑖𝑛 1.22 𝜆 1.22 𝜆

14. Explain about astronomical telescope.

 An astronomical telescope is used to get the magnification of distant astronomical objects like stars,
planets, moon etc.
 The image formed by astronomical telescope will be inverted.
 It has an objective of long focal length and a much larger aperture than the eyepiece as shown in
Figure.
 Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real image is formed in the tube at its focal
point.
 The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image.

Magnification in astronomical telescope

 The magnification m is the ratio of the angle β subtended by the image to the angle α subtended by
the object with the principal axis.
𝛽
 𝑚=𝛼
ℎ ℎ
 From the diagram, 𝛼 = 𝑓 and 𝛽 = 𝑓
0 𝑒
𝑓0
 𝑚=𝑓
𝑒
 The length of the telescope is approximately, L = fo + fe

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15. Mention the different parts of spectrometer and explain the preliminary adjustment.
 The spectrometer is an optical instrument used to analise the spectra of different sources of light, to
measure the wavelength of different colours and to measure the refractive indices of materials of
prisms.
 It basically consists of three parts namely (i) collimator, (ii) prism table and (iii) telescope.
(i) Collimator
 The collimator is used for producing parallel beam of light.
 It has a convex lens and a vertical slit of adjustable width which faces the source.
 The position of slit can be adjusted so that it is kept at the focus of the lens.
 The collimator is rigidly fixed to the base.
(ii) Prism table
 The prism table is used for mounting the prism, grating etc. It consists of two circulardiscs provided
with three levelling screws.
 It can be rotated and its position can be read from two verniers V1 and V2 .
 The prism table can be fixed at any desired height.
(iii) Telescope
 The telescope is an astronomical type.
 It consists of an eyepiece provided with cross wires at one end and an objective at its other end.
 The distance between the objective and the eyepiece can be adjusted so that the telescope forms a
clear image at the cross wires.
 The telescope is attached to a circular scale and both can be rotated together.
 The telescope and prism table are provided with radial screws for fixing them at a desired position
and tangential screws for fine adjustments.
Preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer
 The following adjustments must be done in a spectrometer before doing the experiment.
(a) Adjustment of the eyepiece:
 The telescope is turned towards an illuminated surface and the eyepiece is moved to and fro until the
cross wires are clearly seen.
(b) Adjustment of the telescope:
 The telescope is adjusted to receive parallel rays by focusing it to a distant object to get a clear
image on the cross wire.
(c) Adjustment of the collimator:
 The telescope is brought in line with the collimator.
 The distance between the illuminated slit and the lens of the collimator is adjusted until a clear
image of the slit is seen at the cross wire.
(d) Levelling of the prism table:
 The prism table is brought to the horizontal level by adjusting the levelling screws and it is ensured
by using sprit level.

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16. Explain the experimental determination of material of the prism using spectrometer.
Determination of refractive index of material of the prism:
 The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are done.
 The refractive index of the prism can be determined by measuring the angle of the prism A and the
angle of minimum deviation D.

(i) Angle of the prism A

 The prism is placed on the prism table with its refracting
angle A facing the collimator as shown in Figure 7.44.
 The slit is illuminated by sodium light (monochromotic
light).

 The parallel rays coming from the collimator fall on the

two faces AB and AC and get reflected.
 The telescope is rotated to the position T1 and T2 to
capture the reflected rays and the two reading are noted.
 The difference between these two readings gives the angle
rotated by the telescope, which is twice the angle of the
prism.
 Half of this value gives the angle of the prism A.

(ii) Angle of minimum deviation D

 The prism is placed on the prism table so that the light from
the collimator falls on a refracting face and the refracted
image is observed through the telescope as shown in Figure.
 The prism table alone is now rotated so that the angle of
deviation decreases.
 A stage comes when the image stops and returns on further
rotation of the prism table.
 This is ensured by looking through the telescope
simultaneously.
 The reading in this position gives the minimum deviation
position.
 Now, the prism is removed and the telescope is turned to
receive the direct ray and the reading is noted.
 The difference between the two readings gives the angle of minimum deviation D.
 The refractive index of the material of the prism n is calculated using the using the equation ,
𝐴 +𝐷
sin
 𝑛= 2
𝐴
sin ( )
2
 The refractive index of a liquid may be determined in the same way by using a hollow glass prism
filled with the liquid.

8. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

2 MARK QUESTIONS

1. Why do metals have a large number of free electrons?

 In metals, the electrons in the outer most shells are loosely bound to the nucleus.
 Even at room temperature, there are a large number of free electrons which are moving inside the
metal in a random manner.
 Though they move freely inside the metal, they cannot leave the surface of the metal.
 The reason is that when free electrons reach the surface of the metal, they are attracted by the
positive nuclei of the metal.
 It is this attractive pull which will not allow free electrons to leave the metallic surface at room
temperature.

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2. What is surface barrier?
The potential barrier which prevents free electrons from leaving the metallic surface is called surface
barrier.

3. What is electron emission?

The liberation of electrons from any surface of a substance is called electron emission.

4. Define work function of a metal. Give its unit.

 The minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the metal surface is called work
function of that metal.
 It is denoted by 𝜙0
 Its unit is electron volt (eV).

5. Define one electron volt.

One electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated by a
potential difference of 1 V.

6. What is photoelectric effect?

The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light or any other electromagnetic
radiation of suitable wavelength is called photoelectric effect.

7. How does photocurrent vary with the intensity of the incident light?
The photocurrent – the number of electrons emitted per second – is directly proportional to the
intensity of the incident light.

8. Give the definition of intensity of light according to quantum concept and its unit.
Intensity of light of given wavelength is defined as the number of energy quanta or photons incident
per unit area per unit time, with each photon having same energy. Its unit is W m-2

9. Define stopping potential.

Stopping potential is that value of the negative (retarding) potential given to the collecting electrode
A which is just sufficient to stop the most energetic photoelectrons emitted and make the photocurrent
zero.

10. How will you define threshold frequency?

For a given surface, the emission of photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency of incident light
is greater than a certain minimum frequency called the threshold frequency.

11. What is a photo cell? Mention the different types of photocells.

 Photo cell is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy.
 It works on the principle of photoelectric effect.
Types of Photo cells:
 Photo emissive cell,
 Photo voltaic cell,
 Photo conductive cell

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12. Write the expression for the de Broglie wavelength associated with a charged particle of charge q and
mass m, when it is accelerated through a potential V.
𝑕
 𝜆=
2𝑚 𝑞𝑉

13. State de Broglie hypothesis or What are matter waves?

 According to de Broglie hypothesis, all matter particles like electrons, protons and neutrons in
motion are associated with waves.
 These waves are called de Broglie waves or matter waves.

14. Why we do not see the wave properties of a baseball?

 The wavelength of matter waves is inversely proportional to mass.
 The mass of the baseball is very high when compared with the mass of the electron.
 Therefore, the wavelength of the baseball is negligibly small.
 Hence, we do not see the wave properties of a base ball.

15. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has greater de Broglie wavelength.
Justify.
𝑕
 𝜆𝑝 = 2𝑚 𝑝 𝐾
𝑕
 𝜆𝑒 = 2𝑚 𝑒 𝐾
𝜆𝑝 𝑚𝑒
 =
𝜆𝑒 𝑚𝑝

 𝐴𝑠 𝑚𝑒 < 𝑚𝑝 then 𝜆𝑒 > 𝜆𝑝

16. Write the relationship of de Broglie wavelength 𝜆 associated with a particle of mass m in terms of its
kinetic energy K.
𝑕
 𝜆= 2𝑚 𝐾

17. An electron and an alpha particle have same kinetic energy. How are the de Broglie wavelengths
associated with them related?
𝑕
 𝜆𝑒 =
2𝑚 𝑒 𝐾
𝑕
 𝜆𝛼 = 2𝑚 𝛼 𝐾
𝜆𝑒 𝑚𝛼
 =
𝜆𝛼 𝑚𝑒

18. What are X – rays?

Whenever fast moving electrons fall on certain materials, a highly penetrating radiation is emitted.
Since their origin was not known at that time, they were called X – rays.

19. What is Bremsstrahlung or braking radiation?

The radiation produced from decelerating electron is called Bremstrahlung or braking radiation.

20. Write Duane – Hunt formula.

12400
 𝜆= Å
𝑉

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21. Mention the two features of x-ray spectra, not explained by classical electromagnetic theory.
(i) For a given accelerating voltage, the lower limit for the wavelength of continuous x-ray spectra is
same for all targets. This minimum wavelength is called cut-off wavelength.
(ii) The intensity of x-rays is significantly increased at certain well-defined wavelengths as shown in
the case of characteristic x-ray spectra for molybdenum

3 MARK QUESTIONS

1. Explain how frequency of incident light varies with

stopping potential.
 To study the effect of frequency of incident light on
stopping potential, the intensity of the incident light is
kept constant.
 The variation of photocurrent with the collector
electrode potential is studied for radiations of
different frequencies and a graph drawn between them
is shown if Figure.
 From the graph it is clear that stopping potential vary
over different frequencies of incident light.
 Greater the frequency of the incident radiation, larger is the corresponding stopping potential.
 This implies that as the frequency is increased, the photoelectrons are emitted with greater kinetic
energies so that the retarding potential needed to stop the photoelectrons is also greater.
 Now a graph is drawn between frequency and the
stopping potential for different metals.
 From this graph, it is found that stopping potential
varies linearly with frequency.
 Below a certain frequency called threshold frequency,
no electrons are emitted.
 Hence, stopping potential is zero for that reason.
 But as the frequency is increased above threshold
value, the stopping potential varies linearly with the
frequency of incident light.

2. List out the laws of photoelectric effect.

 For a given frequency of incident light, the number of photoelectrons emitted is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
 The saturation current is also directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of intensity of the incident light.
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons from a given metal is directly proportional to the
frequency of incident light.
 For a given surface, the emission of photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency of incident
light is greater than a certain minimum frequency called threshold frequency.
 There is no time lag between incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons.

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3. Explain why photoelectric effect cannot be explained on the basis of wave nature of light.
 When light is incident on the target, there is a continuous supply of energy to the electrons.
 According to wave theory, light of greater intensity should impart greater kinetic energy to the
liberated electrons.
 But this does not happen.
 The experiments show that maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons does not depend on the
intensity of the incident light.
 According to wave theory, if a sufficiently intense beam of light is incident on the surface, electrons
will be liberated from the surface of the target, however low the frequency of the radiation is.
 From the experiments, we know that photoelectric emission is not possible below a certain
minimum frequency.
 Therefore, the wave theory fails to explain the existence of threshold frequency.
 Since the energy of light is spread across the wavefront, the electrons which receive energy from it
are large in number.
 Each electron needs considerable amount of time to get energy sufficient to overcome the work
function and to get liberated from the surface.
 But experiments show that photoelectric emission is almost instantaneous process which could not
be explained by wave theory.
 Thus, the experimental observations of photoelectric emission could not be explained on the basis of
the wave theory of light.

4. Give the quantum concept of energy proposed by Max Planck.

 Max Planck proposed quantum concept in 1900 in order to explain the thermal radiations emitted by
a black body and the shape of its radiation curves.
 According to Planck, matter is composed of a large number of oscillating particles which vibrate
with different frequencies.
 Each atomic oscillator – which vibrates with its characteristic frequency – emits or absorbs
electromagnetic radiation of the same frequency.
 It also says that
 If an oscillator vibrates with frequency 𝜈, its energy can have only certain discrete values, given by
the equation 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛𝑕𝜈 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
 The oscillators emit or absorb energy in small packets or quanta and the energy of each quantum is
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑕𝜈
 This implies that the energy of the oscillator is quantized – that is, energy is not continuous as
believed in the wave picture.
 This is called quantization of energy.

5. Explain experimentally observed facts of photoelectric effect with the help of Einstein’s explanation.
 As each incident photon liberates one electron, then the increase of intensity of the light increases
the number of electrons emitted thereby increasing the photocurrent. The same has been
experimentally observed.
 From 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑕𝜈 − 𝜙0 , it is evident that K max is proportional to the frequency of the light and is
independent of intensity of the light.
1
 From 𝑕𝜈 = 𝑕𝜈0 + 2 𝑚𝑣 2 , there must be minimum energy for incident photons to liberate electrons
from the metal surface.
 Below which, emission of electrons is not possible.

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  Correspondingly, there exists minimum frequency called threshold frequency below which there is
no photoelectric emission.
 According to quantum concept, the transfer of photon energy to the electrons is instantaneous so
that there is no time lag between incidence of photons and ejection of electrons.
 Thus, the photoelectric effect is explained on the basis of quantum concept of light.

6. Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength of electrons.

1
 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2
2𝑒𝑉
 𝑣 = 𝑚
𝑕 𝑕
 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉
12.27
 𝜆= Å
𝑉
 For example, if an electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100 V, then its de Broglie
wavelength is 1.227 Å
𝑕
 Since the kinetic energy of the electron, K = eV, then 𝜆 = 2𝑚𝐾

7. What are the characteristics of photon?

𝑕𝑐
 The photons of light of frequency 𝜈 and wavelength 𝜆 will have energy, given by 𝐸 = 𝑕𝜈 = 𝜆
 The energy of a photon is determined by the frequency of the radiation and not by its intensity and
the intensity has no relation with the energy of the individual photons in the beam.
𝑕 𝑕𝜈
 The photons travel with the velocity of light and its momentum is given by𝑃 = 𝜆 = 𝑐
 Since photons are electrically neutral, they are unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.
 When a photon interacts with matter, the total energy, total linear momentum and angular
momentum are conserved.
 Since photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be produced in such interactions, the number of
photons may not be conserved.

8. What are the applications of photo cells?

 They are used as switches and sensors.
 They are used in automatic lights that turn on when it gets dark use photocells.
 They are used in street lights that switch on and off according to whether it is night or day.
 They are used for reproduction of sound in motion pictures.
 They are used as timers to measure the speeds of athletes during a race.
 Photo cells of exposure meters in photography are used to measure the intensity of the given light
and to calculate the exact time of exposure.

9. Explain continuous x – ray spectra.

 When a fast moving electron penetrates and
approaches a target nucleus, the interaction between
the electron and the nucleus either accelerates or
decelerates it which results in a change of path of the
electron.
 The radiation produced from such decelerating
electron is called Bremsstrahlung or braking radiation.
 The energy of the photon emitted is equal to the loss

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 of kinetic energy of the electron.
 Since an electron may lose part or all of its energy to the photon, the photons are emitted with all
possible energies.
 The continuous x – ray spectrum is due to such radiations.
 When an electron give up all its energy, then the photon is emitted with highest frequency or lowest
wavelength.
 The initial kinetic energy of an electron is given by eV where V is the accelerating voltage.
𝑕𝑐
 𝜆0 = 𝑒𝑉
 𝜆0 is the cut-off wavelength.
12400
 𝜆0 = Å
𝑉
 The above equation is known as the Duane – Hunt formula.
 The value of depends only on the accelerating potential and is same for all targets.
 This is in good agreement with the experimental results.
 Thus the production of continuous x – ray spectrum and the origin of cut – off wavelength can be
explained on the basis of photon theory of radiation.

10. Explain characteristic x – ray spectra.

 X – ray spectra show some narrow peaks at some well
– defined wavelengths when the target is hit by fast
electrons.
 The line spectrum showing these peaks is called
characteristic x – ray spectrum.
 This x – ray spectrum is due to the electronic transitions
within the atoms.
 When an energetic electron penetrates into the target
atom and removes some of the K – shell electrons.
 Then the electrons from outer orbits jump to fill up the
vacancy so created in the K – shell.
 During the downward transition, the energy difference
between the levels is given out in the form of x – ray
photon of definite wavelength.
 Such wavelengths, characteristic of the target constitute
the line spectrum.
 From the Figure, it is evident that K – series of line in the x – ray spectrum of an element arises due
to the electronic transitions from L, M, N,..levels to the K – level.
 Similarly, the longer wavelength L – series originates when an L – electron is knocked out of the
atom and the corresponding vacancy is filled by the electronic transitions from M, N, O... and so on.
 The of the K – series of molybdenum are shown by the two peaks in its x – ray spectrum.

11. What are the applications of X – rays?

Medical applications:
 X – rays can pass through flesh more easily than through bones.
 Thus an X – ray radiograph containing a deep shadow of the bones and a light shadow of the flesh
may be obtained.
 X – ray radiographs are used to detect fractures, foreign bodies, diseased organs etc.

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 Medical therapy:
 Since X – rays can kill diseased tissues, they are employed to cure skin diseases, malignant tumours
etc.
Industry:
 X – rays are used to check for flaws in welded joints, motor tyres, tennis balls and wood.
 At the custom post, they are used for detection of contraband goods.
Scientific research:
 X – ray diffraction is important tool to study the structure of the crystalline materials – that is, the
arrangement of atoms and molecules in crystals.
5 MARK QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by electron emission? Explain briefly various methods of electron emission.
Electron emission The liberation of electrons from any surface of a substance is called electron
emission
i) Thermionic emission:

 When a metal is heated to a high temperature, the free electrons on the surface of the metal get
sufficient energy in the form of thermal energy so that they are emitted from the metallic surface.
 This type of emission is known as thermionic emission.
 The intensity of the thermionic emission (the number of electrons emitted) depends on the metal
used and its temperature.
 Examples: cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, x-ray tubes etc

ii) Field emission:

 Electric field emission occurs when a very strong electric field is applied across the metal.
 This strong field pulls the free electrons and helps them to overcome the surface barrier of the metal.
 Examples: Field emission scanning electron microscopes, Field-emission display etc.

iii) Photo electric emission:

 When an electromagnetic radiation of suitable frequency
is incident on the surface of the metal, the energy is
transferred from the radiation to the free electrons.
 Hence, the free electrons get sufficient energy to cross the
surface barrier and the photo electric emission takes place.
 The number of electrons emitted depends on the intensity
of the incident radiation.

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  Examples: Photo diodes, photo electric cells etc.

iv) Secondary emission:

 When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes the

surface of the metal, the kinetic energy of the striking
electrons is transferred to the free electrons on the metal
surface.
 Thus the free electrons get sufficient kinetic energy so
that the secondary emission of electron occurs.
 Examples: Image intensifiers, photo multiplier tubes etc.

2. Briefly discuss the observations of Hertz, Hallwacks and Lenard.

Hertz Observations:
 In 1887, Henrich Hertz first became successful in generating and detecting electromagnetic waves
with his high voltage induction coil to cause a spark discharge between two metallic spheres.
 When a spark is formed, the charges will oscillate back and forth rapidly and the electromagnetic
waves are produced.
 The electromagnetic waves thus produced were detected by a detector that has a copper wire bent in
the shape of circle.
 Although the detection of waves is successful, there is problem in observing the tiny spark produced
in the detector.
 In order to improve the visibility of the spark, Hertz made many attempts and finally noticed an
important thing that small detector spark became more vigorous when it was exposed to ultraviolet
light.
 The reason for this behaviour of the spark was not known at that time.
 Later it was found that it is due to the photoelectric emission.
 Whenever ultraviolet light is incident of the metallic sphere, the electrons on the outer surface are
emitted which caused the spark to be more vigorous.

Hallwach’s observations:
 In 1888, Wilhem Hallwachs, confirmed that the strange
behaviour of the spark is due to the action of ultraviolet light
with his simple experiment.
 A clean circular plate of zinc is mounted on an insulating
stand and is attached to a gold leaf electroscope by a wire.
 When the uncharged zinc plate is irradiated by ultraviolet
light from an arc lamp, it becomes positively charged and
leaves will open.
 Further, if the negatively charged zinc plate is exposed to
ultraviolet light, the leaves will close as the charges leaked
away quickly.
 If the plate is positively charged, it becomes more positive upon UV rays irradiation and the leaves
will open further.
 From these observations, it was concluded that negatively charged electrons were emitted from the
zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.

Lenard’s observations:
 In 1902, Lenard studied this electron emission phenomenon in detail.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 116
  His simple experimental setup is as shown in Figure.
 The apparatus consists of two metallic plates A and C
placed in an evacuated quartz bulb.
 The galvanometer G and battery B are connected in the
circuit.
 When ultraviolet light is incident on the negative plate C,
an electric current flows in the circuit that is indicated by
the deflection in the galvanometer.
 On the other hand, if the positive plate is irradiated by the
ultraviolet light, no current is observed in the circuit.
 From these observations, it is concluded that when
ultraviolet light falls on the negative plate, electrons are
ejected from it which are attracted by the positive plate A.
 On reaching the positive plate through the evacuated bulb, the circuit is completed and the current
flows in it.
 Thus, the ultraviolet light falling on the negative plate causes the electron emission from the surface
of the plate.

3. Explain the effect of potential difference on photoelectric current.

 To study the effect of potential difference V between the electrodes on photoelectric current, the
frequency and intensity of the incident light are kept constant.
 Initially the potential of A is kept positive with respect to C and cathode is irradiated with the given
light.
 Now, the potential of A is increased and the corresponding photocurrent is noted.
 As the potential of A is increased, photocurrent is also increased.
 However a stage is reached where photo current reaches a saturation value at which all the
photoelectrons from C are collected by A.
 This is represented by the flat portion of the graph between potential of A and photocurrent.
 When a negative potential is applied to A with respect to C, the current does not immediately drop
to zero because the photoelectrons are emitted with some definite and different kinetic energies.
 The kinetic energy of some of the photoelectrons is such that they could overcome the retarding
electric field and reach the electrode A.
 When the negative potential of A is gradually increased, the photocurrent starts to decrease because
more and more photoelectrons are being repelled away from reaching the electrode A.
 The photocurrent becomes zero at a particular negative potential Vo, called stopping or cut-off
potential.
 Stopping potential is that the value of the negative
potential given to the collecting electrode A which
is just sufficient to stop the most energetic
photoelectrons emitted and make the photocurrent
zero.
 At the stopping potential, even the most energetic
electron is brought to rest.
 Therefore, the initial kinetic energy of the fastest
electron (Kmax) is equal to the work done by the
stopping potential to stop it (eV0)
1
 2
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉0
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 2𝑒𝑉0
 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚

 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 5.93 x 105 𝑉0

 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉0 (𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒)
 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉0 (𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑉)
 From the figure, when the intensity of the incident light alone is increased, the saturation current
also increases but the value of V0 remains constant.
 Thus for a given frequency of the incident light, the stopping potential is independent of intensity of
the incident light.
 This also implies that the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of intensity
of the incident light.

4. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric equation with necessary explanation.

 When a photon of energy 𝑕𝜈 is incident on a metal surface, it is completely absorbed by a single
electrons and the electron is ejected.
 In this process, a part of the photon energy is used for
the ejection of the electrons from the metal surface and
 The remaining energy as the kinetic energy of the
ejected electron.
 From law of conservation of energy,
1
 𝑕𝜈 = 𝜙0 + 2 𝑚𝑣 2
 where m is the mass of the electron and v is its
velocity.

 If we reduce the frequency of the incident light, the speed or kinetic energy of photoelectrons is
also reduced.
 At some frequency of incident radiation 𝜈0 , the photo electrons are ejected with almost zero kinetic
energy.
 Then the equation (1) becomes 𝑕𝜈0 = 𝜙0
 Where 𝜈0 is the threshold frequency.
1
 𝑕𝜈 = 𝑕𝜈0 + 2 𝑚𝑣 2
 The equation (3) is known as Einstein’s photoelectric
equation.
 If the electron does not lose energy by internal collisions,
then it is emitted with maximum kinetic energy Kmax
1
2
 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑕𝜈 − 𝜙0
 A graph between maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectron and frequency of the incident light is a straight line as shown in Figure.
 The slope of the line is h and its y – intercept is −𝜙0

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5. Give the construction and working of photo emissive cell.
Construction:
 It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb in which two
metallic electrode – that is, a cathode an d an anode are fixed as
shown in Figure.
 The cathode C is semi- cylindrical in shape and is coated with a
photo sensitive material.
 The anode A is a thin rod or wire kept along the axis of the semi –
cylindrical cathode.
 A potential difference is applied between the anode and the
cathode through a galvanometer G.
 Working:
 When cathode is illuminated, electrons are emitted from it.
 These electrons are attracted by anode and hence a current is
produced which is measured by the galvanometer.
 For a given cathode, the magnitude of the current depends on
 The intensity to incident radiation and
 The potential difference between anode and cathode.

6. Describe briefly Davisson – Germer experiment which demonstrated the wave nature of electrons.
 De Broglie hypothesis of matter waves was
experimentally confirmed by Clinton Davisson and Lester
Germer in 1927.
 They demonstrated that electron beams are diffracted
when they fall on crystalline solids.
 Since crystasl can act as a three – dimensional diffraction
grating for matter waves, the electron waves incident on
crystals are diffracted off in certain specific directions.
 The filament F is heated by a low tension battery.
 Electrons are emitted from the hot filament by thermionic
emission.
 They are then accelerated due to the potential difference
between the filament and the anode aluminium cylinder
by a high tension battery.
 Electron beam is collimated by using two thin aluminium
diaphragms and is allowed to strike a single crystal of
Nickel.
 The electrons scattered by Ni atoms in different
directions are received by the electron detector which
measures the intensity of scattered electron beam.
 The detector is rotatable in the plane of the paper so that
the angle 𝜃 between the incident beam and the scattered
beam can be changed at our will.
 The intensity of the scattered electron beam is measured
as a function of the angle 𝜃.
 The above Figure shows the variation of intensity of the
scattered electrons with the angle 𝜃 for the accelerating voltage of 54 V.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 119
  For a given accelerating voltage V, the scattered wave shows a peak or maximum at angle of 500 to
the incident electron beam.
 This peak in intensity is attributed to the constructive interference of electrons diffracted from
various atomic layers of the target material.
 From the known value of interplanar spacing of Nickel, the wavelength of the electron wave has
been experimentally calculated as 1.65 Å.
 The wavelength can also be calculated from de Broglie relation for V = 54 V from equation as
12.27 12.27
 𝜆= Å= = 1.67Å
𝑉 54
 This value agrees well with the experimentally observed wavelength of 1.65 Å.
 Thus this experiment directly verifies de Broglie’s hypothesis of the wave nature of moving
particles.

7. Briefly explain the principle and working of electron

microscope.
Principle:
 This is the direct application of wave nature of particles.
 The wave nature of the electron is used in the construction
of microscope called electron microscope.
 Working:
 The construction and working of an electron microscope is
similar to that of an optical microscope except that in
electron microscope focussing of electron beam is done by
the electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
 The electron beam passing across a suitably arranged
either electric or magnetic fields undergoes divergence or
convergence thereby focussing of the beam is done.
 The electrons emitted from the source are attracted by high
potentials.
 The beam is made parallel by magnetic condenser lens.
 When the beam passes through the sample whose magnified image is needed, the beam carries the
image of the sample.
 With the help of magnetic objective lens and magnetic projector lens system, the magnified image
is obtained on the screen.
 These electron microscopes are being used in almost all branches of science.

9.ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

2 MARK QUESTIONS

1. What are cathode rays?

When the pressure in the gas discharge tube is reduced to 0.01 mm of Hg, some invisible rays
emanate from cathode called cathode rays, which are later found be a beam of electrons.

2. What is meant by excitation energy?

The energy required to excite an electron form lower energy state to any higher energy state in known
as excitation energy.

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3. Define – excitation potential.
Excitation potential is defined as excitation energy per unit charge.

4. What is ionization energy and ionization potential

Ionization energy - The minimum energy required to remove an electron form an atom in the ground
state in known as ionization energy.
Ionization potential - Ionization potential is defined as ionization energy per unit charge.

5. Give the results of Rutherford alpha scattering experiment.

 Most of the alpha particles are undeflected through the gold foil and went straight.
 Some of the alpha particles are deflected through a small angle.
 A few alpha particles are deflected through the angle more than 900
 Very few alpha particles returned back – that is, deflected back by 1800

6. Define distance of closest approach.

The minimum distance between the centre of the nucleus and the alpha particle jus before it gets
reflected back through 1800 is defined as the distance of closest approach r0 also known as contact
distance.

7. Define impact parameter.

 The impact parameter (b) is defined as the perpendicular distance between the centre of the gold
nucleus and the direction of velocity vector of alpha particle when it is at a large distance.
𝜃
 𝑏 ∝ cot 2

8. Write a general notation of nucleus of element X. What each term denotes?

 𝐴𝑍𝑋
 𝑋 is the chemical symbol of the element
 𝐴 is the mass number
 𝑍 is the atomic number

9. What are isotopes? Give an example.

 Isotopes are atoms of the same element having same atomic number Z, but different mass number A
 Example: 11𝐻 , 21𝐻 , 31𝐻

10. What are isotones? Give an example.

 Isotones are atoms of the same element having same number of neutrons.
 Example: 125𝐵 , 136𝐶

11. What are isobars? Give an example.

 Isobars are atoms of the different elements having same mass number A, but different atomic
number Z
 Example: 40 40
16 𝑆, 17𝐶𝑙

12. Define atomic mass unit u.

12
One atomic mass unit is defined as the 1/12th of the mass of the isotope of carbon 6𝐶

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13. Show that nuclear density s almost constant for nuclei with Z >10.
𝑚
 𝜌=4 3
𝜋𝑅0
3

 The above expression shows that the nuclear density is independent of the mass number A.
 All the nuclei ( Z > 10 ) have the same density and it is an important characteristics of the nuclei.
 𝜌 = 2.3 x 1017 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3

14. What is mass defect?

If M, 𝑚𝑝 and 𝑚𝑛 are masses of a nucleus, proton and neutron respectively, then the mass defect is
∆𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀

15. What is binding energy of a nucleus? Give its expression.

 The mass equal to mass defect that disappears is released as the corresponding energy and this is
called the binding energy of the nucleus.
 𝐵𝐸 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀 𝑐 2

16. Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 atomic mass unit.

 𝐸 = 𝑢𝑐 2
 𝐸 = 1.66 x 10−27 x (3 x 108 ) 2 = 14.94 x 10−11 𝐽
 The energy equivalent of 1 𝑢 = 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉

17. Give the physical meaning of binding energy per nucleon.

The average binding energy per nucleon is the energy required to separate single nucleon form the
particular nucleus.

18. What is meant by radioactivity?

The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of highly penetrating radiations such as and rays by an
element is called radioactivity and the substances which emit these radiations are called radioactive
elements.

19. Give the symbolic representation of alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay.
 Alpha decay: 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴−4 4
𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝐻𝑒

 𝛽 − decay: 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴
𝑍+1𝑌 + 𝑒− + ν

 𝛽 + decay: 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴
𝑍−1𝑌 + 𝑒+ + ν

 Gamma decay: 𝐴𝑍𝑋 ∗ → 𝐴𝑍𝑋 + 𝛾

20. What is mean life of nucleus? Give its expression.

 The mean life time of the nucleus is the ratio of sum or integration of life times of all nuclei to the
total number nuclei present initially.
1
 𝜏=𝜆

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21. What is half life of nucleus? Give its expression.
 Half life is defined as the time required for the number of atoms initially present to reduce to one
half of the initial amount.
0.6931
 𝑇1/2 = 𝜆

22. What is meant by activity or decay rate? Give its unit.

 Activity or decay rate is defined as the number of nuclei decayed per second.
𝑑𝑁
 𝑅= 𝑑𝑡
 The SI unit of activity is Becquerel.

23. Define curie

 1 Curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decays per second
 1 Ci = 3.7 x 10 Bq

24. What are the constituent particles of neutron and proton?

 The constituent particles of neutron are one up quark and two down quarks.
 The constituent particles of proton are two up quarks and one down quark.

3 MARK QUESTIONS:

1. Write the properties of cathode rays.

 They posses energy and momentum
 They travel in a straight line with high speed of the order of 107 m s-1
 They can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields
 When they are allowed to fall on matter, they produce heat.
 They affect photographic plates.
 They produce fluorescence.
 When they fall on a material of high atomic weight, x – rays are produced.
 They ionize the gas through which they pass.
 The speed of the cathode rays is up to (1/10)th of the speed of light.

2. Write down the postulates of Bohr atom model.

a) The electron in an atom moves around nucleus in circular orbits under the influence of Coulomb
electrostatic force of attraction. This Coulomb force gives necessary centripetal force for the electron
to undergo circular motion.
b) Electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus only in certain discrete orbits called stationary orbits
where it does not radiate electromagnetic energy. Only those discrete orbits allowed are stable orbits.
𝑛𝑕
The angular momentum of the electron in these stationary orbits is quantized. 𝑙 = 2𝜋 = 𝑛ℏ
c) Energy of the orbits is not continuous but discrete. This is called the quantization of energy. An
electron can jump from one orbit to another orbit by absorbing or emitting a photon whose energy is
equal to the difference in energy between the two orbital levels.

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3. Write down the drawbacks of Bohr atom model.
 Bohr atom model is valid only for hydrogen atom or hydrogen like –atom but not for complex
atoms.
 When the spectral lines are closely examined, individual lines of hydrogen spectrum is accompanied
by a number of faint lines. These are often called fines structure. This is not explained by Bohr atom
model.
 This model fails to explain the intensity variation in the spectral lines.
 The distribution of electrons in atoms is not completely explained by Bohr atom model.

4. In alpha decay why unstable nucleus emits 42𝐻𝑒 nucleus? Why it does not emits four separate nucleons?
 After all 42𝐻𝑒 consists of two protons and neutrons.
 For example, if 238 234
92𝑈 nucleus decays into 88 𝑇𝑕 by emitting four separate nucleons (two protons and
two neutrons)
 Then the disintegration energy Q for this process turns out to be negative.
 It implies that the total mass of products is greater than that of parent nucleus.
 This kind of process cannot occur in nature because it would violate conservation of energy.
 In any decay process, the conservation of energy, laws of linear momentum and laws of angular
momentum must be obeyed.

5 MARK QUESTIONS

1. Explain the J.J.Thomson experiment to determine the specific charge of electron.

 Thomson’s experiment is considered one among the
landmark experiments for the birth of modern
physics.
 In the presence of electric and magnetic fields, suthe
cathode rays are deflected.
 By the variation of electric and magnetic field, the
specific charge of the cathode rays is measured.
 A highly evacuated discharge tube is used and
cathode rays produced at cathode are attracted
towards anode disc A.
 Anode disc is made with pin hole in order to allow only a narrow beam of cathode rays.
 These cathode rays are now allowed to pass through the parallel metal plates, maintained at high
voltage.
 This gas tube is kept in between pole pieces of magnet
such that both electric and magnetic fields are
perpendicular to each other.
 When the cathode rays strike the screen, they produce
scintillation and hence bright spot is observed.
 This is achieved by coating the screen with zinc sulphide.
Determination of velocity of cathode rays:
 The magnitude of electric force is eE
 Tthe magnitude of magnetic force is eBv
 eE = e Bv
 v=E/B

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 Determination of specific charge:
1
 𝑒𝑉 = 2 𝑚 𝑣 2
𝑒 𝑣2
 = 2𝑉
𝑚
𝑒 𝐸2
 = 2𝑉𝐵 2
𝑚
𝑒
 = 1.7 x 1011 𝐶 𝑘𝑔−1
𝑚

Deflection of charge only due to uniform electric field:

 When the magnetic field is turned off, the deflection is only due to electric field.
 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑒𝐸
Ee
 𝑎e = m

𝑙
 t=v,u=0

1 e 𝑙2B2
 y1 = 2 m E

 𝑦 = 𝐶y1

1 e 𝑙2B2
 𝑦 = 𝐶2m E

e 2yE
 = C𝑙 2 B 2
m

e
 = 1.7 x1011 C kg −1
m

2. Discuss the Millikan’s oil drop experiment to determine the charge of an electron.
 Millikan’s oil drop experiment is another important
experiment in modern physics which is used to determine
one of the fundamental constants of nature known as
charge of an electron.
 By adjusting electric field suitably, the motion of oil drop
inside the chamber can be controlled.
 The experimental arrangement is shown in Figure.

 The apparatus consists of two horizontal circular metal

plates A and B each with diameter around 20 cm and are separated by a small distance 1.5 cm.
 These two parallel plates are enclosed in a chamber with glass walls.
 Further, plates A and B are given a high potential difference around 10 kV such that electric field
acts vertically downward.
 A small hole is made at the centre of the upper plate A and atomizer is kept exactly above the hole
to spray the liquid.
 When a fine droplet of highly viscous liquid is sprayed using atomizer, it falls freely downward
through the hole of the top plate only under the influence of gravity.
 Few oil drops in the chamber can acquire electric charge because of friction with air or passage of x
– rays in between the parallel plates.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 125
  Let m be the mass of the oil drop and q be its charge.
 Then the forces acting on the droplet are
4
 Gravitational force, Fg = mg = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑔
 Electric force, Fe = qE
4
 Buoyant force, Fb = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜍𝑔
 Viscous force, Fv = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣

Determination of radius of droplet:

 When the electric field is switched off, the oil drop accelerates downwards.
 Due to the presence of air drag force, the oil drops easily attain its terminal velocity and moves with
constant velocity.
 From the free body diagram, Fg = Fb + Fv
 Fg - Fb = Fv

4
 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌 − 𝜍 𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣
3

1
9𝜂𝑣

2
𝑟= 2 𝜌−𝜍 𝑔

Determination of electric charge:

 When the electric field is switched on, charged oil drops experience an upward electric force.
 From the free body diagram, Fe + Fb = Fg
 Fe = Fg - Fb
4
 𝑞𝐸 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌 − 𝜍 𝑔
4
 𝑞 = 3𝐸 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌 − 𝜍 𝑔
1
18𝜋 𝜂 3 𝑣3 2
 𝑞= 𝐸 2 𝜌−𝜍 𝑔
 Millikan repeated this experiment several times and computed the charges on oil drops.
 He found that the charge of any oil drop can be written as integral multiple of a basic value, -1.6 x
10-19 C, which is nothing but the charge of an electron.

3. Derive the expression for radius of the electron in the nth orbit using Bohr atom model.

1 𝑍𝑒 2
 F𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = − 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
0 𝑟𝑛 2

mv n 2
 Fcentripetal = − rn

 F𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = Fcentripetal

1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 2
 =
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟𝑛 2 𝑟𝑛

4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 r n 2
 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑍𝑚 𝑒 2

 𝑚𝑣𝑛 rn = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑛ℏ
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 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑛ℏ 2
 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑍𝑚 𝑒 2

𝜀0 𝑕 2 𝑛2
 𝑟𝑛 = 𝜋𝑚 𝑒 2 𝑍

𝑛2
 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑎0 𝑍

𝜀 𝑕2
 0
𝑎0 = 𝜋𝑚 = 0.529 Å
𝑒2

 This is known as Bohr radius which is the smallest radius of the orbit in an atom.
 Bohr radius is also used as unit of length called Bohr.
 1 Bohr = 0.53 Å
 For hydrogen atom, Z = 1
 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑎0 𝑛2
 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1 ⇒ 𝑟1 = 𝑎0 = 0.529 Å
 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2 ⇒ 𝑟2 = 4𝑎0 = 2.116 Å
 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3 ⇒ 𝑟3 = 9𝑎0 = 4.761 Å
 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2
 The ratio between the first three orbits of the hydrogen atom 1 : 4 : 9
𝑛𝑕
 𝑚𝑣𝑛 rn = 𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑎0 𝑛2 = 2𝜋
𝑕 𝑍
 𝑣𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑚 𝑎
0𝑛
1
 𝑣𝑛 ∝ 𝑛

4. Derive the energy expression for hydrogen atom using Bohr atom model.
1 𝑍𝑒 2
 𝑈𝑛 = − 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟𝑛

1 𝑍2𝑚 𝑒 4
 𝑈𝑛 = − 4𝜋𝜀 2
0 𝑕2𝑛2

1 1 𝑍 2 𝑚𝑒 4
 𝐾𝐸𝑛 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑛2 = 8𝜋𝜀 2
0 𝑕2𝑛2

 𝑈𝑛 = −2𝐾𝐸𝑛

 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐾𝐸𝑛 + 𝑈𝑛 = 𝐾𝐸𝑛 − 2𝐾𝐸𝑛 = −𝐾𝐸𝑛

𝑚𝑒4 𝑍2
 𝐸𝑛 = − 8𝜋𝜀 2 𝑕 2 𝑛 2
0

 For hydrogen atom, Z = 1

𝑚𝑒4 1
 𝐸𝑛 = − 8𝜋𝜀 2 𝑕 2 𝑛 2 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
0

 Where n stands for principal quantum number.

 The negative sign indicates that the electron is bound to the nucleus.
13.6
 𝐸𝑛 = − 𝑒𝑉
𝑛2

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  𝐸1 = −13.6 𝑒𝑉 (ground state energy)
 𝐸2 = −3.4 𝑒𝑉 ( first excitation energy)
 𝐸3 = −1.51 𝑒𝑉 ( second excitation energy)
 The ground state energy of hydrogen ( - 13.6 eV) is used as a unit of energy called Rydberg.

5. Explain the spectral series of Hydrogen spectrum.

 When the hydrogen gas enclosed in a tube is
heated up, it emits electromagnetic radiations of
certain sharply-defined characteristic wavelength
(line spectrum), called hydrogen emission
spectrum.
 When any gas is heated up, the thermal energy is
supplied to excite the electrons.
 Similarly by all occurring light on the atoms,
electrons can be excited.
 Once theelectrons get sufficient energy as given
by Bohr’s postulate (c), it absorbs energy with
particular wavelength (or frequency) and jumps
from one stationary state (original state) to
another state with those wavelengths (or
frequencies) for the colours that are not observed
are seen as dark lines in the absorption spectrum.
 Since electrons in excited states have very small
life time, these electrons jump back to ground
state through spontaneous emission in a short
duration of time (approximately 10–8 s) by
emitting the radiation with same wavelength (or
frequency) corresponding to the colours it
absorbed.
 This is called emission spectroscopy.
 The wavelengths of these lines can be calculated with great precision.
 Further, the emitted radiation contains wavelengths both lesser and greater than wavelengths of lines
in the visible spectrum.
 Notice that the spectral lines of hydrogen as shown in Figure are grouped in separate series.
 In each series, the distance of separation between the consecutive wavelengths decreases from
higher wavelength to the lower wavelength, and also wavelength in eachseries approach a limiting
value known as the series limit.
 These series are named as Lyman series, Balmer series, Paschen series, Brackett series, Pfund
series, etc.
 The wavelengths of these spectral lines perfectly agree with the wavelengths calculate using
equation derived from Bohr atom model.
1 1 1
 𝜆 = 𝑅 𝑛 2 − 𝑚 2 = 𝜈 ------ (1)
 where 𝜈 is known as wave number which is inverse of wavelength,
 R is known as Rydberg constant whose value is 1.09737 × 107 m-1 and m and n are positive integers
such that m > n.
 The various spectral series are discussed below:
Lyman series
 For n = 1 and m = 2,3,4....... in equation (1), the wave numbers or wavelength of spectral lines of
Lyman series which lies in ultra-violet region,
1 1 1
 𝜈 = 𝜆 = 𝑅 12 − 𝑚 2
Balmer series

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 128
  For n = 2 and m = 3,4,5....... in equation (1), the wave numbers or wavelength of spectral lines of
Balmer series which lies in visible region,
1 1 1
 𝜈= =𝑅 2− 2
𝜆 2 𝑚

Paschen series
 Put n = 3 and m = 4,5,6....... in equation (1), the wave number or wavelength of spectral lines of
Paschen series which lies in infra-red region (near IR) is
1 1 1
 𝜈 = 𝜆 = 𝑅 32 − 𝑚 2
Brackett series
 For n = 4 and m = 5,6,7........ in equation (1), the wave numbers or wavelength ofspectral lines of
Brackett series which lies in 9infra-red region (middle IR),
1 1 1
 𝜈 = 𝜆 = 𝑅 42 − 𝑚 2
Pfund series
 For n = 5 and m = 6,7,8........ in equation (1), the wave numbers or wavelength of spectral lines of
Pfund series which lies in infra-red region (far IR),
1 1 1
 𝜈 = 𝜆 = 𝑅 52 − 𝑚 2

6. Explain the variation of average binding energy with the mass number by graph and discuss its features.

 The average binding energy per nucleon is the energy

required to separate single nucleon from the particular
nucleus.
 The value of rises as the mass number increases until
it reaches a maximum value of 8.8 MeV for A = 56
and it slowly decreases.
 The average binding energy per nucleon is about 8.5
MeV for nuclei having mass number between A = 40
and 120.
 These elements are comparatively more stable and not
radioactive.
 For higher mass numbers, the curve reduces slowly and for unranium is about 7.6 MeV.
 They are unstable and radioactive.
 From the graph, if two light nuclei with A < 28 combine with a nucleus with A < 56, the binding
energy per nucleon is more for final nucleus than initial nuclei.
 Thus, if the lighter elements combine to produce a nucleus of medium value A, a large amount of
energy will be released.
 This is the basis of nuclear fusion and is the principle of the hydrogen bomb.
 If a nucleus of heavy element is split into tow or more nuclei of medium value A, the energy
released would again be large.
 The atom bomb is based on this principle and huge energy of atom bomb comes from this fission
when it is uncontrolled.

7. Explain in detail the nuclear force.

 Nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
 From electrostatics, we learnt that like charges repel each other.
 In the nucleus, the protons are separated by a distance of about a few Fermi, they must exert on each
other a very strong repulsive force.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 129
  For example, the electrostatic repulsive force between two protons separated by a distance 10 -15 m is
230 N
 The acceleration experienced by a proton due to the force of 230 N is 1.4 x 1029 m s-2
 This is nearly times greater than the acceleration due to gravity.
 So if the protons in the nucleus experience only the electrostatic force, then the nucleus would fly
apart in an instant.
 Then how protons are held together in nucleus?
 From this observation, it was concluded that there must be a strong attractive force between protons
to overcome the repulsive Coulomb’s force.
 This attractive force which holds the nucleus together is called strong nuclear force.
 A few properties of strong nuclear force are:
 The strong nuclear force is of very short range, acting only up to a distance of few Fermi.
 The strong nuclear force is attractive and acts with an equal strength between proton – proton,
proton – neutron, and neutron – neutron.
 Strong nuclear force does not act on the electrons.
 So it does not alter the chemical properties of the atom.

8. Discuss the alpha decay process with example.

 When unstable nuclei decay by emitting an 𝛼 - particle, it loses two protons and two neutrons.
 As a result, its atomic number Z decreases by 2, the mass number decreases by 4.
 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴−4 4
𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝐻𝑒
 Where X is called the parent nucleus and Y is called the daughter nucleus.
 Example: 238 234 4
92𝑈 → 88 𝑇𝑕 + 2𝐻𝑒
 The total mass of daughter nucleus and 42𝐻𝑒nucleus is always less than that of the parent nucleus.
 This difference in mass is released as energy called disintegration energy Q
 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑋 − 𝑚𝑌 − 𝑀𝛼 𝑐 2

9. Discuss the beta decay process with examples.

 In beta decay, a radioactive nucleus emits either electron or positron.
 If electron (e-) is emitted, it is called 𝛽 −decay.
 If positron ( e+) is emitted, it is called 𝛽 +decay
 The positron is an anti-particle of an electron and charge is opposite to that of electron.
 Both positron and electron are referred to as beta particles.
𝛽 − decay:
 In this decay, atomic number of the nucleus increases by one but mass number remains the same.
 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝐴 𝑌 + 𝑒 − + ν
 In each 𝛽 − decay, 𝑛 → 𝑝 + 𝑒 − + ν
𝛽 + decay:
 In this decay, atomic number of the nucleus is decreased by one but mass number remains the same.
 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−1𝐴 𝑌 + 𝑒 + + ν

 In each 𝛽 + decay, 𝑝 → 𝑛 + 𝑒 + + ν
Example:
 22 22 +
11 𝑁𝑎 → 11 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑒 + ν

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10. Discuss the gamma decay process with example.
 In alpha and beta decay, the daughter nucleus is in the excited state most of the time.
 The typical life time of the excited state is approximately 10-11 s.
 So this excited state nucleus immediately returns to the ground state by emitting highly energetic
photons called γ rays.
 In fact, when the atom is in the excited state, it returns to the ground state by emitting photons of
energy in the order of few eV.
 But when the excited state nucleus returns to its ground state, it emits a highly energetic photon of
energy in the order of MeV.
 𝐴𝑍𝑋 ∗ → 𝐴𝑍𝑋 + 𝛾
 Here the asterisk (*) means excited state nucleus.
 In gamma decay, there is no change in the mass number or atomic number of the nucleus.
 Boron has two beta decay modes as shown in Figure.

 It undergoes beta decay directly into ground state carbon by

emitting an electron of maximum of energy 13.4 MeV
 It undergoes beta decay to an excited state of carbon by
emitting an electron of maximum energy 9.0 MeV followed
by gamma decay to ground state by emitting a photon of
energy 4.4 MeV.
 12 12
5𝐵 → 6𝐶 + 𝑒 + ν
−

 126𝐶 ∗ → 126𝐶 + 𝛾
11. Obtain the law of radioactivity.
 At any instant t, the number of decays per unit time, called rate of decay is proportional to the
number of nuclei ( N ) at the same instant.
𝑑𝑁
 ∝ 𝑁
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁
 = −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡

 𝑑𝑁 = −𝜆𝑁𝑑𝑡

 𝐴𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡 = 0 then 𝑁 = 𝑁0

𝑑𝑁
 = −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁

N t
dN
 N N  0 dt
0

N
 𝑙𝑛 = −𝜆𝑡
N0

 N = N0 e−λt
 The above equation is called law of radioactive decay.
 N denotes the number of undecayed nuclei present at any time t
 N0 denotes the number of nuclei at initial time t = 0.

P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 131
  The number of atoms is decreasing exponentially over the time.
 The time taken for all the radioactive nuclei to decay will be infinite.
 Activity or decay rate is defined as the number of nuclei decayed per second and it is denoted as R =
𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑡
 R is a positive quantity.
 R = λN0 e−λt
 R = R 0 e−λt where R 0 = λN0
 The above equation is also equivalent to radioactive law of decay.
 R 0 is the activity of the sample at t = 0 .
 R is the activity of the sample at any time t.
 Activity also shows exponential decay behavior.
 The activity R also can be expressed in terms of number of undecayed atoms present at any time t.
 R = λN
 The SI unit of activity R is Becquerel.
 1 Bq = 1 decay per second
 Another unit of activity is called Curie (Ci)
 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq

12. Discuss the properties of neutrino and its role in beta decay.
 Initially, it was thought that during beta decay, a neutron in the parent nucleus is converted into the
daughter nuclei by emitting only electron as given by 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝐴 𝑌 + 𝑒 −
 But the kinetic energy of electron coming out of the nucleus did not match with the experimental
results.
 In alpha decay, the alpha particle takes only certain allowed discrete energies whereas in beta decay,
it was found that the beta particle (i.e, electron) has a continuous range of energies.
 But the conservation of energy and momentum gives specific single values for energy of electron
and the recoiling nucleus Y.
 It seems that the conservation of energy, momentum are violated and could not be explained why
energy of beta particle having continuous range of values.
 So beta decay remained as a puzzle for several years.
 After a detailed theoretical and experimental study in 1931, W.Pauli proposed a third particle which
must be emitted in the beta decay process carrying away missing energy and momentum.
 Fermi later named this particle as neutrino (little neutral one) since it mass is small and is neutral
carrying no charge.
 For many years, the neutrino (symbol 𝜈, Greek nu) was hypothetical and could not be verified
experimentally.
 Finally, the neutrino was detected experimentally in 1956 by Fredrick Reines and Clyde Cowan.
 Later Reines received Nobel prize in physics in the year 1995 for his discovery.

Properties of neutrino:
 It has zero charge.
 It has an antiparticle called anti-neutrino.
 Recent experiments showed that the neutrino has very tiny mass.
 It interacts very weakly with the matter.
 It is very difficult to detect.
 In fact, in every second, trillions of neutrons coming from the Sun are passing through our body
without any interaction.

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13. Explain the idea of carbon dating.
 The interesting application of beta decay is radioactive dating or carbon dating.
 Using this technique, the age of an ancient object can be calculated.
 All living organisms absorb carbon dioxide form air to synthesize organic molecules.
 In this absorbed CO2, the major part is 126𝐶 and very small fraction is radioactive 146𝐶 whose half –
life is 5730 years.
 Carbon – 14 in the atmosphere is always decaying but at the same time, cosmic rays from outer
space are continuously bombarding the atoms in the atmosphere which produces 146𝐶 .
 So the continuous production and decay of 146𝐶 in the atmosphere keep the ratio of 146𝐶 𝑡𝑜 126𝐶
always constant.
 Since our human body, tree or any living organism continuously absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere,
the ratio 146𝐶 𝑡𝑜 126𝐶 of in the living organism is also nearly constant.
 But when the organism dies, it stops absorbing CO2.
 Since 146𝐶 starts to decay, the ratio of 146𝐶 𝑡𝑜 126𝐶 in a dead organism decreases over the years.
 Suppose the ratio of 146𝐶 𝑡𝑜 126𝐶 in the ancient tree pieces excavated is known, then the age of the
tree pieces can be calculated.

14. Discuss the process of nuclear fission and its properties.

 The process of breaking up of the nucleus of a heavier atom into two smaller nuclei with the release
of a large amount of energy is called nuclear fission.
 The fission is accompanied by the release of neutrons.
 The energy that is released in the nuclear fission is of many orders of magnitude greater than the
energy released in chemical reactions.
 Uranium undergoes fission reaction in 90 different ways.
 The most common fission reactions of 235 92𝑈 nuclei are shown here.
 235 1 236 ∗ 141 92
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 → 92𝑈 → 56 𝐵𝑎 + 36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + 𝑄
1

 235
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 236 ∗
92𝑈 → 140
54 𝑋𝑒
94
+ 38 𝑆𝑟 + 2 10𝑛 + 𝑄

 Here Q is energy released during the decay of each uranium nuclei.

 When the slow neutron is absorbed by the uranium nuclei, the mass number increases by one and
goes to an excited state 236 ∗
92𝑈 .
 But this excited state does not last longer than 10-12 s and decay into two daughter nuclei along with
2 or 3 neutrons.
 From each reaction, on an average, 2.5 neutrons are emitted.

15. Explain about chain reaction and its types.

 When one 235 92𝑈 nucleus undergoes fission, the energy released might be small.
 But from each fission reaction, three neutrons are released.
 These three neutrons cause further fission in another three 23592𝑈 nuclei which in turn produce nine
neutrons.
 These nine neutrons initiate fission in another 27 235
92𝑈 nuclei and so on.
 This is called a chain reaction and the number of neutrons goes on increasing almost in geometric
progression.
 There are two kinds of chain reactions.
 (1) uncontrolled chain reaction (2) controlled chain reaction.

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 Uncontrolled chain reaction:
 In an uncontrolled chain reaction, the number of neutrons multiply indefinitely and the entire
amount of energy released in a fraction of second.
 The atom bomb is an example of nuclear fission in which uncontrolled chain reaction occurs.
 Controlled chain reaction:
 If the chain reaction is controllable, then we can harvest an enormous amount of energy for our
needs.
 It is achieved in a controlled chain reaction.
 In the controlled chain reaction, the average number of neutron released in each stage is kept as one
such that it is possible to store the released energy.
 In nuclear reactors, the controlled chain reaction is achieved.

16. Describe the working of nuclear reactor with a block diagram.

Nuclear reactor:
 Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear fission takes place in a self – sustained controlled
manner and the energy produced is used either for research purpose or for power generation.
Fuel:
 The fuel is fissionable material usually uranium or plutonium.
 Naturally occurring uranium contains 0.7 % of 235 92𝑈 and 99.3 % of only 92𝑈
238

 So the 238 235

92𝑈 must be enriched such that it contains at least 2 to 4 % of 92𝑈
Neutron source:
 A neutron source is required to initiate the chain reaction for the first time.
 A mixture of beryllium with plutonium or polonium is used as the neutron source.
Moderators:
 The moderator is a material used to convert fast neutrons into slow neutrons.
 Usually moderators are chosen is such a way that it must be very light nucleus having mass
comparable to that of neutrons.
 Most of the reactors use water, heavy water and graphite as moderators.
Control rods:
 The control rods are used to adjust the reaction rate.
 During each fission, on an average 2.5 neutrons are emitted and in order to have the controlled chain
reactions, only one neutron is allowed to cause another fission and the remaining neutrons are
absorbed by the control rods.
 Usually cadmium or boron acts as control rod material.
Shielding:
 For a protection against harmful radiations,
the nuclear reactor is surrounded by a
concrete wall of thickness of about 2 to 2.5 m.
Cooling system:
 The cooling system removes the heat
generated in the reactor core.
 Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid
sodium are used as coolant since they have
very high specific heat capacity and have
large boiling point under high pressure.
 This coolant passes through the fuel block
and carries away the heat to the steam generator through heat exchanger.
 The steam runs the turbines which produces electricity in power reactors.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 134
17. Discuss the process of nuclear fusion and how energy is generated in stars?
 When two or more light nuclei ( A < 20 ) combine to form a heavier nucleus, then it is called
nuclear fusion.
 In the nuclear fusion, the mass of the resultant nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of original
light nuclei.
 The mass difference appears as energy.
 The nuclear fusion never occurs at room temperature unlike nuclear fission.
 It is because when two light nuclei come closer to combine, it is strongly repelled by the coulomb
repulsive force.
 To overcome this repulsion, the two light nuclei must have enough kinetic energy to move closer to
each other such that the nuclear force becomes effective.
 This can be achieved if the temperature is very much greater than the value of 10 K.
7

 When the surrounding temperature reaches around 107 K, lighter nuclei start fusing to form heavier
nuclei and this resulting reaction is called thermonuclear fusion reaction.
Energy generation in stars:
 The natural place where nuclear fusion occurs is the core of the stars, since its temperature is of the
order of 107 K.
 in fact, the energy generation in every star is only through thermonuclear fusion.
 Most of the stars including our Sun fuse hydrogen into helium and some stars even fuse helium into
heavier elements.
 The early stage of a star is in the form o cloud and dust.
 Due to their own gravitational pull, these clouds fall inward.
 As a result, its gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy and finally into heat.
 When the temperature is high enough to initiate the thermonuclear fusion, they start to release
enormous energy which tends to stabilize the star and prevents it from further collapse.
 The Sun’s interior temperature is around 1.5 x 107 K.
 The Sun is converting 6 x 1011 kg hydrogen into helium every second and it has enough hydrogen
such that these fusion lasts for another 5 billion years.
 When the hydrogen is burnt out, the Sun will enter into new phase called red giant where helium
will fuse to become carbon.
 During this stage, Sun will expand greatly in size and all its planets will be engulfed in it.
 According to Hans Bethe, the is powered by proton – proton cycle of fusion reaction.
 This cycle consists of three steps and the first two steps are as follows:
1 1 2
 1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 1𝐻 + 𝑒 + ν
+
1 2 3
 1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝛾
 A number of reactions are possible in the third step.
 But the dominant one is
3 3 4 1 1
 2𝐻𝑒 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 1𝐻 + 1𝐻
 The overall energy production in the above reactions is about 27 MeV.
 The radiation energy we received from the Sun is due to these fusion reactions.

18. Briefly explain the elementary particles of nature.

 An atom has a nucleus surrounded by electrons and nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.
 Till 1960s, it was thought that protons, neutrons and electrons are fundamental building blocks of
matter.
 In 1964, physicist Murray Gellman and George Zweig theoretically proposed that protons and
neutrons are not fundamental particles.
 In fact they are made up of quarks.
P.ILAIYARAJA M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,PGDCA., PG TEACHER (PHYSICS), GBHSS, BUDALUR, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, Page 135
  These quarks are now considered as elementary particles of nature.
 Electrons are elementary particles because they are not made up of anything.
 There are six quarks namely, up, down, charm, strange, top and bottom and their antiparticles.
 All these quarks have fractional charges.
 For example, charge or up quark is +2/3e and that of down quark is – 1/3e.
 According to quark model, proton is made up of two up quarks and one down quark.
 Neutron is made up of one up quark and two down quarks.

19. Explain in detail the four fundamental forces.

Gravitational force:
 It is known that there exists gravitational force between two masses and it is universal in nature.
 Our planets are bound to the Sun through gravitational force of the Sun.
 We are in the Earth because of Earth’s gravitational attraction on our body
Electromagnetic force:
 Between two charges there exists electromagnetic force and it plays major role in most our day –to –
day events.
 We are standing on the surface of the Earth because of the electromagnetic force between atoms of
the surface of Earth with atoms in our foot.

Strong nuclear force:

 Between two nucleons, there exists a strong nuclear force.
 This force is responsible for stability of the nucleus.
 The atoms in our body are stable because of strong nuclear force.
Weak nuclear force:
 This weak force is shorter in range than strong nuclear force.
 This force plays an important role in beta decay and energy production of stars.
 During the fusion of hydrogen into helium in Sun, neutrinos and enormous radiations are produced
through weak force.

10.SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
2 – Mark questions
1. What is forbidden energy gap?
The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is called forbidden energy gap.
2. What do you mean by doping?
The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor is called doping.

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3. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors
A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity A semiconductor which is obtained by adding
is called an intrinsic semiconductor. impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor
Number of electrons and holes are same. Number of electrons and holes are not same
Electrical conductivity is low Conductivity is high
4. A diode is called as a unidirectional device. Explain.
 A diode allows the electric current to pass through it only when it is forward bias.
 It does not allow the electric current to pass through it when it is in reverse bias.
 The diode allows the electric current in one direction when it is connected in forward bias.
 Hence , a diode is called as a unidirectional device.

5. What do you mean by leakage current in a diode?

The current that flows under a reverse bias is called leakage current or reverse saturation current.

6. What is forward bias?

 If the positive terminal of the external voltage source is connected to the p-side and the negative
terminal to the n-side, it is called forward biased.
 (1) Forward bias (2) Reverse bias

7. What is barrier potential?

The difference in potential across the depletion layer is called the barrier potential.
8. Write a short note on diffusion current across PN junction.
 A single piece of semiconductor crystal is suitably doped such that its one side is p-type
semiconductor and the other side is n-type semiconductor.
 The contact surface between the two sides is called p-n junction.
 Whenever p-n junction is formed, some of the free electrons diffuse from the n-side to the p-side
while the holes from the p-side to the n-side.
 The diffusion of charge carriers happens due to the fact that the n-side has higher electron
concentration and the p-side has higher hole concentration.
 The diffusion of the majority charge carriers across the junction gives rise to an electric current,
called diffusion current.

9. What is rectification?
The process of converting alternating current into direct current is called rectification.

10. Draw the output waveform of a full wave rectifier.

11. What are the applications of LED?

LED can be used in
1. Indicator lambs on the front panel of the scientific and laboratory equipments.
2. Seven –segment displays

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 3. Traffic signals
4. Emergency vehicle lighting
5. Remote control of television, airconditioner

12. Give the principle of solar cells.

 A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, works on the principle of photovoltaic effect.
 Accordingly, the p-n junction of the solar cell generates emf when solar radiation falls on it.

13. Why can’t we interchange the emitter and collector even though they are made up of the same type of
semiconductor
material?
The emitter and collector cannot be interchanged even though they are made up of the same type of
semiconductor material because of their size and dopping level.

14. Explain the need for a feedback circuit in a transistor oscillator.

 The circuit used to feed a portion of the output back to the input is called the feedback network.
 If the portion of the output fed to the input is in phase with the input, then the magnitude of the input
signal increases.
 This process is called positive feedback which is necessary for sustained oscillations.

15. State the Barkhausen conditions for sustained oscillations.

 The loop phase shift must be 0° or integral multiples of 2𝜋
 The loop gain must be unity. 𝐴𝛽 = 1

16. What are logic gates?

Logic gate is an electronic circuit whose function is based on digital signals. They are binary in
nature.

17. Why are NAND and NOR gates are called as universal gates?
NAND and NOR gates are called as universal gates because any other logic gate can be made from
NAND and NOR gates.

18. What are integrated circuits?

 An integrated circuit is also referred as an IC or a chip or a microchip.
 It consists of thousands to millions of transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc. integrated on a small flat
piece of semiconductor material that is normally silicon.

19. What is modulation?

For long distance transmission, the low frequency baseband signal (input signal) is superimposed
onto a high frequency radio signal by a process called modulation.

20. Define bandwidth of a transmission system.

The range of frequencies required to transmit a piece of specified information in a particular channel
is called channel bandwidth or the bandwidth of the transmission system.

21. Define - skip distance

The shortest distance between the transmitter and the point of reception of the sky wave along the
surface is called as the skip distance.

22. Give the applications of RADAR.

Radars find extensive applications in many fields.
i) In military, it is used for locating and detecting the targets.

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 ii) It is used in navigation systems such as ship borne surface search, air search and missile guidance
systems.
iii) Radars are used to measure precipitation rate and wind speed in meteorological observations.
iv) It is employed to locate and rescue people in emergency situations.

23. What is mobile communication?

Mobile communication is used to communicate with others in different locations without the use of
any physical connection like wires or cables.

24. What does RADAR stands for?

RADAR stands for RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING.

3 Mark questions

1. Why is temperature co-efficient of resistance negative for semiconductor?

 In semiconductors, there exists a narrow forbidden energy gap (Eg < 3 eV ) between the valence
band and the conduction band.
 At a finite temperature, thermal agitations in the solid can break the covalent bond between the
atoms (covalent bond is formed due to the sharing of electrons to attain stable electronic
configuration).
 This releases some electrons from valence band to conduction band.
 Since free electrons are small in number, the conductivity of the semiconductors is not as high as
that of the conductors.
 The resistivity value of semiconductors is from 10–5 Ωm to 106 Ωm.
 When the temperature is increased further, more number of electrons are promoted to the
conduction band and they increase the conduction.
 Thus, we can say that the electrical conduction increases with the increase in temperature.
 In other words, resistance decreases with increase in temperature.
 Hence, semiconductors are said to have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

2. Distinguish between avalanche and Zener breakdown.

Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown
It occurs in a heavily doped It occurs in lightly doped PN
PN junctions. junctions.
Strong electric field is Electric field is not strong
developed
Depletion layer becomes Depletion layer becomes
narrow. wider.

3. Explain with circuit diagram how a transistor acts as a switch.

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  The transistor in saturation and cut-off regions functions like an electronic switch that helps to turn
ON or OFF a given circuit by a small control signal.
 Presence of de source at the input ( saturation region):
 When a high input voltage (Vin = +5V) is applied, the base current (IB) increases and in turn
increases the collector current.
 The transistor will move into the saturation region (turned ON).
 The increase in collector current (IC) increases the voltage drop across RC, thereby lowering the
output voltage, close to zero.
 The transistor acts like a closed switch and is equivalent to ON condition.
 Absence of dc source at the input ( cut-off region)
 A low input voltage (Vin = 0V), decreases the base current (IB) and in turn decreases the collector
current (IC).
 The transistor will move in the cut-off region (turned OFF)
 The decrease in collector current (IC) decreases the drop across RC, thereby increasing the output
voltage, close to +5V.
 The transistor acts as an open switch which is considered as the OFF condition.
 It is manifested that, a high input gives a low output and a low input gives a high output.
 In addition, we can say that the output voltage is opposite to the applied input voltage.
 Therefore, a transistor can be used as an inverter (NOT gate) in computer logic circuitry.

4. Explain centre frequency or resting frequency in frequency modulation.

 When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero (no input signal), there is no change in the
frequency of the carrier wave.
 It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre frequency or resting frequency.
 Practically this is the allotted frequency of the FM transmitter.

5. List out the advantages and disadvantages of frequency modulation.

Advantages of FM
i) In FM, there is a large decrease in noise.
ii) This leads to an increase in signalnoise ratio.
iii) The operating range is quite large.
iv) The transmission efficiency is very high as all the transmitted power is useful.
v) FM bandwidth covers the entire frequency range which humans can hear.
vi) Due to this, FM radio has better quality compared to AM radio.
Limitations of FM
i) FM requires a much wider channel.
ii) ii) FM transmitters and receivers aremore complex and costly.
iii) In FM reception, less area is covered compared to AM.
10.9.3
6. Fibre optic Fiber optic communication is gaining popularity among the various transmission media -
justify.
 The method of transmitting information from one place to another in terms of light pulses
through an optical fiber is called fiber optic communication.
 It works on the principle of total internal reflection.
Applications
 Optical fiber system has a number of applications namely, international communication, inter-city
communication, data links, plant and traffic control and defense applications.
Merits
 i) Fiber cables are very thin and weigh less than copper cables.
 ii) This system has much larger band width. This means that its information carrying capacity is
larger.
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  iii) Fiber optic system is immune to electrical interferences.
 iv) Fiber optic cables are cheaper than copper cables.
Demerits
 i) Fiber optic cables are more fragile when compared to copper wires.
 ii) It is an expensive technology.

7. What is meant by satellite communication? Give its applications.

 The satellite communication is a mode of transmission of the signal between transmitter and
receiver via satellite.
 The message signal from the Earth station is transmitted to the satellite on board via an uplink
(frequency band 6 GHz), amplified by a transponder and then retransmitted to another Earth station
via a downlink (frequency band 4 GHz).
Applications
 Satellites are classified into different types based on their applications.
i) Weather satellites:
 They are used to monitor the weather and climate of Earth.
 By measuring cloud mass, these satellites enable us to predict rain and dangerous storms like
hurricanes, cyclones etc.
ii) Communication satellites:
 They are used to transmit television, radio, internet signals etc.
 Multiple satellites are used for long distance communication.
iii) Navigation satellites:
 These are employed to determine the geographic location ofships, aircrafts or any other object.

5 Mark questions

1. Elucidate the formation of a N-type semiconductors.

N – type semiconductor:
 A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure Germanium
(or Silicon) crystal with a dopant from group V pentavalent
elements like Phosphorus, Arsenic and Antimony as shown in
Figure.
 The dopant has five valence electrons while the Germanium atom
has four valence electrons.
 During the process of doping, a few of the Germanium atoms are replaced by the group V dopants.
 Four of the five valence electrons of the impurity atom are bound with the 4 valence electrons of the
neighbouring replaced Germanium atom.
The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom will be loosely
attached with the nucleus as it has not formed the covalent bond.
 The energy level of the loosely attached fifth electron from the
dopant is found just below the conduction band edge and is called
the donor energy level as shown in Figure.
 At room temperature, these electrons can easily move to the
conduction band with the absorption of thermal energy.
 It is shown in the Figure.
 Besides, an external electric field also can set free the loosely bound electrons and lead to
conduction.
 It is important to note that the energy required for an electron to jump from the valence band to the
conduction band (Eg) in an intrinsic semiconductor is 0.7 eV for Ge and 1.1 eV fo r Si, while the
energy required to set free a donor electron is only 0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.
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  The group V pentavalent impurity atoms donate electrons to
the conduction band and are called donor impurities.
 Therefore, each impurity atom provides one extra electron to
the conduction band in addition to the thermally generated
electrons.
 These thermally generated electrons leave holes in valence
band.
 Hence, the majority carriers of current in an n-type semiconductor are electrons and the minority
carriers are holes.
 Such a semiconductor doped with a pentavalent impurity is called an n-type semiconductor.

2. Explain the formation of depletion region and barrier potential in PN junction diode.
i) Formation of depletion layer
 A single piece of semiconductor crystal is suitably
doped such that its one side is p-type semiconductor
and the other side is n-type semiconductor.
 The contact surface between the two sides is called p-n
junction.
 Whenever p-n junction is formed, some of the free
electrons diffuse from the n-side to the p-side while
the holes from the p-side to the n-side.
 The diffusion of charge carriers happens due to the
fact that the n-side has higher electron concentration
and the p-side has higher hole concentration.
 The diffusion of the majority charge carriers across the
junction gives rise to an electric current, called
diffusion current.
 When an electron leaves the n-side, a pentavalent atom in the n-side becomes a positive ion.
 The free electron migrating into p-side recombines with a hole present in a trivalent atom near the
junction and the trivalent atom becomes a negative ion.
 Since such ions are bonded to the neighbouring atoms in the crystal lattice, they are unable to move.
 As the diffusion process continues, a layer of positive ions and a layer of negative ions are created
on either side of the junction accordingly.
 The thin region near the junction which is free from charge carriers (free electrons and holes) is
called depletion region .
 An electric field is set up between the positively charged layer in the n-side and the negatively
charged layer in the p-side in the depletion region as shown in the Figure.
 This electric field makes electrons in the p-side drift into the n-side and the holes in the n-side into
the p-side.
 The electric current produced due to the motion of the minority charge carriers by the electric
field is known as drift current.
 The diffusion current and drift current flow in opposite directions.
 Though drift current is less than diffusion current initially, equilibrium is reached between them at a
particular time.
 With each electron (or hole) diffusing across the
junction, the strength of the electric field increases
thereby increasing the drift current till the two
currents become equal.
 Hence at equilibrium, there is no net electric current
across the junction.
 Thus, a p-n junction is formed.
ii) Junction potential or barrier potential

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  The movement of charge carriers across the junction takes place only to a certain point beyond
which the depletion layer acts like a barrier to further diffusion of free charges across the junction.
 This is due to the fact that the immobile ions on both sides establish an electric potential difference
across the junction.
 This difference in potential across the depletion layer is called the barrier potential (Vb) as
shown in Figure 10.10. At 25 0C, this barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V
for germanium.
3. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier and explain its working.
Half wave rectifier circuit:
 The half wave rectifier circuit is shown in Figure (a)
 The circuit consists of a transformer, a p-n junction diode
and a resistor.
 In a half wave rectifier circuit, either a positive half or the
negative half of the AC input is passed through while the
other half is blocked.
 Only one half of the input wave reaches the output.
 Therefore, it is called half wave rectifier.
 Here, a p-n junction diode acts as a rectifier.

During the positive half cycle:

 When the positive half cycle of the AC input signal passes
through the circuit, terminal A becomes positive with
respect to terminal B.
 The diode is forward biased and hence it conducts.
 The current flows through the load resistor RL and the AC
voltage developed across RL constitutes the output voltage
Vo and the waveform of the diode current is shown in
Figure (c).

During the negative half cycle:

 When the negative half cycle of the AC signal passes through the circuit, terminal A is negative
with respect to terminal B.
 Now the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct and hence no current passes through RL.
 The reverse saturation current in a diode is negligible. Since there is no voltage drop across R L, the
negative half cycle of AC supply is suppressed at the output.
 The output waveform is shown in Figure (c).
 The output of the half wave rectifier is not a steady dc voltage but a pulsating wave.
 This pulsating voltage cannot be used for electronic equipments.
 A constant or a steady voltage is required which can be obtained with the help of filter circuits and
voltage regulator circuits.
 Efficiency is the ratio of the output dc power to the ac input power supplied to the circuit.
 Its value for half wave rectifier is 40.6%

4. Explain the construction and working of a full wave rectifier.

Full wave rectifier:
 The positive and negative half cycles of the AC input signal
pass through the full wave rectifier circuit and hence it is
called the full wave rectifier.
 The circuit is shown in Figure (a)
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  It consists of two p-n junction diodes, a center tapped transformer, and a load resistor (RL).
 The centre is usually taken as the ground or zero voltage reference point.
 Due to the centre tap transformer, the output voltage rectified by each diode is only one half of the
total secondary voltage.
During positive half cycle During negative half cycle
Terminal M is positive potential, G is at Terminal N is positive potential, G is at
zero potential an N is at negative potential zero potential an M is at negative
potential
This forward biases diode D1 and reverse This forward biases diode D2 and reverse
biases diode D2. biases diode D1.

Hence, being forward biased, diode D1 Hence, being forwarded biased, diode D2
conducts and current flows along the path conducts and current flows along the path
MD1AGC. ND2BGC.

As a result, positive half cycle of the As a result, negative half cycle of the
voltage appears across RL in the direction voltage appears across RL in the same
G to C. direction from G to C.

 Hence, in a full wave rectifier both positive and negative half cycles of the input signal pass through
the load in the same direction as shown in Figure.

 Though both positive and negative half cycles of ac input are rectified, the output is still pulsating in
nature.
 The efficiency of full wave rectifier is twice that of a half wave rectifier and is found to be 81.2%.
 It is because both the positive and negative half cycles of the ac input source are rectified.

5. Write a note on LED and give its applications.

LED – Light Emitting Diode:
 LED is a p – n junction diode which emits visible or invisible light when it is forward biased.
 Since, electrical energy is converted into light energy, this process is also called
electroluminescence.
 The circuit symbol of LED is shown in Figure (a).

 The cross-sectional view of a commercial LED is shown in Figure (b).

 It consists of a p-layer, n-layer and a substrate.

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  A transparent window is used to allow light to travel in the desired direction.
 An external resistance in series with the biasing source is required to limit the forward current
through the LED.
 In addition, it has two leads; anode and cathode.
 When the p-n junction is forward biased, the conduction
band electrons on n-side and valence band electrons on p-
side diffuse across the junction.
 When they cross the junction, they become excess
minority carriers.
 These excess minority carriers recombine with oppositely
charged majority carriers in the respective regions, i.e, the
electrons in the conduction band recombine with holes in
the valence band as shown in the Figure (c).
 During recombination process, energy is released in the
form of light or heat.
 For radiative recombination, a photon of energy 𝑕𝜈 is emitted.
 For non – radiative recombination, energy is liberated in the form of heat.
 The colour of the light is determined by the energy gap of the material.
 Therefore, LEDs are available in wide range of colours such as blue (SiC), green (AlGaP) and red
(GaAsP).
 Now a days, LED which emits white light (GaInN) is also available.
Applications:
 Indicator lamps on the front panel of the scientific and laboratory equipments
 Seven-segment displays
 Traffic signals, emergency vehicle lightning
 Remote control of television, airconditioner etc.

6. Write a note on photodiode and give its applications.

Photodiode:
 A p-n junction diode which converts an optical signal into electrical signal in known as photodiode.
 Thus, the operation of photodiode is exactly inverse to that of an LED.
 Photo diode works in reverse bias.
 Its circuit symbol is shown in Figure.

 The direction of arrows indicates that the light is incident on the photo diode.
 The device consists of a p-n junction semiconductor made of photosensitive material kept safely
inside a plastic case.
 It has a small transparent window that allows light to be incident on the p-n junction.
 Photodiodes can generate current when the p-n junction is exposed to light and hence are called as
light sensors.
 When a photon of sufficient energy (𝑕𝜈) strikes the depletion region of the diode, some of the
valence band electrons are elevated into conduction band, in turn holes are developed in the valence
band.
 This creates electron – hole pairs.
 The amount of electron-hole pairs generated depends on the intensity of light incident on the p-n
junction.

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  These electrons and holes are swept across the p-n junction by the electric field created by reverse
voltage before recombination takes place.
 Thus, holes move towards the n-side and electrons towards the p-side.
 When the external circuit is made, the electrons flow through the external circuit and constitute the
photocurrent.
 When the incident light is zero, there exists a reverse current in the absence of any incident light is
called dark current and is due to the thermally generated minority carriers.
Applications:
 Alarm system
 Count items on a conveyer belt
 Photoconductors
 Compact disc players, smoke detectors
 Medical applications such as detectors for computed tomography etc.

7. Explain the working principle of solar cell and give its applications
Solar cell:
 A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, converts light energy directly into electricity or electric
potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
 It is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls on the p-n junction.
 A solar cell is of two types: p –type and n-type
 In a solar cell, electron – hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of light near the junction.

 Then the charge carriers are separated due to the electric field of the depletion region.
 Electrons move towards n-type Silicon and holes move towards p-type Silicon layer.
 The electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact and holes reaching p-side are
collected by the back electrical contact.
 Thus a potential difference is developed across solar cell.
 When an external load is connected to the solar cell, photocurrent flows through the load.
 Many solar cells are connected together either in series or in parallel combination to form solar
panel or module.
 Many solar panels are connected with each other to form solar arrays.
 For high power applications, solar panels and solar arrays are used.
 Applications:
 They are widely used in calculators, watches, toys, portable power supplies etc.
 They are used in satellites and space applications
 Solar panels are used to generate electricity.

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8. Explain the current flow in a NPN transistor.
 The operation of an NPN transistor in the common base mode is explained below.
 The current flow in a common base NPN transistor in the forward active mode Basically, a BJT can
be considered as two p-n junction diodes connected backto-back.
 In the forward active bias of thetransistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased by a DC
power supply VEB and the collector-base junction is reverse biased by the bias power supply VCB.
 The forward bias decreases the depletion region across the emitter-base junction and the reverse bias
increases the depletion region across the collector-base junction.
 Hence, the barrier potential across the emitter-base junction is decreased and that across the
collector-base junction is increased.
 The voltage across the emitterbase junction is represented as VEB and that across the collector-base
junction as VCB.
 In an NPN transistor, the majority charge carriers in the emitter are electrons.
 As it is heavily doped, it has a large number of electrons.
 The forward bias across the emitter-base junction causes the electrons in the emitter region to flow
towards the base region and constitutes the emitter current (IE).
 The electrons after reaching the base region recombine with the holes in the base region.
 Since the base region is very narrow and lightly doped, the number of holes in it is not sufficient to
recombine with electrons from emitter.
 Hence most of the electrons reach the collector region.
 Eventually, the electrons that reach the collector region will be attracted by the collector terminal as
it has positive potential and flow through the external circuit.
 This constitutes the collector current (IC).
 The holes that are lost due to recombination in the base region are replaced by the positive potential
of the bias voltage VBE and constitute the base current (IB).
 The magnitude of the base current will be in microamperes as againstmilliamperes for emitter and
collector currents.
 It is to be noted that if the emitter current is zero, then the collector current is almost zero.
 It is therefore imperative that a BJT is called a current controlled device.
 Applying Kirchoff ’s law, we can write the emitter current as the sum of the collector current and
the base current.
 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶
 Since the base current is very small, we can write 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶
 . There is another component of collector current due to the thermally generated electrons called
reverse saturation current, denoted as ICO .
 This factor is temperature sensitive.
 Therefore, care must be taken towards the stability of the system at high temperatures.
 The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is called the forward current gain (𝛼) of a
transistor.
𝐼
 𝛼 = 𝐼𝐶
𝐸
 The 𝛼 of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a transistor.
 Higher the value of 𝛼, better is the quality of the transistor.
 It means that the collector current is closer to the emitter current.
 The value of a is less than unity and it ranges from 0.95 to 0.99.
 This indicates that the collector current is 95% to 99% of the emitter current.

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9. Explain the input and output characteristics of the NPN transistor connected in common emitter
configuration.

Input characteristics:
 To study the input characteristics of an NPN transistor in the common emitter mode is given in
Figure.

 The bias supply voltages VBB and VCC bias the base-emitter junction and collector-emitter junction
respectively.
 The junction potential at the base-emitter is represented as VBE and the collector – emitter as VCE.
 The rheostats R1 and R2 are used to vary the base and collector currents respectively.
 Input characteristics curves give the relationship between
the base current (IB) and base to emitter voltage (VBE) at
constant collector to emitter voltage (VCE).
 Initially, the collector to emitter voltage (VCE) is set to a
particular voltage ( above 0.7 V to reverse bias the
junction).
 Then the base-emitter voltage (VBE) is increased in
suitable steps and the corresponding base-current (IB) is
recorded.
 A graph is plotted with VBE along the x-axis and IB along
the y-axis.
 The procedure is repeated for different values of VCE.

 The following observations are made from the graph:

 The curve looks like the forward characteristics of an ordinary p-n junction diode.
 There exists a threshold voltage or knee voltage (Vk) below which the base current is very small.
 The value is 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium transistors.
 Beyond the knee voltage, the base current increases with the increase in base-emitter voltage.
 It is also noted that the increase in the collector – emitter voltage decrease the base current.
 This shifts the curve outward
 This is because the increase in collector-emitter voltage increases the width of the depletion region
in turn, reduces the effective base width and thereby the base current.
 Input impedance:
 The ratio of the change in base – emitter voltage (∆VBE) to the change in base current (∆IB) at a
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called the input impedance (ri).
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  The input impedance is not linear in the lower region the curve.
∆𝑉𝐵𝐸
 𝑟𝑖 = ∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸
 The input impedance is high for a transistor in common emitter
configuration.
Output characteristics:
 To study the output characteristics of an NPN transistor in the
common emitter mode is given in Figure.
 The bias supply voltages VBB and VCC bias the base-emitter
junction and collector-emitter junction respectively.
 The junction potential at the base-emitter is represented as VBE
and the collector – emitter as VCE.
 The rheostats R1 and R2 are used to vary the base and collector currents respectively.
 The output characteristics give the relationship between the variation in collector current (IC) with
respect to the variation in collector-emitter voltage (VCE) at constant input current (IB).
 Initially, the base current (IB) is set to a particular value.
 Then collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is increased in suitable steps and the corresponding collector
current (IC) is recorded.
 A graph is plotted with the VCE along the x-axis and IC along the y-axis.
 This procedure is repeated for different value of IB.
 The four important regions in the output characteristics are

Saturation region:
 When VCE is increased above 0 V, the IC increases rapidly to a saturation value almost independent
of IB (Ohmic region, OA) called knee voltage.
 Transistors are always operated above this knee voltage.
Cut-off region:
 A small collector current (IC) exists even after the base current (IB) is reduced to zero.
 This current is due to the presence of minority carriers across the collector-base junction and the
surface leakage current (ICEO).
 This region is called as the cut-off region, because the main collector current is cut-off.
Active region:
 In this region, the emitter –base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse
biased.
 The transistor in this region can be used for voltage, current and power amplification.

Breakdown region:
 If the collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is increased beyond the rated value given by the manufacturer,
the collector current (IC) increases enormously leading to the junction breakdown of the transistor.
 This avalanche breakdown can damage the transistor.
Output impedance:
 The ratio of the change in the collector-emitter voltage (∆VCE) to the corresponding change in the
collector current (∆IC) at constant base current (IB) is called output impedance (ro).
∆𝑉𝐶𝐸
 𝑟0 = ∆𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐵
 The output impedance for transistor in common emitter configuration is very low.

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10. Describe the function of a transistor as an amplifier with the neat circuit diagram. Sketch the input and
output waveform.
 A transistor operating in the
active region has the capability to
amplify weak signals.
 Amplification is the process of
increasing the signal strength
(increase in the amplitude).
 If a large amplification I s
required, the transistors are
cascaded with coupling elements
like resistors, capacitors and
transformers which is called as
multistage amplifiers.
 Here, the amplification of an electrical signal is explained with a single stage transistor amplifier as
shown in Figure (a).
 Single stage indicates that the circuit consists of one transistor with the allied components.
 An NPN transistor is connected in the common emitter configuration.
 To start with, the Q point or the operating point of the transistor is fixed so as to get the maximum
signal swing at eh output.
 A load resistance, RC I s connected in series with the collector circuit to measure the output voltage.
 The capacitor C1 allows only the ac signal to pass through.
 The emitter bypass capacitor CE provides a low reactance path to the amplified ac signal.
 The coupling capacitor CC is used to couple one stage of the amplifier with the next stage while
constructing multistage amplifiers.
 Vs is the sinusoidal input signal source applied across the base-emitter.
 The output is taken across the collector-emitter.
 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
 Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the output loop, the collector-emitter voltage is given by
 VCE = VCC – ICRC
 Working of the Amplifier:

During positive half cycle During negative half cycle

Input signal (Vs) increases the

Input signal (Vs) decreases the forward
forward voltage across the emitter-
voltage across the emitter-base.
base.
As a result, the base current (IB) As a result, the base current (IB)
increases. decreases.

Consequently, the collector current (IC)

Consequently, the collector current
increases.
(IC) increases times.

This increases the voltage drop This decreases the voltage drop across
across RC which in turn decreases the RC which in turn increases the
collector-emitter voltage (VCE). collector-emitter voltage (VCE).

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 Therefore, the input signal in the Therefore, the input signal in the
positive direction produces an negative direction produces an
amplified signal in the negative amplified signal in the positive direction
direction at the output. at the output.
Hence, the output signal is reversed Hence, the output signal is reversed by
by 1800 as shown in Figure (b). 1800 as shown in Figure (b).

11. State Boolean laws. Elucidate how they are used to simplify Boolean expressions with suitable example.

Logic Symbol Truth Table Boolean

Equation
AND Gate: 𝑨 𝑩 𝒀 = 𝑨. 𝑩
0 0 0
0 1 0 𝒀 = 𝑨. 𝑩
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR Gate: 𝑨 𝑩 𝒀 =𝑨+𝑩
0 0 0
0 1 1 𝒀 = 𝑨. 𝑩
1 0 1
1 1 1
NOT Gate: 𝑨 𝒀 = 𝑨.
0 1 𝒀=𝑨
1 0
𝑨 𝑩 𝒀 = 𝑨. 𝑩
NAND Gate:
0 0 1
𝒀 = 𝑨. 𝑩
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NOR Gate: 𝑨 𝑩 𝒀 =𝑨+𝑩

0 0 1 𝒀=𝑨+𝑩
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
𝑨 𝑩 𝒀=𝑨⊕𝑩
EX-OR Gate:
0 0 0 𝒀=𝑨⊕𝑩
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

12. State and prove De Morgan’s First and Second theorems.

De Morgan’s First theorem:
The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is equal to the product of its complements.
Proof:
 The Boolean equation for NOR gate is 𝑌 = A + B
 The Boolean equation for a bubbled AND gate is 𝑌 = A . B
 Both cases generate same outputs for same inputs.
 It can be verified using the truth table.
 From the above truth table, we can conclude A + B = A . B

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  Thus De Morgan’s First theorem is proved.
 It also says that a NOR gate is equal to a bubbled AND gate.

De Morgan’s Second theorem:

 The second theorem states that the complement of the product of two inputs is equal to the product
of its complements.

Proof:
 The Boolean equation for NAND gate is 𝑌 = A . B
 The Boolean equation for OR gate is 𝑌 = A + B
 A and B are the inputs and Y is the output.
 The above two equations produces the same output for the same inputs.
 It can be verified by using the truth table.
 From the above truth table we can conclude A . B = A + B
 Thus De Morgan’s Second theorem is proved.
 It also says, a NAND gate is equal to a bubbled OR gate.

13. Explain the ampitude modulation with necessary diagrams.

 If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude
of the baseband signal, then it is called amplitude modulation.
 Here the frequency and the phase of the carrier signal remain constant.
 Amplitude modulation is used in radio and TV broadcasting.
 The signal shown in Figure (a) is the baseband signal that carries information.
 Figure (b) shows the high-frequency carrier signal and Figure (c) gives amplitude modulated signal.
 We can see that amplitude of the carrier wave is modified in proportion to the amplitude of the
baseband signal.
Advantages of AM
 i) Easy transmission and reception
 ii) Lesser bandwidth requirements
 iii) Low cost
Limitations of AM
 i) Noise level is high
 ii) Low efficiency
 iii) Small operating range

14. Explain the basic elements of communication system with the necessary block diagram.
 Electronics plays a major role in communication.
 Electronic communication is nothing but the transmission of sound, text, pictures, or data through a
medium.
 Long distance transmission uses free space as a medium.
 The elements of the basic communication system are explained with the block diagram shown in
Figure.

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 i) Information (Baseband or input signal)
 Information can be in the form of speech, music, pictures or computer data.
 This information is given as input to the input transducer.
ii) Input transducer
 In communication system, the transducer converts the information (in the form of sound, music,
pictures or computer data) into corresponding electrical signals.
 The electrical equivalent of the original information is called the baseband signal.
 The best example for the transducer is the microphone that converts sound energy into electrical
energy.
iii) Transmitter
 It feeds the electrical signal from the transducer to the communication channel.
 It consists of circuits such as amplifier, oscillator, modulator and power amplifier.
 The transmitter is located at the broadcasting station.
 Amplifier:
 The transducer output is very weak and is amplified by the amplifier.
 Oscillator: It generates high-frequency carrier wave (a sinusoidal wave) for long distance
transmission into space.
 As the energy of a wave is proportional to its frequency, the carrier wave has very high energy.
 Modulator:
 It superimposes the baseband signal onto the carrier signal and generates the modulated signal.
 Power amplifier: I
 t increases the power level of the electrical signal in order to cover a large distance.
iv) Transmitting antenna
 It radiates the radio signal into space in all directions.
 It travels in the form of electromagnetic waves with the speed of light.
v) Communication channel
 Communication channel is used to carry the electrical signal from transmitter to receiver with less
noise or distortion.
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  The examples for communication medium are wires, cables, optical fibres in wireline
communication and free space in wireless communication.
vi) Receiver
 The signals that are transmitted through the communication medium are received by a receiving
antenna which converts EM waves into RF signals and are fed into the receiver.
 The receiver consists of electronic circuits like demodulator, amplifier etc.
 The demodulator extracts the baseband signal from the modulated signal.
 Then the baseband signal is amplified using amplifier.
 Finally, it is fed to the output transducer.

vii) Repeaters
 Repeaters are used to increase the range or distance through which the signals are sent.
 It is a combination of transmitter and receiver.
 The signals are received, amplified and retransmitted with a carrier signal of different frequency to
the destination.
 The best example is the communication satellite in space.
viii) Output transducer
 It converts the electrical signal back to its original form such as sound, music, pictures or data.
 Examples of output transducers are loudspeakers, picture tubes, computer monitor etc.

15. Explain the ground wave propagation and space wave propagation of electromagnetic waves through
space.
 If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the transmitter glide over the surface of the Earth
to reach the receiver, then the propagation is called ground wave propagation.
 The corresponding waves are called ground waves or surface waves.
 The pictorial representation is shown in Figure (a).
 Here both transmitting and receiving antennas must be close to the Earth's surface.
 It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio navigation, for ship-to-ship, shipto ship – to - shore
communication and mobile communication.

 ii) Sky wave propagation

 The mode of propagation in which the electromagnetic waves radiated from an antenna,
directed upwards at large angles, gets reflected by the ionosphere back to Earth is called sky
wave propagation or ionospheric propagation.
 The corresponding waves are called sky waves (Figure (b)).
 Ionosphere acts as a reflecting surface.
 It is at a distance of approximately 50 km and spreads up to 400 km above the Earth's surface.
 Due to the absorption of ultraviolet rays, cosmic ray, and other high energy radiations like α, β rays
from sun, the air molecules in the ionosphere get ionized.
 This produces charged ions and these ions provide a reflecting medium for the reflection of radio
waves or communication waves back to Earth within the permitted frequency range.
 The phenomenon of bending the radio waves back to Earth is nothing but the total internal
reflection.
 When the angle of incidence at the ionosphere is large, the sky wave returns to the ground at a long
distance from the transmitter.
 As this angle is reduced, the wave returns closer and closer to the transmitter.

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  If the angle of incidence is reduced further, the radio waves penetrate through the ionosphere.
 For a particular angle of incidence, the point of reception (B) is at the minimum distance from
transmitter.
 The shortest distance between the transmitter and the point of reception of the sky wave along
the surface is called as the skip distance.
 The ground waves get attenuated as they move away from the transmitter.
 At a particular point (A), there is no reception ground wave.
 The zone (in between A and B) where there is no reception of electromagnetic waves neither
ground nor sky is known as skip zone or skip area (Figure (b)).

11 . RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS

1. Distinguish between Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.
Nano Science Nano Technology
Nano science is the science of objects with typical Nanotechnology is a technology involving the
sizes of 1 – 100 nm design, production, characterization, and
applications of nano structural materials.

2. What is the difference between Nano materials and Bulk materials?

Nano materials size materials
If the particle of a solid is of size less than 100 nm, When the particle size exceeds 100 nm, it forms a
it is said to be nano solid bulk solid

3. Give any two Examples for Nano in nature.

1) Peacock Feather 2) Parrot Fish

4. Mention any two advantages and disadvanatages of Robotics.

Benefits evils
1. The robots are much cheaper than
1. Robots have no sense of emotions.
humans.
2. Robots never get tired linke 2. Thet lack empathy and hence create an emotionless
Humans. workplace
3. Robots are more precise and error
3. Unemployment problem will increase.
free in performing the task
4. Robots can perform defined tasks and cannot handle
4. Stronger and faster than humans.
unexpected situations
5. Robots can workl in extreme 5. Humans cannot be replaced by robots in decision
environmental conditions making.
6. IN warfare, robots can save human 6. Till the robot reaches the level of human intelligence, the
lives. humans in work place will exit.

5. Why steel is preferred in making Robots?

 For robots , aluminum and Steel are the most common metals.
 Aluminum is a softer metal and is therefore easier to work with.
 But Steel is several times Stronger.
 In any case, because of the inherent strength of metal, robot bodies are made using sheet, bar, rod,
channel, and other shapes.
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6. What are black holes?
 Black holes are end stage of stars which are highly dense massive object.
 Its mass ranges from 20 times mass of the Sun to 1 million times mass of the Sun.
 It has very strong gravitational force such that no particle or even light can escape from it.
 The existence of black holes is studied when the stars orbiting the black hole behave differently
from the other stars.
 Every galaxy has black hole at its centre.
 Sagittarius A* is the black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy.

7. What are sub atomic particles?

Electron , Proton And Neutron are called as subatomic particles.

5 Mark Questions
1. Discuss the applications of Nanomaterials in various fields.
Automotive industry :
 Lightweight construction
 Painting (fillers, base coat, clear coat)
 Catalysts
 Tires ( fillers )
 Sensors
 Coating for windscreen and car bodies.
Electronic Industry :
 Data memory
 Displays
 Laser diodes
 Glass fibers
 Optical switches
 Filters (IR – blocking)
 Conductive, antistatic coatings
Chemical Industry :
 Fillers for paint systems
 Coating systems based on nanocomposites
 Impregnation of papers
 Switcheable Adhesives
 Magnetic fuids
Construction :
 Construction materials
 Thermal insulation
 Flame retardants
 Surface functionalised building materials for wood, floors, stone, facades, tiles, roof tiles.
 Facade coatings
 Groove mortar
Engineering :
 Wear protection for tools and machines
 Lubricant – free bearings
Medicine :
 Drug delivery systems
 Active agents
 Contrast medium
 Medical rapid tests
 Prostheses and implants
 Antimicrobial agents and coatings
 Agents in cancer therapy

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2. What are the possible harmful effects of usage of Nanoparticles? Why?
 The research on the harmful impact of application of nanotechnology is also equally important and
fast developing.
 The major concern here is that the nanoparticles have teh dimensions same as that of the biological
molecules such as proteins.
 They may easily get absorbed onto the surface of living organisms and they might enter the tissues
and fluids of the body.
 The adsorbing nature depends on the surface of the nanoparticle.
 Indeed, it is possible to deliver a drug directly to a specific cell in the body by designing the surface
of a nanoparticle so that it adsorbs specifically onto the surface of the target cell.
 The interaction with living systems is also affected by the dimensions of the nanoparticles.
 For instance, nanoparticles of a few nanometers size may reach well inside biomolecules, which is
not possible for larger nanoparticles.
 Nanoparticles can also cross cell membranes.
 It is also possible for the inhaled nanoparticles to reach the blood, to reach other sites such as the
liver, heart or blood cells.

3. Discuss the functions of key components of Robots?

The Controller :
 The controller also known as the brain which is run by a computer program.
 It gives commands for the moving parts to perform the job.
Mechanics Parts :
 Motors , pistons , grippers , wheels and Gears that make robot move, grab, turn, and lift.
Sensors :
 To tell the robot about its surroundings.
 It helps to determine the sizes and shapes of the objects around, distance between the objects and
directions as well.

4. Elaborate any two types of Robots with relevant examples.

Human Robots :
 Certain robots are made to resemble humans in appearance and replicate the human activities like
walking, lifting and sensing, etc.
Nano Robots :
 The size of the nano robots is reduced to microscopic level to perform a task in very small spaces.
 However, it is only in the developmental stage.
 The future prospects of it are much expected in the medical field.
 Nano robots in blood stream to perform small surgical procedures, to fight against bacteria,
reparigin individual cell in the body.
 It can travel into the body and once after the job is performed it can find its way out.
 Chinese scientists have created the world’s first autonomous DNA robots to combat cancer tumours.

5. Comment on the recent advancement in medical diagnosis and therapy .

Virtual reality  Medical virtual reality is effectively used to stop the brain from processing
pain and cure soreness in the hospitalized patients.
 Virtual reality has enhanced surgeries by the use of 3D models by surgeons
to plan operations.
 It helps in the treatment of Autism, Memory loss, and Mental illness.

Precision medicine  Precesion medicine is an emerging approach for disease treatment and
prevention that takes into account individual variability in genes,
environment, and lifestyle for each person.
 In this medical model it is possible to customise healthcare, with medical
decisions, treatments, practices, or products which are tailored to the
individual patient.

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 Health wearables  A health wearable is a device used for tracking a wearer’s vital signs or
health and fitness related data, location, etc.
 Medical wearables with artificial intelligence and big data provide an added
value to healthcare with focus on diagnosis, treatment, patient monitoring
and prevention.
Artificial organs  An artificial organ is an engineered device or tissue that is implanted or
integrated into a human.
 It is possible to interface it with living tissue or to replace a natural organ.
 It duplicates or augments a specific function or functions of human organs
so that the patient may return to a normal life as soon as possible.
3D printing  Advanced 3D printer systems and materials assist physicians in a range of
operations in the medical field from audiology, dentistry orthopaedics and
other applications.
Wirelesss brain  Wireless brain sensors monitor intracranial pressure and temperature and
sensors then are absorbed by the body.
 Hence there is no need for surgery to remove these devices.
Robotic surgery  Robotic surgery is a type of surgical procedure that is done using robotic
systems.
 Robotically – assited surgery helps to overcome the limitations of pre-
existing minimally – invasive surgical procedures and to enhance the
capabilities of surgeons performing open surgery.
Smart inhalers  Inhalers are the main treatment option for asthma.
 Smart inhalers are designed with health systems and patients in mind so
that they can offer maximum benefit.
 Smart inhalers use Bluetooth technology to detect inhaler use, remind
patients when to take their medication and gather data to help guide care.

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