SATELLITE

COMMUNICATION

UNITISATELLITEORBITS
 UNITISATELLITEORBITS

AIM&OBJECTIVE

 Tounderstandthebasicsofsatelliteorbits.
 Toanalyzethegeostationaryandnongeostationaryorbits.
 Toacquiretheknowledge aboutlaunchingprocedures.

PRE-TESTMCQ

1. Atelevision(TV)transmissionisanexampleofwhichtypeoftransmission?
a) Simplex
b) Halfduplex
c) Fullduplex
d) Noneoftheabove
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2. Whatisapplicationofsatellitesystems?
a) Weatherforecasting
b) Terrestrialcommunication
c) pointtopointcommunication
d) Noneoftheabove

3. ThedownlinkfrequencyintheCbandtransponderis
(a) 6GHz
(b) 4GHz
(c) 14GHz
(d) 11GHz
 THEORY

Introductiontosatellitecommunication

Satellites are specifically made for telecommunication purpose. They are used
formobile applications such ascommunication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand
-heldterminals andforTVandradiobroadcasting.

They are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region (area) on
the earth. The power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the
preferred size of the footprint, complexity of the traffic control protocolschemes
and the cost of ground stations.

A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a
desired area.

Whentheareaisfocused,thentheemissionsdon ‟tgooutsidethat designated area and

thus minimizing the interference tothe other systems.This leads more efficient
spectrum usage.

Satellites antenna patternsplayanimportant roleandmustbedesigned to

bestcoverthedesignatedgeographicalarea(whichisgenerallyirregularin
shape).

Satellitesshouldbedesignedbykeepinginminditsusabilityforshortand long term

effects throughout its life time.

Theearthstationshouldbeinapositiontocontrolthesatelliteifitdrifts from its orbit it

is subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces.

ApplicationsofSatellites:

 Weather Forecasting
 RadioandTVBroadcast
 MilitarySatellites
 NavigationSatellites
 GlobalTelephone
 ConnectingRemoteArea
 GlobalMobileCommunication
 Kepler’slaws

Kepler’slawIntroduction

Satellites(spacecraft) orbiting theearthfollowthesamelawsthatgovern the

motion of the planets around the sun.

Kepler’s laws apply quite generally to any two bodies in space which
interactthroughgravitation.Themoremassiveofthetwobodiesis referredtoas the
primary, the other, the secondary or satellite.

Kepler’sFirstLaw

Kepler’s first lawstates that the path followed by a satellite around the
primary will be an ellipse. An ellipse hast Two focal points shown as F1 and F2in
Fig. 2.1. The center of mass of the two-body system, termed thebary center,is
always center of the foci.

Thesemimajoraxisoftheellipseisdenoted bya,andthesemiminoraxis, by b. The

eccentricity e is given by

Figure 1.1The fociF1andF2,the

semi major axisa, and the semi
minor axis b of an ellipse.

Kepler’sSecondLaw

Kepler’s second lawstates that, for equal time intervals, a satellite will
sweep out equal areas in its orbital plane, focused at the barycenter. Referring to
Fig.2.2,assumingthesatellitetravelsdistancesS1andS2meters in1s,then the areas
A1and A2will be equal. The average velocity in each case is S1 and S2 m/s, and
because of the equal area law, it follows that the velocity at S2is less than that at
S1.
 Figure 1.2Kepler’s second
law.TheareasA1andA2swept
out in unit time are equal.

Kepler’sThirdLaw

Kepler’s third lawstates that the square of the periodic time of orbit is
proportionaltothecubeofthemeandistancebetweenthetwobodies.The meandistance
isequaltothesemimajoraxisa.

Fortheartificialsatellites oiti rb n t h e earth, Kepler’s third law can be

written in the form g
= /
o a
s

Where n is the mean motion f th tellite in radians per second and is the earth’s
geocentric gravitational conswtawntwµ.=E3n.9g8g60T0r5eeX.1c0o1m4m3/s2
Newton’slaw:

Newton'sfirstlaw

An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced

force. An object in motion continues in motion with the same speed and in the
same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.This law is oftencalled
"the law of inertia".

Newton'ssecondlaw

Accelerationisproducedwhenaforceactsonamass.Thegreaterthe mass (of the

object being accelerated) the greater the amount of force needed (to accelerate the
object).

Newton'sfirstlaw

For every action there is an equal and opposite re-action. This means that
for every force there is a reaction force that is equal in size, but opposite in
direction. That is to say that whenever an object pushes another object it gets
pushed back in the opposite direction equally hard.
 orbitalparameters

Apogee:ApointforasatellitefarthestfromtheEarth.Itisdenotedasha.

Perigee:ApointforasatelliteclosestfromtheEarth.Itisdenoted ashp.

LineofApsides:LinejoiningperigeeandapogeethroughcentreoftheEarth. It is the
major axis of the orbit. One-half of this line‟s length is the semi-major axis
equivalents to satellite‟s mean distance from the Earth.

Ascending Node:The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going
from north to south.

Descending Node:The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane goingfrom
south to north.

Inclination:theanglebetweentheorbitalplaneandtheEarth‟sequatorial
plane. Its measured at the ascending node from the equator to the orbit, going
from East to North. Also, this angle is commonly denoted asi.
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LineofNodes:thelinejoiningtheascendinganddescendingnodesthrough the centre
of Earth.

Prograde Orbit:an orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction as the
Earth‟s rotation. Its inclination is always between 00 to 900. Many satellites
follow this path as Earth‟s velocity makes it easier to lunch these satellites.

Retrograde Orbit:an orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction

counter to the Earth‟s rotation.

ArgumentofPerigee:Ananglefromthepointofperigeemeasureinthe orbital plane

at the Earth‟s centre, in the direction of the satellite motion.

Right ascension of ascending node:The definition of an orbit in space, the

position of ascending node is specified. But as the Earth spins, the longitude of
ascending node changes and cannot be used for reference. Thus for practical
determinationof an orbit, the longitude and time of crossing the ascending node
isused.For absolute measurement, a fixed reference point in space is required.
Itcould alsobedefined as“right ascension oftheascending node;right ascension is
the angular position measured eastward along the celestial equator from the
vernal equinox vector to the hour circle of the object”.

Meananamoly:It gives the average value to the angular position of the satellite
with reference to the perigee.
Trueanamoly:Itis perigeetothesatellite‟sposition,
theanglefrompointof
measureattheEarth‟scentre.

Figure1.2Apogee heightha,
perigeeheighthp,andinclinationi.
Lais the line ofapsides.
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Figure 1.3(a)Prograde and Figure.1.4Theargumentofperigee

retrograde orbits. w
& right ascension of the ascending
node Ω.
 OrbitalPerturbations

Theoretically,anorbitdescribedbyKeplerisidealasEarthis considered to be
a perfect sphere and the force acting around the Earth is the centrifugal force.
This force is supposed to balance the gravitational pull of the earth.

In reality, other forces also play an important role and affect the motionof
the satellite. These forces are the gravitational forces of Sun and Moon along
with the atmospheric drag.

EffectofSunandMoonismorepronounced ongeostationary earth

satelliteswhereastheatmosphericdrageffectismorepronouncedforlow earth orbit
satellites.

Effectsofnon-SphericalEarth

AstheshapeofEarthisnotaperfectsphere,itcausessomevariations
inthepathfollowedbythesatellitesaroundtheprimary.AstheEarthis
bulgingfromtheequatorialbelt,andkeepinginmindthatanorbitisnota
physicalentity,anditisthwewfowrc.eEsnregsguTltrinege.fcroommanoblateEar
thwhichacton thesatelliteproduceachangeintheorbitalparameters.

Thiscausesthesatellite todriftasaresult ofregression ofthenodesand the

latitude of the point of perigee (point closest to the Earth). This leads torotation
ofthelineofapsides. Astheorbititself ismoving withrespecttothe
Earth,theresultantchangesareseeninthevaluesofargumentofperigeeand right
ascension of ascending node.

Due to the non-spherical shape of Earth, one more effect called as the
“SatelliteGraveyard”isseen.Thenon-
sphericalshapeleadstothesmallvalueofeccentricity (10-
5)attheequatorialplane.Thiscausesagravitygradienton
GEOsatelliteandmakesthemdrifttooneofthetwostablepointswhich coincide
withminoraxisoftheequatorial ellipse.

AtmosphericDrag

For Low Earth orbiting satellites, the effect of atmospheric drag is more
pronounces.Theimpactofthisdragismaximumatthepointofperigee.Drag
(pulltowardstheEarth)hasaneffectonvelocityofSatellite(velocityreduces).
 This causes the satellite to not reach the apogee height successive
revolutions. This leads to a change in value of semi-major axis and eccentricity.
Satellites in service are maneuvered by the earth station back to their original
orbital position.

1.6StationKeeping

In addition to having its attitude controlled, it is important that a geo-

stationarysatellitebekeptinitscorrectorbitalslot.Theequatorialellipticityof
theearthcausesgeostationarysatel-litestodriftslowlyalongtheorbit,toone oftwo
stable points, at 75°E and105°W.

Tocounterthisdrift,anoppositelydirectedvelocitycom-ponentis imparted
tothe satellite bymeans ofjets, which arepulsed once every 2or 3 weeks.

Thesemaneuversaretermedeast-weststation-keepingmaneuvers.
Satellites inthe6/4-GHzbandmustbekeptwithin 0.1°ofthedesig-nated
longitude, and in the 14/12- G Hz b an d , w it heine.co0.m05°.
w w w .E n g g T r

Figure1.5Typicalsatellitemotion.(CourtesyofTelesat,Canada,1983.)
 GeostationaryandNonGeo-stationaryorbits

Geostationary

Ageostationaryorbit is one in which a satellite orbits the earth at

exactlythe same speed as the earth turns and at the same latitude, specifically
zero, the latitude of the equator. A satellite orbiting in a geostationary orbit
appears to be hovering in the same spot in the sky, and is directly over the
same patch of ground at all times.

Ageosynchronous orbit is one in which the satellite is synchronized

with the earth's rotation, but the orbit is tilted with respect to the plane of the
equator. A satellite in a geosynchronous orbit will wander up and down in
latitude, although it will stay over the same line of longitude. Although the
terms'geostationary' and'geosynchronous' are sometimes used
interchangeably, they are not the same technically; geostationary orbit is a
subsetofallpossiblegeosynchronousorbits.

The person most

widelycrewdiwtewd .wEinthggdTevreeleop.cinogmtheconcept of
geostationary orbitsisnotedsciencefictionauthorArthurC.Clarke(IslandsintheSky,
Childhood'sEnd,RendezvouswithRama,andthemovie2001:aSpace
Odyssey).Othershadearlierpointedoutthatbodiestravelingacertain distance above
the earth on the equatorial plane would remain motionless with
respecttotheearth'ssurface.ButClarkepublishedanarticlein1945's
WirelessWorldthatmadetheleapfromtheGermans'rocketresearchto
suggestpermanentmanmadesatellitesthatcouldserveascommunication relays.

Geostationary objects in orbit must be at a certain distance above the earth;

any closer and the orbit would decay, and farther out they would escape the
earth's gravity altogether. This distance is 35,786 kilometers (22,236 miles)
from the surface.

Thefirstgeosynchroussatellitewasorbitedin1963,andthefirst geostationary one

the following year. Since the only geostationary orbit is in a plane with the
equator at 35,786 kilometers, there is only one circle around the world where
these conditions obtain.
 Thismeansthatgeostationary'realestate'isfinite.Whilesatellitesare in no
danger of bumping in to one another yet, they must be spaced around the circle so
that their frequencies do not interfere with the functioning of their nearest
neighbors.

GeostationarySatellites

There are 2 kinds of manmade satellites in the heavens above: One kind ofsatellite
ORBITS the earth once or twice a day, and the other kind is called a
communicationssatelliteanditisPARKEDinaSTATIONARYposition
22,300miles(35,900km)abovetheequatoroftheSTATIONARY earth.

A type of the orbiting satellite includes the space shuttle and the international
spacestationwhichkeepa lowearthorbit(LEO)to avoidthedeadlyVanAllen
radiation belts.

The most prominent satellites in medium earth orbit (MEO) are the satellites
whichcomprisetheGLOBALPOSITIONING SYSTEMorGPSasitiscalled.

TheGlobalPositioningSystem
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TheglobalpositioningsystemwasdevelopedbytheU.S.militaryandthen
openedtocivilianuse.Itisusedtodaytotrackplanes,ships,trains,carsor literally
anything that moves. Anyone can buy a receiver and track their exact location
by using a GPS receiver.

GPS satellites orbit at a height of About24GPSsatellitesorbittheearth

about 12,000 miles (19,300 km) every 12 hours.
and orbit the earthonce every12
hours.
 These satellites are traveling around the earth at speeds of about 7,000
mph (11,200 kph). GPS satellites are powered by solar energy. They have
backup batteries onboardto keep them running in the event of a solar eclipse,
when there's no solar power.

Small rocket boosters on each satellite keep them flying in the correct
path. The satellites have a lifetime of about 10 years until all their fuel runs
out.

Atexactly22,300milesabovetheequator,theforceofgravityis
cancelledbythecentrifugalforceoftherotatinguniverse.Thisisthe idealspot to
park a stationary satellite.

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Figure. 1.6& 1.7 At exactly 22,000 miles

(35,900km)abovetheequator,theearth's
force of gravity is canceled by the
centrifugalforceoftherotatinguniverse..

NonGeo-StationaryOrbit

For the geo- stationary case, the most important of these are the
gravitationalfieldsofthemoonandthesun,andthenonsphericalshapeofthe earth.
Other significant forces are solar radiation pressure and reaction of the
satellite itself tomotormovement within thesatellite. Asaresult,station- keeping
maneuvers mustbecarried outtomaintain thesatel-lite within set limits of its
nominal geostationary position.

Anexactgeostationaryorbitthereforeisnotattainableinpractice,andthe
orbital parameters vary with time. The two-line orbital elements arepublished
at regular intervals.
 Theperiodforageostationary satellite is23h,56min,4s,or86,164 s.
Thereciprocalofthisis1.00273896rev/day,whichisaboutthevaluetabu- lated
formost ofthesatellites inFig.
Thusthesesatellitesaregeo-synchronous,inthattheyrotatein synchronism
with the rotation of the earth. However, they are not
geostationary.Thetermgeosynchronoussatelliteisusedinmanycasesinstead of
geostationary todescribe thesenear-geostationary satellites.

Itshould be noted, however, that in gen- eral a geosynchronoussatellite

does not have to be near-geostationary, and there are a number of
geosynchronous satellites that are in highly elliptical orbits with
comparatively large inclinations (e.g., the Tundra satellites).
Thesmallinclinationmakesitdifficulttolocatethepositionofthe
ascendingnode,andthesmalleccentricitymakesitdifficulttolocatethe
positionoftheperigee.
However, because of the small inclination, the angleswand Ω can be
assumed to be in the same plane.The longitude of the subsatellite point
(thesatellitelongitude)istheeastearlyrotationfromtheGreenwichmeridian.
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TheGreenwich sidereal time(GST) gives the eastward position of the

Greenwich meridian relative to the line of Aries, and hence the subsatellite
point is at longitudeandthe mean longitudeof the satelliteis given by

Equation(2.31)can be used to calculate the trueanomaly, and because of the

smalleccentricity, thiscanbeapproximated asv=M +2esinM.

LookAngleDetermination

The look angles for the ground station antenna are Azimuth and
Elevationangles.Theyarerequiredattheantennasothatitpointsdirectly at the
satellite. Look angles are calculated by considering the elliptical orbit. These
angles change in order to track the satellite.

For geostationary orbit, these angels values does not change as the
satellites are stationary with respect to earth. Thus large earth stations are
used for commercial communications.
 Forhomeantennas,antennabeamwidthisquitebroadandhence no
tracking is essential. This leads to a fixed position for these antennas.

Figure1.8:Thegeometryusedindeterminingthelookangles for
Geostationary
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Figure1.9:Thesphericalgeometryrelatedtofigure 1.8

Withrespecttothefigure1.8and1.9,thefollowinginformation is
neededtodetermine thelookangles ofgeostationary orbit.

1. EarthStationLatitude:λE
2. EarthStationLongitude:ΦE
 3. Sub-SatellitePoint‟sLongitude:ΦSS
4. ES:PositionofEarthStation
5. SS:Sub-SatellitePoint
6. S:Satellite
7. d:RangefromEStoS
8. ζ:angletobedetermined

Figure1.10:Ap
wlawnwe.tErinagnggTlereoeb.tcaoinmedfromfigure1.8

Consideringfigure3.3,it‟sasphericaltriangle.Allsidesarethearcs of a great
circle. Three sides of this triangle are defined by the angles subtended by the
centre of the earth.

o Sidea:angle betweenNorth Pole andradiusof thesub-satellitepoint.

o Side b:angle betweenradiusofEarthandradiusofthesub-satellitepoint.

o Sidec:anglebetween radiusofEarth andtheNorth Pole.

a =900 and such a spherical triangle is called quadrantal triangle. c =

900– λ

Angle B is the angle between the plane containing c and the plane
containing a.

Thus,B=ΦE-ΦSS
 AngleAistheanglebetweentheplanecontainingbandtheplanecontaining c.

AngleCistheanglebetweentheplanecontainingaandtheplanecontaining b.

Thus,a=900

c=900-λE

B=ΦE-ΦSS

Thus,b=arcos(cosBcosλE)

AndA=arcsin(sin|B|/sinb)

Applyingthecosineruleforplanetriangletothe triangleof figure

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Applyingthesineruleforplanetrianglestothetriangleoffigure
3.3allowstheangleofelevationtobefound:

Limitsofvisibility

Theeastandwestlimitsofgeostationaryarevisiblefromanygiven Earth
station. These limits are set by the geographic coordinates of the Earth station and
antenna elevation.

Thelowestelevationiszero(intheory)butinpractice,toavoid
receptionofexcessnoisefromEarth.Somefiniteminimumvalueofelevation
isissued.Theearthstationcanseeasatelliteoverageostationaryarc bounded by +-
(81.30)about the earth station‟s longitude.
 Eclipse

It occurs when Earth‟s equatorial plane coincides with the plane f he

Earth‟s orbit around the sun.

Near the time of spring and autumnal equinoxes, when the sun is
crossing the equator, the satellite passes into sun‟s shadow. This happens for
some duration of time every day.

Theseeclipsesbegin23daysbeforetheequinoxandend23daysafter
theequinox.Theylastforalmost10minutesatthebeginningandendof
equinoxandincreaseforamaximumperiodof72minutesatafulleclipse.

The solar cells of the satellite become non-functional during the eclipse
period and the satellite is made to operate with the help of power supplied
from the batteries.

A satellite will have the eclipse duration symmetric around the time
t=SatelliteLongitude/15+ 12 h ou rs . A s a t el li t e a tGreenw
w w w .E n g g T r e e . c o m
ichlongitude0will
havetheeclipsedurationsymmetricaround0/15

UTC+12hours=00:00UTC.

The eclipse will happen at night but for satellites in the east it will
happen late evening local time.

For satellites in the west eclipse will happen in theearly morninghour’s

local time.

An earth caused eclipse will normally not happen during peak viewing
hours if the satellite is located near the longitude of the coverage area.Modern
satellites are well equipped with batteries for operation during eclipse.
 Figure 1.11(i): A satellite east of the earth station enters eclipse during
daylight busy) hours at the earth station. A Satellite west of earth station
enters eclipse during night and early morning hours (non busy time).

SubsatellitePoint

w w w .E n g g T r e e .c o m
Pointatwhichalinebe tw ee n th e s a te l li te a n dthecenter
oftheEarth intersects the Earth’s surface
Locationofthepointexpressed intermsoflatitudeandlongitude
IfoneisintheUSitiscommon touse
o Latitude–degreesnorthfromequator
o Longitude–degreeswestoftheGreenwichmeridian
Locationofthesubsatellitepointmaybecalculatedfromcoordinates of the
rotating system as:

 
1 zr
L □
s cos y2 z2
□ x 2 r r □
 r

Figure1.11(ii)SubsatellitePoint
 SunTransitOutage

Sun transit outage is an interruption in or distortion of geostationary

satellitesignalscausedbyinterferencefromsolarradiation.

Sunappearstobeanextremelynoisysourcewhichcompletelyblanks out the

signal from satellite. This effect lasts for 6 days around the equinoxes.They occur
foramaximum period of10 minutes.

Generally, sun outages occur in February, March, September and

October, that is, around the time of the equinoxes.

Atthesetimes,theapparentpathofthesunacrosstheskytakes it directly
behind the line of sight between an earth station and a satellite.

As the sun radiates strongly at the microwave frequencies used to

communicatewithsatellites(C-band,KabandandKuband)thesunswamps the signal
from thesatellite.

The effects of a
sun ou ta ge c an in c l ud e p a rtialdegradation, that is, an
w w w .E n gg T r e e .c o m
increaseintheerrorrate,ortotaldestructionofthesignal.

Figure1.12:EarthEclipseofaSatelliteandSuntransitOutage
 LaunchingProcedures

Intoduction

LowEarthOrbitingsatellitesaredirectlyinjectedintotheirorbits. This cannot

be done incase of GEOs as they have to be positioned 36,000kms above the
Earth‟s surface.

Launch vehicles are hence used to set these satellites in their orbits.
These vehicles are reusable. They are also known as „Space Transportation
System‟(STS).

Whentheorbitalaltitudeisgreaterthan1,200kmitbecomesexpensivetodirectl
yinjectthesatelliteinitsorbit.

Forthispurpose,asatellitemustbeplacedintoatransferorbit between the

initial lower orbit and destination orbit. The transfer orbit is commonly known as
*Hohm
wawnnw-T.EranngsgfeTrrOereb.itc.om

OrbitTransfer

Figure1.13:OrbitTransferpositions
(*AboutHohmannTransferOrbit:ThismanoeuvreisnamedfortheGerman
civilengineerwhofirstproposedit,WalterHohmann,whowasbornin1880. He didn't
work in rocketry professionally (and wasn't associated with military
rocketry),butwasakeymemberofGermany'spioneering SocietyforSpace

Travelthatincluded peoplesuchasWilly Ley,Hermann,andWerner von

Braun. He published his concept of how to transfer between orbits in his 1925
book, The Attainability of Celestial Bodies.)

Thetransfer orbitisselected tominimize theenergy required forthe transfer.

This orbit forms a tangent to the low attitude orbit at the point of its perigee
and tangent to high altitude orbit at the point of its apogee.

Launchvehiclesandpropulsion

Therocketinjectsthe satellitewiththerequiredthrust**intothe
transferorbit.WiththeSTS,thesatellitecarriesaperigeekickmotor***which imparts
the required thrust to inject the satellite in its transfer orbit.
Similarly,anapogeekickmotor(AKM)isusedtoinjectthesatelliteinits
destinationorbit. www.EnggTree.com
Generally it takes 1-2 months for the satellite to become fullyfunctional.
The Earth Station performs the Telemetry Tracking and Command****
function to control the satellite transits and functionalities.

(**Thrust: It is a reaction force described quantitatively by Newton's second

and third laws. When a system expels or accelerates mass in one direction the
accelerated mass will cause a force of equal magnitude but opposite direction
on that system.)

Kick Motor refers to a rocket motor that is regularly employed on

artificial satellites destined for a geostationary orbit. As the vast majority of
geostationary satellite launches are carried out from spaceports at a
significant distance away from Earth's equator.

The carrier rocket would only be able to launch the satellite into an
elliptical orbit of maximum apogee 35,784-kilometres and with a non-zero
inclinationapproximatelyequaltothelatitudeofthelaunchsite.
 TT&C: it‟s a sub-system where the functions performed by the satellite
control network to maintain health and status, measure specific mission
parametersandprocessingovertimeasequenceofthesemeasurementto refine
parameter knowledge, and transmit mission commands to the satellite.
DetailedstudyofTT&Cintheupcomingunits.

TransferOrbit

It is better to launch rockets closer to the equator because the

Earthrotatesatagreaterspeedherethanthatateitherpole.Thisextraspeedat
theequatormeansarocketneedslessthrust(andthereforelessfuel)to launch into
orbit.

In addition, launching at the equator provides an additional 1,036 mph

(1,667km/h)of speedoncethe vehiclereachesorbit.Thisspeedbonus means
thevehicleneedslessfuel,and thatfreedspacecanbeused tocarrymore pay load.

Figure1.14:HohmannTransferOrbit
 Figure1.15:LaunchingstagesofaGEO(exampleINTELSAT)

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Rocketlaunch

A rocket launch is the takeoff phase of the flight of a rocket. Launches

for orbital spaceflights,or launches into interplanetaryspace, are usuallyfrom a
fixed location on the ground, but may also be from a floating platform (such as
the Sea Launch vessel) or, potentially, from a super heavy An-225-class
airplane

Launchesofsuborbitalflights(includingmissilelaunches),canalsobefrom:

 amissilesilo
 amobilelaunchervehicle
 asubmarine
 airlaunch:
ofromaplane(e.g.ScaledCompositesSpaceShipOne,Pegasus Rocket, X-15)
ofrom a balloon (Rockoon, da Vinci Project (under
development))
oasurfaceship(AegisBallisticMissileDefenseSystem)
oaninclinedrail(e.g.rocketsledlaunch)
 "Rocket launch technologies" generally refers to the entire set of systems
needed to successfully launch a vehicle, not just the vehicle itself, but also the
firingcontrolsystems,groundcontrolstation,launchpad,andtrackingstations needed
for a successful launch and/or recovery.

Orbital launch vehicles commonly take off vertically, and then begin to
progressively lean over,usually following agravity turntrajectory.

Once above the majority of the atmosphere, the vehicle then angles the
rocket jet, pointing it largely horizontally but somewhat downwards, which
permits the vehicle to gain and then maintain altitude while increasing
horizontal speed. As the speed grows, the vehicle will become more and more
horizontal until at orbital speed, the engine will cut off.

Figure1.16 STS-7/AnikC2mission scenario.

(FromAnikC2LaunchHandbook; courtesy of Telesat, Canada.)
 APPLICATIONS

Figureexampleofgeostationary satellites

Figureexampleofsuntransit outage
 POSTTESTMCQ

1. Kepler’sfirstlawstates
a) Thepathfollowedbyasatellitearoundtheprimarywillbeanellipse.
b) Thepathfollowedbyasatellitearoundtheprimarywillbeancircle.
c) Thepathfollowedbyasatellitearoundtheprimarywillbeansphere
d) Noneoftheabove

2. INTELSATstands?
a) InternationalTelecommunicationsSatellite
b) IndiaTelecommunicationsSatellite
c) InterTelecommunicationsSatellite
d) Noneoftheabove

3. Thecarriertonoiseratioforasatellitedependsupon

(a) EffectiveIsotropicRadiawtewdwp.oEwnerggTree.com
(b) Bandwidth.
(c) Freespacepathlosses
(d) Allofthem

4. Mentionthedifferentservicesofsatellitesystems.
a) Broadcastingsatelliteservices
b) Signaltransmission
c) Informationtransmission
d) Noneoftheabove

5. Calculatetheradiusofacircularorbitforwhichtheperiodis1day?
a) 42.241Km
b) 42.241m
c) 4.241Km
d) 2.241K
6. The period of a satellite, the time required for a satellite to make a complete
triparound the Earth, is determined by law.
a) Kepler's
b) Newton's
c) Ohm's
d) noneoftheabove

7. Kepler’ssecondlawstates
a) Ift2-t1=t4-t3,thenA12=A34.
b) Ift2+t1 =t4+t3,thenA12=A34.
c) Ift2/t1=t4/t3,thenA12=A34.
d) Thepathfollowedbyasatellitearoundtheprimarywillbeanellipse

8. Apogeeis
a) Thepointfarthestfromearth

b) Thepointnearestfromeawrtwh w.EnggTree.com
c) Thepointsmallestfromearth
d) Noneoftheabove

9. Perigeeis
a) Thepointfarthestfromearth
b) Thepointlongestfromearth
c) Thepointclosestapproachtoearth
d) Noneoftheabove

10. Trueanomalyis
a) the angle from perigee to the satellite position, measured at the
earth’scenter.
b) Thepointlongestfromearth
c) Thepointclosestapproachtoearth
d) Noneoftheabove
11. is s a loss of power of a satellite downlink signal due to earth’s
atmosphere.
a) Atmosphericloss
b) Pathloss
c) Radiationloss
d) RFI

12. Collectsveryweaksignalsfromabroadcastsatellite
a) Helicalantenna
b) Satellitedish
c) LNA
d) TWT

13. Astheheightofasatelliteorbitgetslower,thespeedofthesatellite .
a) Increases
b) Decreases
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c) Remainsthe same
d) Noneoftheabove

14. ThetermEclipseisdefinedas
a) Duringequinoxperiods,theearththesun&thesatelliteareinalignment with
the result that earth’ s shadow eclipses that satellite & the sunlight fails to
reach the satellite solar cells.
b) Duringequinoxperiods, theearththesun& thesatelliteareinalignment withthe
result that earth’ s shadow eclipses that satellite & the sunlight success to reach the
satellite solar cells.
c) a&b
d) Noneofabove
15. WhyareVHF,UHF,andmicrowavesignalsusedinsatellitecommunication?
a) Morebandwidth
b) Morespectrumspace
c) Arenotdiffractedbytheionosphere
d) Economicallyviable

16. Whatisthereasonforshiftingfromcbandtokubandinsatellitecommunication?
a) Lesserattenuation
b) Lesspowerrequirements
c) Morebandwidth
d) Overcrowding

17. Whichofthefollowingbandscannotbeusedforsatellitecommunication?
a) MF
b) Ku
c) X
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d) C
18. Theeclipseeffectisnoticeableforperiodsof
(a) about four weeks & the maximum daily eclipse duration is about 1.20
hours.
(b) aboutoneweeks&themaximumdailyeclipsedurationisabout12hours.
(c) about five weeks & the maximum daily eclipse duration is about 1.20
hours.
(d) abouttwoweeks&themaximumdailyeclipsedurationisabout1.20hours.
19. Which technique uses spot beam antennas to divide the area covered by the
satellite into smaller segments?
a) Spatialisolation
b) Frequencyreuse
c) Multiplexing
d) Modulation
 CONCLUSION

 In thisunit,analysis ofthesatelliteorbits,geostationaryandnon Geo-stationary orbits

was discussed.
 TheKepler’sLaws,Newton’slawwereelaborated.
 The Sub satellite point –Sun transit outage-Launching Procedures - launch vehicles
and propulsion was discussed.

REFERENCES

1. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, “Satellite

Communication Systems Engineering”, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
2. N.Agarwal,“DesignofGeosynchronousSpaceCraft”,PrenticeHall,1986.
3. Bruce R. Elbert, “Satellite CommunicationApplications”, Hand Book, Artech House
Bostan London,1997.

4. TriT.Ha,“DigitalSatellitweCwowm.mEunngigcaTtrioene”.,cIoInmdedition,1990.
5. Robert G. Winch, “Telecommunication Transmission Systems”, Mc Graw-Hill Book
Co., 1983.
6. BrianAckroyd,“WorldSatelliteCommunicationandearthstationDesign”,BSP
professional Books, 1990.
7. G.B.Bleazard,“IntroducingSatellitecommunications“,NCCPublication,1985.
8. M.Richharia,“SatelliteCommunicationSystems-DesignPrinciples”,Macmillan 2003.
9. EmanuelFthenakis,“ManualofSatelliteCommunications”,McGrawHillBook Co.,
1984
 ASSIGNMENT

1. ExplaintheKepler'slawofplanetarymotionandhowaretheyapplicabletothe
geostationary satellite.

2. Whatisorbit?Deriveanexpressionfortheequationofsatelliteorbit.

3. Whatismeantbylookangles?Explainthemwithreferencetoageostationary satellite
and earth station.

4. Explainbrieflytheorbitalparametersrequiredtodetermineasatellite'sorbit.

5. Explaintheconceptofearthcoverageandslantrangeforgeostationarysatellite?
Whatarethemaximumvaluesoftheseparameter.

6. Explaintheconceptandsignificanceofstationkeeping.WhatareN-SandE-W station
keeping.

7. Explainhowasatelliteisplacedintogeostationaryorbitfromearth?
www.EnggTree.com
8. Whatismeantby/orbitperturbations?Explaininbrief.

9. Differentiatebetweengeosynchronousandgeostationaryorbit.

10. Brieflydiscussthevarioustypesoforbits.
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

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UNITIISPACESEGMENTANDSATELLITE
LINK DESIGN
 UNIT II SPACE SEGMENT AND SATELLITELINK
DESIGN

AIM&OBJECTIVE

 Tounderstandthesatellitesegmentandearthsegment.
 ToanalyzetheSatelliteUplinkandDownlink.
 TounderstandtheG/Tratio-PerformanceImpairments-System noise.

PRE-TESTMCQ

1. Forsatellitecommunication,standardEarthstationshaveantennadiameters in the
range of metre.
a) 27.5to30
b) 10to15
c) 30to50
d) 5to10
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2. In satellite communication, frequency modulation is used because satellite

channel has
a) smallbandwidthandnegligiblenoise
b) largebandwidthandseverenoise
c) maximumbandwidthandminimumnoise

d) highmodulationindex

3. Thenoise temperatureof sky isabout °K.

a) 100
b) 273
c) 0
d) 30
SpacecraftTechnology-Structure

Asatellitecommunicationssystemcanbebroadlydividedinto two
segments—a ground segment and a space segment.

The space segment will obviously include the satellites, but it also
includesthegroundfacilitiesneededtokeepthesatellitesoperational, these
being referred to as thetracking, telemetry, and command(TT&C) facilities. In
manynetworks itiscommon practice toemploy aground station solely for the
purpose of TT&C.

Figure 2.1 (a)Satellite

Structure

The equipment carried aboard the satellite also can be classified

according to function. Thepayload refers to the equipment used to pro- vide
the service for which the satellitehas been launched.

In a communications satellite, the equipment which provides the con-

nectinglinkbetweenthesatellite’stransmitandreceiveantennasis referred to as
thetransponder. The transponder forms one of the main sections of the
payload, the other being the antenna subsystems.In this chapter the main
characteristics of certain bus systems and payloads are described.
 ThePowerSupply

The primary electrical power for operating the electronic equipment is

obtained from solar cells. Individual cells can generate only small amounts of
power, and therefore, arrays of cells in series-parallel connection are required.

Figure shows the solar cell panels for the HS 376 satellite
manufactured by Hughes Space and Communications Company.

Ingeostationaryorbitthetelescopedpanelisfullyextendedsothat
bothareexposedtosun-light.Atthebeginningoflife,thepanelsproduce 940Wdcpower,
which may drop to 760 W at the end of 10 years.

Duringeclipse,powerisprovidedbytwonickel-cadmium(Ni-Cd)long- life
batteries, which will deliver 830 W. At the end of life, battery rechargetime is
less than 16 h.

Figure 2.1.(b)Satellite eclipse time as a function of the current day of the year.
(Courtesy of
Spilker, 1977. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)

capacityofcylindricalandsolar-sailsatellites,thecross-overpointisesti-mated to be
about 2 kW, where the solar-sail type is more economical than the cylindrical type
(Hyndman, 1991).
 AttitudeControl& Orbit Control

Theattitudeof a satellite refers to its orientation in space. Much of

theequipmentcarriedaboardasatelliteisthereforthepurposeofcontrol-ling
itsattitude.Attitudecontrolisnecessary,forexample,toensurethatdirectional
antennaspointin the proper directions.

In the case of earth environmental satellites, the earth-sensing

instruments must cover the required regions of the earth, which also requires
attitudecontrol.Anumberofforces,referredtoasdisturbancetorques,canalter the
attitude, some examples being the gravitational fields of the earth and the
moon,solarradiation,andmeteoriteimpacts.

Attitudecontrolmustnotbecon-fusedwithstationkeeping,whichis
thetermusedformaintainingasatelliteinitscorrectorbitalposition,although
thetwoarecloselyrelated.

Toexerciseattitudecontrol,theremustbeavailablesomemeasureof
asatellite’sorientationinswpwacwe.aEnndgogfTarneyet.ecnodmencyforth
istoshift.Inone method, infrared sensors, referred to as horizon detectors, are used
to detect the rim of the earth against the background of space.

Withtheuseoffoursuchsensors,oneforeachquadrant,thecenter of the
earth can be readily established as a reference point.

Usually, the attitude-control process takes place aboard the satellite,

butitis alsopossibleforcontrolsignalsto betransmittedfromearth,based on
attitude data obtained from the satellite.

Also, where a shift in attitude is desired, anattitude maneuveris

executed. The control signals needed to achieve this maneuver may be
transmitted from an earth station.

Controlling torques may be generated in a number of ways.Passive

attitude controlrefers to the use of mechanisms which stabilize the satellite
without putting a drain on the satellite’s energy supplies; at most, infrequent
use is made of these supplies, for example, when thruster jets are impulsed to
provide corrective torque. Examples of passive attitude control arespin
stabilization and gravity gradient sta- bilization.
 Theotherformofattitudecontrolisactivecontrol.Withactiveatti- tude control,
there is no overall stabilizing torque present to resist thedisturbance torques.
Instead, corrective torques are applied as required in response todisturbance
torques.Methodsusedtogenerate active control torques include momentum
wheels, electromagnetic coils, and mass expulsion devices, such as gas jets and ion
thrusters.

Figure 2.2

w w w .E n
(a)Roll,pitc h, a nd y aw
gg T r e e . c om
a xe s . T h e yawaxisisdirectedtowa
rd theearth’scenter,thepitchaxisisnormaltotheorbitalplane,andtheroll
axisisperpendiculartotheothertwo.(b)RPYaxesforthegeostationaryorbit.
Here,therollaxisistangentialtotheorbit andliesalongthesatellitevelocity vector.

The three axes whichdefine a satellite’s attitudeare its roll, pitch, and
yaw(RPY) axes. These are shown relative to the earth in Fig. 7.4. All threeaxes
pass through the center of gravity of the satellite. For an equatorialorbit,
movementofthesatelliteabouttherollaxismovestheantennafootprintnorth and
south; movement about the pitch axis moves the footprint east and west; and
movementaboutthe yaw axis rotatesthe antennafootprint.

Spinningsatellitestabilization

Spin stabilization may beachieved with cylindrical satellites. The satel-

liteisconstructedsothatitismechanicallybalancedaboutonepartic-ular axis and is
then setspinningaround this axis. Forgeostationary satellites, the
spinaxisisadjusted tobeparalleltotheN-Saxisoftheearth,asillustrated in
Fig.7.5.Spinrateistypicallyintherangeof50to100rev/min.Spinis
initiatedduringthelaunchphasebymeansofsmallgasjets.
 In the absence of disturbance torques, the spinning satellite would
maintain its correct attitude relative to the earth. Disturbance torques are
generatedin a number of ways, both external and internal to the satellite.

Solar radiation, gravitational gradients, and meteorite impacts are all

examples of external forces which can give rise to disturbance torques. Motor-
bearing frictionandthemovementofsatelliteelementssuchastheantennas
alsocangiverisetodisturbancetorques.The

Figure2.3Spinstabilizationinthegeostationaryorbit.Thespinaxislies
alongthepitchaxis,paralleltotheearth’sN-Saxis.
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overalleffect is that the spi
nratewilldecrease,and the direction of the
angular spinaxiswillchange.Impulse-typethrusters,orjets,canbeusedtoincrease
thespin rate again and toshiftthe axisbacktoits cor-rectN-Sorientation.

Nutation, which is a form of wobbling, can occur as a result of the

disturbancetorquesand/orfrommisalignmentorunbalanceofthecontrol
jets.Thisnutationmustbedampedoutbymeansofenergyabsorbersknown as
nutation dampers.

The antenna feeds can therefore be connected directly to the

transponders without the need for radiofrequency (rf) rotary joints, while the
complete platform is despun. Of course, control signals and power must be
transferred tothedespunsection, andamechanical bearing must be provided.

The complete assembly for this is known as thebearing and power

transfer assembly(BAPTA). Figure 2.4 shows a photograph of the internal
structure of the HS 376.

Certaindual-spinspacecraftobtainspinstabilizationfromaspinningfly-
wheel rather than by spinning the satellite itself. These flywheels are termed
momentumwheels,andtheiraveragemomentumisreferredtoasmomentum bias
 Figure 2.4 HS 376 spacecraft. (Courtesy of Hughes Aircraft
Company Space and
Communication
Group.)

Momentumwheelstabilization

In the previous section the gyroscopic effect of a spinning satellite was

shown to provide stability for the satellite attitude.

Stability also can be achieved by utilizing the gyroscopic effect of a

spinningflywheel,and this approachis used in satelliteswith cube-likebodies
(suchasshowninFig.andtheINTELSATVtypesatellitesshowninFig. These are
known as body-stabilized satellites.
 Thecomplete unit, termedamomentum wheel, consistsofaflywheel,
thebearingassembly,thecasing,andanelectricdrivemotorwithassociated electronic
con- trol circuitry.

The flywheel is attached to the rotor, which consists of a permanent

magnet providing the magnetic field for motor action. The stator of the motor is
attached to the body of the satellite.

Thus the motor provides the coupling between the flywheel and the
satellite structure. Speed and torque control of the motor is exercisedthrough
the currents fed to the stator.

Figure2.5Alternativemomentumwheelstabilizationsystems:(a)one-wheel,
(b)two-wheel,(c)three-wheel.

When a momentum wheel is operated with zero momentum bias, it is

generally referred to as areaction wheel. Reaction wheels are used in three-
axis stabilizedsystems.Here, as the name suggests,each axis is stabilized by a
reaction wheel, as shown in Fig. 7.8c. Reaction wheels can also be combined
withamomentumwheeltoprovidethecontrolneeded(Chetty,1991).
 Random and cyclic disturbance torques tends to produce
zeromomentumonaverage.However,therewillalwaysbesomedisturbance
torquesthatcausesacumulativeincreaseinwheelmomentum, andeventually at some
point the wheel saturates.

In effect, it reaches its maximum allowable angular velocity and canno

longer take in any more momentum. Mass expulsion devices are then used to
unload the wheel, that is, remove momentum from it (in the same way a
brakeremovesenergyfromamovingvehicle).Ofcourse,operationofthemass
expulsion devices consumes part of the satellite’s fuel supply.

ThermalControlandPropulsion

Satellites are subject to large thermal gradients, receiving the sun’s

radiation on one side while the other side faces into space. In addition, thermal
radiation from the earth and the earth’salbedo, which is the fraction of the
radiationfallingonearthwhichisreflected,canbesig-nificantforlow- altitude earth-
orbiting satellites, although it is negligi- ble for geostationary satellites.

Equipment inthewwsawte.lElinteggalTsoreege.nceormatesheat
which has to be removed. The most important consideration is that the satellite’s
equipment should operate as nearly as possible in a stable temperature
environment.Various stepsaretaken toachieve this.Thermal blankets andshields
maybe usedtoprovideinsulation.Radiationmirrorsareoftenusedtoremoveheat
from the communications payload.

ThemirroredthermalradiatorfortheHughesHS376satellitecan be seen in
Fig. These mirrored drums surround the communications equipment
shelvesineachcaseandpro-videgoodradiationpathsforthegeneratedheat to escape
into the surrounding space.

One advantage of spinning satellites compared with body-

stabilized is that the spinning body provides an averaging of the temperature
extremes experiencedfrom solar flux and the cold back- ground of deep space.

Inordertomaintainconstanttemperatureconditions,heatersmaybe switched on
(usually on command from ground) to make up for the heatreduction which
occurs when transponders are switched off. The INTELSAT VI satellite used
heaters to maintain propulsion thrusters and line temperatures (Pilcher, 1982).
 CommunicationPayload&SupportingSubsystems

Thephysical principle ofestablishing communication connectionsbetween

remote communication devices dates back to the late 1800s when scientists were
beginning to understand electromagnetism and discovered that
electromagnetic(EM)radiation(alsocalledEMwaves)generatedbyone device can be
detected by another located at some distance away.

By controllingcertainaspect s of the radiation(througha processcalled

modulation , explained in Section 4.4), useful informationcan be embedded in
the EMwaves and transmittedfrom one device to another.

Thesecondmajormoduleisthecommunication payload,whichismadeupof
transponders. A transponder is capable of :

□ Receiving uplinked radio signals from earth satellite transmission

stations (antennas).
□ Amplifyingreceivedradiosignals
□ Sorting the input signals and directing the output signals through
input/output signal multiplexers to the proper downlink antennas for
retransmission toearwthwswat.eEllintge
greTcereivein.cgostmations(antennas).

TT&CSubsystem

The TT&C subsystem performs several routine functions aboard the

spacecraft. The telemetry, or telemetering, function could be interpreted as
measurement at a distance. Specifically, it refers to the overall oper- ation of
generating an electrical signal proportional to the quantity being measured
andencodingandtransmittingthistoadistantstation,whichforthesatelliteis one
of the earth stations.

Data which are trans- mitted as telemetry signals include attitude

information such as that obtained from sun and earth sensors; environmental
informationsuch asthemagneticfieldintensityanddirection,thefrequencyof
meteoriteimpact,andso on;andspacecraftinformationsuchastemperatures,
powersupplyvoltages,andstored-fuelpressure.

Telemetry and command may be thought of as complementary functions.The

telemetry subsystem transmits information about the satellite to the earth station,
while the command subsystem receives command signals from the earth station,
often inresponse totelemetered information. The command subsystem
demodulatesand,ifnecessary,decodesthecommandsignalsandroutestheseto
theappropriate equipment needed toexe-cute the necessary action.

Thus attitude changes may be made, communication transponders

switched in and out of circuits, antennas redirected, and station-keeping
maneuvers carried out on command. It is clearly important to prevent
unauthorizedcommandsfrombeingreceivedanddecoded,andforthisreason,the
command signals areoftenencrypted.

Encryptis derivedfroma Greekwordkryptein,meaningtohide, andrep-

resents the process of concealing the command signals in a secure code. This
differs from the normal process of encoding which converts characters in the
commandsignalintoacodesuitablefortransmission.

Trackingofthesatelliteisaccomplishedbyhavingthesatellitetrans-
mitbeaconsignalswhicharereceivedattheTT&Cearthstations.

Tracking is obviously important during the transfer and drift orbital

phases of the satellite launch. Once it is on station, the position of a geo-stationary
satellite will tend to be shifted as a result of the various disturbing
forces,asdescribedp r e v i o u swl yw. w.EnggTree.com

Therefore, itisnecessary tobeabletotrackthesatellite’s movement and

send correction signals as required.

Transponders

A transponder is the series of interconnected units which forms a single

communications channel between the receive and transmit antennas in a
communications satellite.

Some of the units utilized by a transponder in a given channel may be

commontoanumberoftransponders.Thus,althoughreferencemaybemadetoa
specific transponder, this must be thought of as an equipmentchannelrather
than a singleitemof equipment.

Beforedescribingindetailthevariousunitsofatransponder,the
overallfrequencyarrangementofatypicalC-bandcommunicationssatellite willbe
examined briefly. Thebandwidth allocated forC-band serviceis500
MHz,andthisisdividedintosubbands,onetransponder.
 A typical transponder bandwidth is 36 MHz, and allowing for a 4-MHz
guardband between transponders, 12 such transponders canbeaccommodated in the
500-MHz bandwidth.

Figure2.8Satellitecontrolsystem.(CourtesyofTelesatCanada,1983.)

By making use of polar- ization isolation, this number can be doubled.

Polarizationisolationreferstothefactthatcarriers,whichmaybeonthesame
frequency but with opposite senses of polarization, can be isolated from one
anotherbyreceivingantennasmatchedtotheincomingpolarization.

Withlinearpolarization,verticallyandhorizontallypolarizedcarriers
canbeseparatedinthisway,andwithcircularpolarization,left-hand circular and
right-hand circular polarizations can be separated.
 Because thecarriers withopposite sensesofpolarization mayoverlap in
frequency, this technique is referred to asfrequency reuse. Figure 2.9
showspartofthefrequencyandpolarization planforaC-band communications
satellite.

Figure2.9 Sectionofanuplinkfrequencyandpolarizationplan.Numbers
refertofrequencyinmegahertz.

Frequencyreusealsomaybeachievedwithspot-beamantennas,and
thesemaybecombined with polarization reusetoprovide aneffective bandwidth
of2000 MHz from the actual bandwidth of 500 MHz.
 For one of the polarization groups, Fig.2.9showsthechanneling scheme
for the 12 transponders in more detail. The incoming, or uplink, frequency
range is 5.925 to 6.425 GHz.

Thefrequencyconversionshiftsthecarrierstothedownlinkfrequencyband,w
hichisalso500MHzwide,extendingfrom3.7to4.2GHz.
Atthispointthesignalsarechannelizedintofrequencybandswhichrepresenttheindivi
dualtransponderbandwidths.

Thewidebandreceiver

The widebandreceiver is shown in more detail in Fig. 2.10. A duplicate

receiveris providedso thatifone fails,the otheris automaticallyswitchedin. The
combination is referred to as aredundantreceiver, meaning that although two
are provided,only one is in use at a given time.

The first stage in the receiver is alow-noise amplifier(LNA). This

amplifier adds little noise to the carrier being amplified, and at the same time
it provides sufficient amplification for the carrier to override the higher noise
levelpresentinthefollowingmixerstage.
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Figure2.10 Satellitetransponderchannels
 Figure 2.11 Satellite wideband receiver. (Courtesy of CCIR, CCIR Fixed
Satellite Services Handbook, final draft 1984.)

involvingnoise,itisusuallymoreconvenienttoreferallnoiselevelstotheLNA
input,wherethetotalr e c e i v e r n o i s e m a y b e e x p r es sedinte
w w w .E n g g T r e e . co m
rmsofanequivalent noise temperature.

In a well-designed receiver, the equivalent noise temperature

referredtotheLNAinputisbasicallythatoftheLNAalone.Theoverall noise
temperature must take into account the noise added from the antenna, and
these calculations are presented in detail in Chap. 12. The equivalentnoise
temperatureof a satellitereceivermay be on the order of a few hundred
kelvins.

TheLNAfeedsintoamixerstage,whichalsorequiresalocal
oscillator(LO)signalforthefrequency-conversionprocess.

With advances infield-effect transistor (FET) technology, FET amplifiers,

which offer equal or better performance, are now available for both bands. Diode
mixer stages are used.

The amplifier following the mixer may utilizebipolar junction

transistors(BJTs)at4GHzandFETsat12GHz,orFETsmayinfactbeused in both
bands.
 Theinputdemultiplexer

Theinputdemultiplexerseparatesthebroadbandinput,coveringthe
frequencyrange 3.7 to 4.2 GHz, into thetransponderfrequencychannels.

Thisprovidesgreaterfrequencyseparationbetweenadjacentchannels in a
group, which reduces adjacent channel interference.

The output from thereceiver isfed to a power splitter, which in turn

feedsthetwoseparatechainsofcirculators.

Figure2.12Satelliteinputmultiplexer

The full broadband signal is transmitted along each chain, and the
channelizing is achieved by means of channel filters con- nected to each
circulator,

Eachfilterhasabandwidthof36MHzandistunedtothe appropriate center

frequency, as shown in Fig. 2.11.

Althoughthereareconsiderablelossesinthedemultiplexer,theseare
easilymadeupintheoverallgainforthetransponderchannels.
 Thepoweramplifier

The fixed attenuation is needed to balance out variations in the input

attenuation so that each transpon- der channel has the same nominal
attenuation,the necessaryadjust- mentsbeingmadeduringassembly.

The variable attenuation is needed to set the level as required for

different types of service (an example being the requirement for input power
backoff discussed later). Because this variable attenuator adjustment is an
operational requirement, it must be under the control of the ground TT&C
station.

Traveling-wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) are widely used in transpon- dersto

provide the final output power required to the transmit antenna. Figure 2.13
shows the schematic of a traveling wave tube (TWT) and its power supplies.

In the TWT, an electron-beam gun assembly consisting of a heater, a

cathode, and focusing electrodes is used to form an elec- tron beam. A magnetic
fieldisrequiredtoconfinethebeamtotravelalong the inside of a wire helix.

Figure2.13SatelliteTWTA
used in ground stations, the magnetic field can be provided by meansof asolenoid
and dc power supply. The comparatively large size and high power consumption
of solenoids make them unsuitable for use aboard satellites, and lower-power
TWTs are used which employ permanent- magnet focusing.

The wave actually will travel around the helical path at close to the
speed of light, but it is the axial component of wave velocity which interacts
with the electron beam.

This component is less than the velocity of light approximately in the

ratio of helix pitch to circumference. Because of this effective reduction in
phase velocity,the helixis referredto as a slowwavestructure.

The advantage of the TWT over other types of tube amplifiers is that it
canprovideamplificationovera verywidebandwidth.InputlevelstotheTWT must
be carefullycontrolled,however, to minimize the effects of certainforms of
distortion.

The worstof theseresultfrom the nonlinear transfer characteristic of

the TWT, illustrated in Fig. 2.14.

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Figure 2.14Power transfer characteristicsof a TWT.Thesaturationpoint is

used as 0-dB
reference for both input and
output.
 At low-input powers, the output-input power relationship is linear;
that is, a given decibel change in input power will produce the same decibel
change in output power.At higher power inputs, the output power sat- urates,
thepointof maximumpoweroutputbeingknownas the satu-rationpoint.

The saturation point is a very convenient reference point, and input

and output quantities are usually referred to it. The linear region of the TWTis
definedas theregionboundby the thermalnoiselimit atthe low endandby what
is termed the1-dB compression pointat the upper end. This is the point
wheretheactualtransfercurvedrops

SatelliteuplinkanddownlinkAnalysisandDesign

Introduction

This chapter describes how the link-power budget calculations are made.
These calculations basically relate two quantities, the transmit power and the
receivepower,andshowindetailhowthedifferencebetweenthesetwopowers is
accounted for.

Link-
budgetcalculwatwiowns.EanregguTsurealely.cmomadeusing decibel or
decilog quantities.TheseareexplainedinApp.G.Inthistext[square]bracketsare used
to denote decibel quantities using the basic power definition.

Where no ambiguity arises regarding the units, the abbreviation dB is

used.Forexample,Boltzmann’sconstantisgivenas 228.6 dB, although,
strictly speaking, this should be given as228.6 decilogs relative to1J/K.

EquivalentIsotropic RadiatedPower

A key parameter in link-budget calculations is theequivalent isotropic

radiated power, conventionally denotedEIRP.
as FromEqs, the maximum
powerfluxdensityat somedistancer frotransmittingantenna
m of gain G i

Pr=

An isotropic radiator with an input power equal to GPS would produce

the same flux density. Hence, this product is referredto as the EIRP, or EIRP is
often expressed in decibels relative to 1 W, or dBW. LetPSbe in watts; then
[EIRP]=[PS]x[G] dB ,where [PS] isalso in dBW and [G] is in dB.
 TransmissionLosses

The [EIRP] may be thought of as the power input to one end of the
transmission link, and the problem is to find the power received at the other end.
Losseswilloccuralongtheway,someofwhichareconstant.

Otherlossescanonlybeestimatedfromstatisticaldata,andsomeoftheseare
dependenton weatherconditions,especiallyon rainfall.

The first step in the calculations is to determine the losses forclear- weather or
clear-skyconditions.These calculationstakeinto accountthe losses, includingthose
calculated on a statistical basis, which do not vary significantly with time. Losses
which are weather-related, and other losses which fluctuate with time, are then
allowed for by introducing appropriatefade marginsinto the transmission
equation.

Free-spacetransmission:

Asafirststepinthelosscalculations,thepowerlossresultingfromthe
spreadingofthesignalinspace mustbedetermined.

Feederlosses: www.EnggTree.com

Losses will occur in the connection between the receive antenna and the
receiver proper. Such losses will occur in the connecting waveguides, filters, and
couplers.ThesewillbedenotedbyRFL,or[RFL]dB,forreceiverfeederlosses.

Antennamisalignmentlosses

When a satellite link is established, the ideal situation is to have the earth
station and satellite antennas aligned for maximum gain, as shown in Fig. There
are two possible sources of off-axis loss, one at the satellite and one at the earth
station, as shown in Fig.

Theoff-axislossatthesatelliteistakenintoaccountbydesigningthelinkfor
operation on the actual satellite antenna contour; this is described in more detail
in later sections.Theoff-axisloss at theearthstation is referred to as the antenna
pointing loss. Antenna pointinglossesareusuallyonlyafewtenthsofadecibel;

In addition to pointing losses, losses may result at the antenna from

misalignmentofthepolarizationdirection(theseareinadditiontothe
polarizationlossesdescribedinChap.5).Thepolarizationmisalign-mentlosses
 are usually small, and it will be assumed that the antenna misalignment losses,
denoted by [AML], include both pointing and polar- ization losses resulting from
antenna misalignment. It should be noted

Figure2.15 (a)Satelliteandearth-stationantennasalignedformaximumgain;
(b)earthstationsituatedonagivensatellite“footprint,”andearth-station
antenna misaligned.
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TheLink-PowerBudgetEquation

Now that the losses for the link have been identified, the power at the
receiver, which is the power output of the link, may be calculated simply as[EIRP]
[LOSSES][GR], where the last quantity is the receiver antenna gain. Note
carefullythat decibel addition must be used.

Themajorsourceoflossinanyground-satellite linkisthefree-space
spreadingloss[FSL],thebasiclink-powerbudgetequationtakingintoaccount this loss
only. However, the other losses also must be taken into account, and these are simply
added to[FSL]. The losses for clear-sky conditions are

[LOSSES]= [FSL]+ [RFL]+ [AML]+ [AA]- [PL] equationforthe

receivedpoweristhen

[PR] =[EIRP] x[GR]- [LOSSES]

where[PR] receivedpower, dBW

 [EIRP] -equivalent isotropic radiated power, dBW [FSL] free-space
spreading loss, dB

[RFL] -receiverfeederloss,dB

[AML]- antennamisalignmentloss,dB

[AA]-atmosphericabsorptionloss,dB[PL]polarizationmismatchloss,dB

Amplifier noisetemperature

Considerfirstthenoiserepresentationoftheantennaandthelownoise amplifier (LNA)

shown in Fig. 2.15.

TheavailablepowergainoftheamplifierisdenotedasG,andthenoise power
output, as Pno.

Figure2.15LNAAmplifiergain

Forthemomentwewillworkwiththenoisepowerperunitbandwidth,
whichissimplynoiseenergyinjoulesasshownbyEq.

The inputnoiseenergycomingfromtheantennais

N0,ant =kTant
 TheUplink

The uplink of a satellite circuit is the one in which the earth station is
transmittingthe signal andhe
t satellite is receivingit specificallythattheuplink
isbeingconsidered.

=[ ]− [ ]+]

In this Eq the values to be used are the earth station EIRP, the satellite
receiver feeder losses, and satellite receiverG/T. The free-space loss and other
losseswhicharefrequency-dependentarecalculatedfortheuplinkfrequency.

Inputbackoff

Number of carriers are present simultaneously in a TWTA, the operating

pointmustbebackedofftoalinearportionofthetransfercharacteristictoreduce the
effects of inter modulation distortion. Such multiple carrier operation occurs
withfrequency- division multiple access(FDMA), which is described in Chap. 14.
Thepointtobemadehereisthatbackoff(BO)mustbeallowedforinthelink-budget
calculations.
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Supposethatthesaturationfluxdensityforsingle-carrieroperationisknown.
Input BO will be specified for multiple-carrier operation, referred to the single-
carrier saturation level. The earth-station EIRP will have to be reduced by the
specified BO, resulting in an uplink value of

[EIRP]U =[EIRPS]U+ [BO]i

TheearthstationHPA

The earth station HPA has to supply the radiated power plus the transmit
feederlosses,denotedherebyTFL,or[TFL]dB.Theseincludewaveguide,filter,and
coupler losses between the HPA output and the transmit antenna. Referring back to Eq.
(12.3),thepoweroutputof

The earth station itself may have to transmit multiple carriers, and its
output also will require back off, denoted by [BO] HPA. The earth station
HPAmustbe ratedfor a saturationpower outputgiven by

[PHPA,sat]= [PHPA]+[BO]HPA
 Downlink

The downlink of a satellite circuit is the one in which the satellite is trans-
mittingthesignalandtheearthstationisreceivingit.Equationcanbeappliedtothe
downlink, but subscriptDwill be used to denote specifically that the downlink is
being considerd.
e T hus q. becom

=[ ]−[ ]+[]

InEq.thevaluestobeusedarethesatelliteEIRP,theearth-station
receiverfeederlosses,andtheearth-stationreceiverG/T.Thefreespaceandother
lossesarecalculatedforthedownlinkfrequency.Theresultingcarrier-to-noise
densityratiogivenbyEq.isthatwhichappearsatthedetectoroftheearthstation
receiver.

Outputback-off

WhereinputBOisemployedasdescribedinacorrespondingoutput BOmust be
allowed for in the satellite EIRP. As the curve of Fig. 2.16 shows, output BO is
notlinearlyrelatedtoinputBO.Aruleofthumb,frequentlyused,istotakethe
outputBOasthepointonwthwewcu.Ervne gwghTicrheeis.c5omdBbelowtheextr
apolated linear portion,asshowninFig.12.7.Sincethelinearportiongivesa1:1changein
decibels, the relationship between input and output BO is [BO] 0[BO]i5 dB. For
example, with an input BO of [BO]i 11dB,thecorrespondingoutputBOis
[BO]0

Figure2.16 Input and output

back- off relationship for the
satellite traveling-wave-tube
amplifier; [BO]i [BO]05 dB.
 EffectsofRain

In the C band and, more especially, the Ku band, rainfall is the most
significant cause of signal fading. Rainfall results in attenuationof radio waves by
scatteringandbyabsorptionofenergyfromthewave.

RainattenuationincreaseswithincreasingfrequencyandisworseintheKu
band compared with the C band.

This produces a depolarizationof the wave; in effect, the wave becomes ellipti-
cally polarized. This is true for both linear and circular polar- izations, and the effect
seems to be much worse for circular polarization(Freeman, 1981).

TheC/N0ratioforthedownlinkalone,notcountingthe PNUcontri-bution,is
PR/PND,andthecombinedC/N0ratioatthegroundreceiveris

Figure2.17 (a)Combineduplinkanddownlink;(b)powerflowdiagram

The reason for this reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals method is that a
singlesignalpowerisbeingtransferredthroughthesystem,whilethevarious noise
powers, which are present are additive. Similar reasoning applies to thecarrier-to-
noise ratio, C/N.
 intermodulationandinterference

Intermodulationinterference is the undesired combining of several signals

in a nonlinear device, producing new, unwanted frequencies, which can cause
interferencein adjacentreceiverslocatedat repeatersites.

Not all interference is a result of intermodulation distortion. It can come

from co-channel interference, atmospheric conditions as well as man-made noise
generated by medical, welding and heating equipment.

Most intermodulation occurs in a transmitter's nonlinear power amplifier

(PA).Thenextmostcommonmixingpointis in thefrontendofareceiver.Usually it
occurs in the unprotected first mixer of older model radios or in some cases an
overdriven RF front-end amp.

Intermodulation can also be produced in rusty or corroded tower joints, guy

wires,turnbucklesandanchorrodsoranynearbymetallicobject,whichcanactas a
nonlinear "mixer/rectifier" device.

Propagation Characteristics andFrequencyconsiderations

Introduction
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A number of factors resulting from changes in the atmosphere have to betaken
into account when designing a satellite communications system in order to avoid
impairment of the wanted signal.

Generally, a margin in the required carrier-to-noise ratio is incorporated to

accommodate such effects.

RadioNoise

Radio noise emitted by matter is used as a source of information in radio

astronomy and in remote sensing. Noise of a thermal origin has a continuous
spectrum, but several other radiation mechanisms cause the emission to have a
spectral-line structure. Atoms and molecules are distinguished by their different
spectral lines.

Forotherservicessuchassatellitecommunicationsnoiseisalimiting
factorforthereceivingsystem;generally,itisinappropriate tousereceiving systems with
noise temperatures which are much less than those specified by the minimum
external noise.
 From about 30 MHz to about 1 GHz cosmic noise predominates over
atmospheric noise except during local thunderstorms, but will generally be
exceededby man-madenoisein populatedareas.

In the bands of strong gaseous absorption, the noise temperature reaches

maximum values of some 290 K. At times, precipitation will also increase the
noise temperatureat frequencies above 5 GHz.

Figure6.1givesanindicationofskynoiseatvariouselevationanglesand frequencies.

Figure2.18Sky-NoiseTemperatureforClearAir

Systemreliabilityanddesignlifetime

Systemreliability

Satellitesaredesignedtooperatedependablythroughouttheir operational life,

usually a number of years.

This is achieved through stringent quality control and testing of parts and
subsystems before they are used in the construction of the satellite.

Redundancyofkeycomponentsisoftenbuiltinsothatifaparticularpart or
subassembly fails, another can perform its functions.

Inaddition,hardwareandsoftwareonthesatelliteareoftendesignedso
thatgroundcontrollerscanreconfigurethesatellitetoworkaroundapartthat has failed.
2.14.2.Designlifetime

The Milstar constellation has demonstrated exceptional reliability and

capability, providing vital protected communications to the warfighter,” said
Kevin Bilger, vice president and general manager, Global Communications
Systems, Lockheed Martin Space Systems in Sunnyvale.

“Milstar’s robust system offers our nation worldwide connectivity with

flexible, dependable and highly secure satellite communications.”

The five-satellite Milstar constellation has surpassed 63 years of combined

successful operations, and provides a protected, global communication network for
the joint forces of the U.S. military. In addition, it can transmit voice, data, and
imagery, and offers video teleconferencing capabilities.

Thesystemistheprincipalsurvivable,endurablecommunicationsstructure that
the President, the Secretary of Defense and the Commander, U.S. Strategic Command
use to maintain positive command and control of the nation's strategic forces.
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Inadditiontothis10-yearmilestoneforFlight-5,eachofthefirsttwo Milstar
satellites have been on orbit for over 16 years – far exceeding their 10-year design
life.

The next-generation Lockheed Martin-built Advanced EHF satellites,joining

the Milstar constellation, provide five times faster data rates and twice as many
connections, permitting transmission of strategic and tactical military
communications,suchasreal-timevideo,battlefieldmapsandtargeting
data.Advanced EHF satellites are designed to be fully interoperable and backward
compatible with Milstar.

Headquartered in Bethesda, Md., Lockheed Martin is a global securitycompany

that employs about 123,000 people worldwide and is principally
engagedintheresearch,design,development,manufacture,integrationandsustainment
ofadvancedtechnologysystems,productsandservices.TheCorporation'snet sales for
2011 were $46.5 billion.
 APPLICATIONS

www.EnggTree.com
Figureexampleofsatelliteuplinkanddownlink

Figuretypicalsatellitewithbusandpayloadseparation
 POSTTESTMCQ

1. Thelowestfrequencyusedinsatellitecommunicationsis GHz.
a) 0.8
b) 3
c) 18
d) 30

2. Forsatellitetransmission,analogsignalsmaybeconvertedintodigitalformwith the
help of
a) modem
b) transponder
c) codec
d) compandor

3. Geosynchronoussatellitesarealwayslaunchedintheequatorialplanebecauseitis the only

plane which provides
a) 24-hourorbit www.EnggTree.com
b) stationarysatellite
c) globalcommunication
d) zero-gravityenvirons

4. Thetraffic-handlingcapacityofanEarthstationontheuplinkdependson
a) its EIRP
b) satellite antennagain
c) noiseassociatedwiththesatellite
d) alloftheabove

5. Phasemodulationiscommonly-usedfordatatransmissionmainlybecause
a) phasecanbevariedfrom+180°to180°
b) itisresistanttotheeffectsofnoise
c) demodulationisveryeasy
d) itgiveshighestdataratesthatcanbetransmittedoveragivenchannel
6. Most of the communication satellitesare stationed to the West of their service
areasorder to reduce their
a) eclipseperiod
b) lossofpower
c) batterypowerprovision
d) massofstation-keepingfuel

7. Theechoheardbyatelephoneuseronasatellitechannelcanberemovedbyusing
a) avocoder
b) amultiplexer
c) echosuppressor
d) digitaltechniques

8. Asatellitelinkusesdifferentfrequenciesforreceivingandtransmittinginorderto
a) avoidinterferencefromterrestrialmicrowavelinks
b) avoidinterferencebetweenitspowerfultransmittedsignalandweakin
comingsignal www.EnggTree.com
c) minimisefree-spacelosses
d) maximiseantennagain

9. SystemsatellitesorbittheEarthoncein
a) 24hours
b) 12hours
c) 1hour
d) 6hours

10. A few minutes disturbance in space communications occurs twice a year during
Sunblinding when are in line.

a) Sunandsatellite
b) SunandEarthstation
c) SatelliteandEarthstation
d) Sun,satelliteandEarthstation
11. Inthecontextoferrordetectioninsatellitetransmission,ARQstandsfor
a) AutomaticRepeatRequest
b) AutomaticRelayRequest
c) AcceleratedRecoveryRequest
d) AutomaticRadiationQuenching

12. To cover all inhabited regions of the Earth, the number of geosynchronous
communication satellites required
a) 5
b) 3
c) 10
d) 2
13. Amodemis
a) aformofcommutator
b) adevicefordigitizingspeech
c) acircuitusedforsuppressingmicrowaveinterference
d) an electronic circuit

whwicwhwc.aErnrigegsToruetem.coodmulationand demodulation of a
carrier frequency

14. A typical signal strength received from a geosynchronous communication satelliteis

of the order of a few
a) milliwatts
b) kilowatts
c) picowatts
d) watts

15. Atelephoneuserwhiletalkingtoapersonviaasatellitehastowaitforreplyfor about

millisecond.
a) 100
b) 270
c) 470
d) 540
 CONCLUSION

 InthisunitwedescribetheSpacecraftTechnology.
 TheSatelliteUplinkand DownlinkAnalysisand Designwerediscussed.
 TheLinkPowerBudget,C/NcalculationandG/Tratio-Performancewere elaborated.
REFERENCES
1. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, “Satellite
Communication Systems Engineering”, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
2. N.Agarwal,“DesignofGeosynchronousSpaceCraft”,PrenticeHall,1986.
3. Bruce R. Elbert, “Satellite Communication Applications”, Hand Book, Artech House
Bostan London,1997.
4. TriT.Ha,“DigitalSatelliteCommunication”,IIndedition,1990.
5. Robert G. Winch, “Telecommunication Transmission Systems”, Mc Graw-Hill Book
Co., 1983.

6. BrianAckroyd,“WorldSa
wtewllwite.ECnogmgmTurneieca.ctioonm andearthstat
ionDesign”,BSP professional Books, 1990.
7. G.B.Bleazard,“IntroducingSatellitecommunications“,NCCPublication,1985.
8. M.Richharia,“SatelliteCommunicationSystems-DesignPrinciples”,Macmillan 2003.
9. EmanuelFthenakis,“ManualofSatelliteCommunications”,McGrawHillBook Co.,
1984.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explainthedifferencetypesoftransmissionlossesinsatellitecommunicationwith
necessary expression. Write the link power budget equation.
2. Discussthedifferenttypesofnoiseandtheirsignificanceinthedesignofasatellitelink with
necessary expression.
3. Explain the following: input backoff, output backoff, earth station HPA
andcombined uplink and downlink. C/N ratio.
4. ExplainwidebandreceiveroperationwithneatdiagramORB.
5. Explainthermalcontrolsystem.Withaneatsketch,
6. ExplainTelemetry,Trackingandcommandsubsystem.
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

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UNITIIIEARTHSEGMENT
 UNITIIIEARTHSEGMENT

AIM&OBJECTIVE

 Tounderstandthebasicsofearthsegment.
 TounderstandtheIndoorUNITforanalog(FM)TV.
 ToanalyzetheTerrestrialInterface.
 TounderstandtheAntennaGain.

PRETESTMCQ

1. Tomakeantennamoredirectional,eitheritssizemustbeincreasedor
a) thenumberof itsfeed hornsmustbeincreased
b) thefrequencyofitstransmission mustbeincreased
c) itseffectiveisotropicradiatedpower(EIRP)mustbeincreased
d) itsfootprintmust beincreased

2. Thenumberof dayswhenEarth’sshadowfallson ageosynchronoussatellite is

a) 88 www.EnggTree.com
b) 277
c) 5
d) 10

3. Ahelicalantennaisusedforsatellitetrackingbecauseof
a) Circularpolarization
b) Maneuverability
c) Beamwidth
d) Gain
 EarthStationTechnology

The earth segment of a satellite communications system consists of the

transmitandreceiveearthstations.ThesimplestofthesearethehomeTV receive-only
(TVRO) systems, and the most complex are the terminal stations used
forinternationalcommunicationsnetworks.Alsoincludedintheearthsegment
arethosestationswhichareonshipsatsea,andcommercialandmilitaryland and
aeronautical mobile stations.
As mentionedin earth stations that are used for logistic sup-portofsatellites,such
asprovidingthetelemetry,tracking,andcommand(TT&C)functions,areconsidered as
part of the space segment.

TerrestrialInterface

Earthstationisavitalelementinanysatellitecommunicationnetwork. The
function of an earth station is to receive information from or transmit information
to,thesatellitenetworkinthemostcost-effectiveandreliable manner while retaining
the desired signal quality. The design of earth station
configurationdependsuponmanyfactorsanditslocation.Butitis fundamentally
governed by its

Locationwhicharelisted be lo w ,
• lan
w w w . EnggTree.com
In
• Onashipatsea
• Onboard aircraft
The factors are
• Typeofservices
• Frequencybandsused
• Functionofthetransmitter
• Functionofthereceiver
• Antennacharacteristics

TransmitterandReceiver

Anyearthstationconsistsoffourmajorsubsystems
• Transmitter
• Receiver
• Antenna•Trackingequipment
 Twootherimportantsubsystemsare
• Terrestrialinterfaceequipment
• Powersupply

Theearthstationdependsonthefollowingparameters
• Transmitterpower
• Choiceoffrequency
• Gainofantenna
• Antennaefficiency
• Antennapointingaccuracy
• Noisetemperature

Thefunctional elements ofabasic digital earthstation areshown inthebelow figure

Figure3.1Transmitter-Receiver

Digital information in the form of binary digits from terrestrial networks

enters earth stationand is then processed (filtered, multiplexed, formatted etc.)
by the base band equipment.

• The encoder performs error correction coding toreduce the errorrate,

byintroducingextradigitsintodigitalstreamgeneratedbythebaseband
equipment.Theextra digitscarry information.
• In satellite communication, I.F carrier frequency is chosen at 70 MHz for
communication using a 36 MHz transponder bandwidth and at 140 MHz for a
transponder bandwidth of 54 or 72 MHz.

• On the receive side, the earth station antenna receives the low -level
modulatedR.Fcarrierinthedownlinkfrequencyspectrum.

• Thelownoiseamplifier(LNA)isusedtoamplifytheweakrec eived
signalsandimprovethesignaltoNoiseratio(SNR).Theerrorraterequirements can be met
more easily.
• R.F is to be reconverted to I.F at 70 or 140 MHz because it is easierdesign
a demodulation to work at these frequencies than 4 or 12 GHz.

• Thedemodulatorestimatewhichofthepossiblesymbolswas transmitted
basedonobservation ofthereceived ifcarrier.

• Thedecoderperformsafunctionoppositethatoftheencoder.Because
thesequenceofsymbolsrecoveredbythedemodulatormaycontainerrors,the
decodermustusetheuniquenessoftheredundantdigitsintroducedbythe
encodertocorrectthee r r o r swawn wd r.EecnogvegrTinrefoer.mcaotmion-
bearingdigits.

• The information stream isfedtothe base-band equipment for processing for

delivery to the terrestrial network.

• The tracking equipments track the satellite and align the beam towardsit
to facilitate communication.

3.1.3.EarthStationTrackingSystem

Trackingisessentialwhenthesatellitedrift,asseenbyanearthstation antenna is a
significant fraction of an earth station’s antenna beam width.
Anearthstation’strackingsystemisrequiredtoperformsomeofthe functions such as

i)Satelliteacquisition
ii)Automatictracking
iii) Manualtracking
iv) Programtracking.
 AntennaSystems

Theantennasystemconsistof
 FeedSystem
 AntennaReflector
 Mount
 AntennatrackingSystem

FEEDSYSTEM

The feed along with the reflector is the radiating/receiving element of

electromagnetic waves.Thereciprocitypropertyofthefeedelementmakesthe earth
station antenna system suitable for transmission and reception of electromagnetic
waves.

ThewaythewavescominginandgoingoutiscalledfeedconfigurationEarthStationf
eedsystemsmostcommonlyusedinsatellitecommunicationare:
i) Axi-SymmetricConfiguration
ii)Asymmetric Configuration
i)Axi-SymmetricConfiguration
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Inanaxi-symmetricconfigurationtheantennaaxesaresymmetricalwith
respect to the reflector ,which results in a relatively simple mechanical structure and
antenna mount.

PrimaryFeed

In primary, feed is located at the focal point of the parabolic

reflector.Manydishesuseonlyasinglebounce,withincomingwavesreflectingoffthe
dish surface to the focus in front of the dish, where the antenna is located. when
the dish is used to transmit ,the transmitting antenna at the focus beams waves
toward the dish, bouncing them off to space. This is the simplest arrangement.

Cassegrain

Manydisheshavethewavesmakemorethanonebounce.Thisis
generallycalledasfoldedsystems.Theadvantageisthatthewholedishand feed
system is more compact. There are several folded configurations, but allhave at
least one secondary reflector also called a sub reflector, located out in front of the
dish to redirect the waves.
 AcommondualreflectorantennacalledCassegrain hasaconvex sub
reflectorpositionedinfrontofthemaindish,closertothedishthanthefocus.
Thissubreflectorbouncesbackthewavesbacktowardafeedlocatedonthe main dish’s
center, sometimes behind a hole at the center of the main
dish.Sometimesthereareevenmoresubreflectorsbehindthedishtodirectthe waves to
the fed for convenience or compactness.

Gregorian

This system has a concave secondary reflector located just beyond

theprimaryfocus.Thisalsobouncesthewavesbacktowardthedish.

ii) Asymmetric Configuration

Offset or Off-axis feed

The performance of tan axi-symmetric configuration is affected bythe

blockageoftheaperturebythefeedandthesubreflectorassembly.Theresultis a reduction
in the antenna efficiency and an increase in the side lobe levels. The
asymmetricconfigurationcanremovethislimitation..Thisisachievedbyoff-
settingthemountingarranwgwemwe.nEtnogf gTthreeefe.ecdomsothatitdoesnotobs
tructthe
mainbeam.Asaresult,theefficiencyandsidelobelevelperformanceare improved.

ANTENNAREFLECTOR

Mostlyparabolicreflectorsareusedasthemainantennafortheearth stations
because of the high gain available from the reflector and the ability of focusing a
parallel beam into a point at the focus where the feed,i.e., the receiving/radiating
element is located .For large antenna system more than one
reflectorsurfacesmaybeusedinasinthecassegrainantennasystem.

Earthstationsarealsoclassifiedonthe basisof servicesforexample:

1. TwowayTV ,Telephonyanddata
2. TwowayTV
3. TVreceiveonlyandtwowaytelephonyanddata
4. Twowaydata
From the classifications it is obvious that the technology of earth station
will vary considerably on the performance and the service requirements of earth
station
Formechanicaldesignofparabolicreflectorthefollowingparametersarerequired to be
considered:
 Sizeofthereflector
 FocalLength/diameterratio
 RMSerrorofmainandsubreflector
 Pointingandtrackingaccuracies
 Speedandacceleration
 Typeofmount
 CoverageRequirement

WindSpeed

The size of the reflector depends on transmit and receive gain

requirementandbeamwidthoftheantenna. Gainisdirectlyproportionaltotheantenna
diameterwhereasthebeamwidthisinverselyproportionaltotheantenna
diameter.forhighinclinationangleofthesatellite,thetrackingoftheearth station becomes
necessary whenthebeamwidth istoonarrow.

The gain of the antennais givenby

Gain= (η4ΠAeff)/ λ2
WhereAeffisthe w w w .EnggTree.com
ape rt ur e
Λiswavelength
Ηisefficiencyofantennasystem
ForaparabolicantennawithcircularaperturediameterD,thegainoftheantenna is :
Gain=(η4Π/λ2)(ΠD2/4)
=η(ΠD/λ)2
Theoverallefficiencyoftheantennaisthenetproductofvariousfactorssuchas

1. CrossPolarization
2. Spillover
3. Diffraction
4. Blockage
5. Surfaceaccuracy
6. Phaseerror
7. Illumination
Inthedesignoffeed,theratiooffocallengthFtothediameterofthe
reflector D of the antenna system control the maximum angle subtended by the
reflector surface on the focal point. Larger the F/D ratio larger is the aperture
illumination efficiency and lower the cross polarization.

Figure3.2Antennasubsystems

ANTENNAMOUNT www.EnggTree.com

Type of antenna mount is determined mainly by the coverage

requirementandtrackingrequirementsoftheantennasystems.Differenttypesofmountsu
sed forearth station antenna are:

i) TheAzimuth–elevationmount

This mount consists of a primary vertical axis. Rotation around this axis
controlstheazimuthangle.Thehorizontalaxisismountedovertheprimary axis,
providing the elevation angle control.

ii) TheX-Ymount

Itconsistsofahorizontalprimaryaxis(X-axis)andasecondaryaxis(Y- axis) and at

right angles to it. Movement around these axes provides necessary steering.
 ANTENNATRACKINGSYSTEM

Trackingisessentialwhenthesatellitedrift,asseenbyanearthstation antenna is a
significant fraction of an earth station’s antenna beam width.

Anearthstation’strackingsystemisrequiredtoperformsomeofthe functions such as

i)Satelliteacquisition
ii)Automatictracking
iii) Manualtracking
iv) Programtracking.

RecentTrackingTechniques

Therehavebeensomeinterestingrecentdevelopmentsinauto-track
techniqueswhichcanpotentiallyprovidehighaccuraciesatalowcost.

InoneproposedtechniquethesequentiallobingtechniquehasbeenI
implementedbyusingrapidelectronicswitchingofassinglebeamwhich effectively
approximates simwuwltwan.Eeonugs gloTbrbeineg..com

Receive-OnlyHomeTVSystems

Planned broadcasting directly tohome TVreceivers takesplaceinthe Ku (12-

GHz)band.Thisserviceisknownasdirectbroadcastsatellite(DBS)service.

There is some variation in the frequency bands assigned to different

geographicregions.IntheAmericas,forexample,thedown-linkbandis12.2to
12.7GHz.

Thecomparativelylargesatellitereceivingdishes[rangingindiame-ter from
about1.83m (6ft) to about3-m(10ft) insomelocations],whichmaybeseenin some
“backyards” are used to receive downlink TV signals at C band (4 GHz).

Originally such downlink signals were never intended for home reception but
fornetworkrelaytocommercialTVoutlets(VHFandUHFTVbroadcaststations and cable
TV “head-end” studios).
TheIndoorunit

EquipmentisnowmarketedforhomereceptionofC-bandsignals,andsome
manufacturers provide dual C-band/Ku-band equipment. A single mesh type
reflectormaybeusedwhichfocusesthesignalsintoadualfeed-horn,whichhastwo
separateoutputs,onefortheC-bandsignalsandonefortheKu-band signals.

Much of television programming originates asfirst generation signals, also

known as master broadcast quality signals.

These are transmitted via satellite in the C band to the network head- end
stations, where they are retransmitted as compressed digital signals to cable and
direct broadcastsatelliteproviders.

 Another of the advantages, claimed for home C-band systems, is the larger
numberofsatellitesavailableforreceptioncomparedtowhatisavailablefor
direct broadcastsatellitesys- terms.

 Although many of the C-band transmissions are scrambled, there are free
channelsthatcanbereceived,andwhataretermed“wildfeeds.”
www.EnggTree.com
 Thesearealsofree,butunannounced programs,ofwhichdetailscan be found in
advance from various publications and Internet sources.

 C-banduserscanalsosubscribetopayTVchannels,andanother
advantageclaimedisthatsubscription servicesarecheaperthan DBS or
cablebecauseofthemultiple-sourceprogrammingavailable.

 The most widely advertisedreceiving system for C-bandsystem appears to be

4DTV manufactured by Motorola.

Thisenablesreceptionof

 Free,analogsignalsand“wildfeeds”
 VideoCipherllplussubscriptionservices
 FreeDigiCipher2services
 SubscriptionDigiCipher2services
 Figure3.3TVROSystemblockdiagrams

.
Theoutdoorunit

This consists of a receiving antenna feeding directly into a low-noise

amplifier/converter combination. A parabolic reflector is generally used, with the
receivinghornmountedatthefocus.Acommondesignistohavethefocus
directlyinfrontofthereflector,butforbetterinterferencerejection,anoffset feed may be
used as shown.

Comparingthegainofa3-mdishat4GHzwitha1-mdishat12GHz,
theratioD/lequals40ineachcase,sothegainswillbeaboutequal.Although the free-
spacelosses are much higher at 12 GHz comparedwith 4 GHz.
 Thedownlinkfrequencybandof12.2to12.7GHzspansarangeof500MHz,whichacc
ommodates32TV/FMchannels,eachofwhichis24-MHzwide.
Obviously,someoverlapoccursbetweenchannels,butthesearealternately polarized
left-hand circular (LHC) and right-hand circular (RHC) or
vertical/horizontal, to reduce interference toaccept- ablelevels.Thisisreferred to
aspolarizationinterleaving.Apolarizerthatmaybeswitchedtothedesired polarization
fromtheindoorcon-trolunitisrequiredatthereceivinghorn.

The receiving horn feeds into alow-noise converter(LNC) or possibly a

combinationunitconsistingofalow-noiseamplifier(LNA)followedbyaconverter.

The combination is referred to as an LNB, forlow-noise block. The LNBprovides

gain for the broadband 12-GHz signal and then converts the signal to alower
frequency range so that a low-cost coaxial cable can be used as feeder to the indoor
unit.
The signal fed to the indoor unit is normally a wideband signal cov- ering
therange950to1450MHz.Thisisamplifiedandpassedtoatrackingfilter
whichselectsthedesiredchannel,asshowninFig.
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As previously mentioned, polarization interleaving is used, and only
halfthe32channelswillbepresentattheinputoftheindoorunitforanyone setting of
the antenna polarizer. This eases the job of the tracking filter, since alternate
channels are well separated in frequency.

Theselected channel isagaindownconverted, thistime from the950-to 1450-

MHzrangetoafixedintermediatefrequency,usually70MHzalthough other values in
the very high frequency (VHF) range are also used.

The 70-MHz amplifier amplifies the signal up to the levels required for
demodulation. A major difference between DBS TV and conventional TV is that
with DBS, frequency modulation is used, whereas with conventional TV,
amplitude modulation in the form of vestigial single side- band (VSSB) is used.

The 70-MHz, FMintermediate frequency(IF) carrier therefore must be

demodulated, and the baseband information used to generate a VSSB signalwhich
is fed into one of the VHF/UHF channels of a standard TV set.
 MasterAntennaTVSystem

Amaster antenna TV(MATV) system is used to provide reception of DBS

TV/FM channels to a small group of users, for example, to the tenants in an
apartment building. It consists of a single outdoor unit (antenna and LNA/C)
feeding a number of indoor units, as shown in Fig.
Itisbasicallysimilartothehomesystemalreadydescribed,butwith
eachuserhavingaccesstoallthechannelsindependentlyoftheotherusers.
Theadvantageisthatonlyoneoutdoorunitisrequired,butasshown,separate
LNA/Csandfeedercablesarerequiredforeachsenseofpolarization.
Comparedwiththesingle-usersystem,alargerantennaisalsorequired (2-to3-
mdiameter) in order to maintain agood signal-to-noise ratio atall the indoor units.

Where more than a few subscribers are involved, the distribution system
used is similar to thecommunity antenna(CATV) system described in the following
section.

Figure3.4CATVSystemblockdiagrams
 CommunityAntennaTVSystem

The CATV system employs a single outdoor unit, with separate feeds
available for each sense of polarization, like the MATV system, so that allchannels
are made available simultaneously at the indoor receiver.

Instead of having a separate receiver for each user, all the carriers are
demodulated in a common receiver-filter system, as shown in Fig. The channels
are then combinedinto a standard multiplexed signal for transmission over cable
to the subscribers.

In remote areas where acable distribution system may not beinstalled,the

signal can be rebroadcast from a low-power VHF TV transmitter.

Figure shows aremote TV station which employs an8-m(26.2-ft)

antennaforreceptionofthesatelliteTVsignalintheCband.

Figure3.5Onepossiblearrangementfortheindoor unitofacommunity
antennaTV(CATV)system.

With the CATV system, local programming material also may be dis-
tributed to subscribers, an option which is not permitted in the MATV system.
 TestEquipmentMeasurementsonG/T,C/No,EIRP

Measurement of G/T of small antennas is easily and simply measuredusing

thespectrum analyser method. For antennas with adiameter of lessthan
4.5metersitisnotnormallynecessarytopointofffromthesatellite.

A step in frequency would be required into one of the satellite transponder

guard bands.

HoweverantennaswithaG/Tsufficientlylargetoenablethestationtosee the
transponder noise floor either a step in frequency into one of the satellite
transponder guardbandsand/orinazimuthmovement would berequired.

ThetestsignalcanbeprovidedfromanSESWORLDSKIESbeacon.

Procedure

(a) Setupthetestequipmentasshownbelow.Allowhalfanhourtowarm
up,
andthencalibrateinaccordancewiththemanufacturer’sprocedures.
www.EnggTree.com

Figure3.6OnepossiblearrangementforMeasurementofG/T
 (b) Adjustthecentrefrequencyofyourspectrumanalyzertoreceivethe
SESWORLDSKIESbeacon(datatobeprovidedonthesatelliteusedfortesting)

(c) Carefullypeaktheantennapointingandadjustthepolarizerbynulling
the
cross polarized signal. You cannot adjust polarization when using the circularly
polarized SES WORLD SKIES beacon.

(d) Configurethespectrum analyserasfollows:

CentreFrequency:Adjustforbeaconortestsignalfrequency(tobe advised).
Usemarkertopeakandmarkertocentrefunctions.

 FrequencySpan:100KHz
 ResolutionBandwidth:1KHz
 VideoBandwidth:10Hz(orsufficientlysmalltolimitnoise
variance)
 Scale:5dB/div
 SweepTimwe:wAwut.oEmnagtgicTree.com
 AttenuatorAdjusttoensurelinearoperation.Adjustto
providethe"Noisefloordelta"describedinsteps7and8.

(e) To insure the best measurement accuracy during the following steps,
adjust the spectrum analyser amplitude (reference level) so that the measured
signal, carrier or noise, is approximately one division below the top line of the
spectrum analyser display.

(f) Record the frequency and frequency offset of the test signal from the
nominal frequency:
Forexample,assumethenominaltestfrequencyis11750MHzbutthe
spectrumanalysershowsthepeakat11749MHz.Thefrequencyoffsetinthiscase is -1 MHz.

(g) Change the spectrum analyser centre frequency as specified by

SESWORLDSKIESsothatthemeasurementisperformedinatransponderguard
bandsothatonlysystemnoisepoweroftheearthstationandnosatellitesignals
arereceived.Setthespectrumanalyserfrequencyasfollows:
CentreFrequency=NoiseslotfrequencyprovidedbythePMOC
 (h) Disconnect the input cable to the spectrum analyser and confirm that
the noise floor drops by at least 15 dB but no more than 25dB. This confirms that
the spectrum analyser’s noise contribution has an insignificant effect on the
measurement. Aninputattenuation valueallowing a"NoisefloorDelta"in excess of
25 dB may cause overloading of the spectrum analyser input. (i) Reconnect the
input cable to the spectrum analyser.

(j) Activatethedisplaylineonthespectrumanalyser.

(k) Carefullyadjustthedisplaylinetothenoiselevelshownonthe
spectrumanalyser.Recordthedisplaylinelevel.

(l) Adjust the spectrum analyser centre frequency to the test carrierfrequency
recordedinstep(e).

(m) Carefullyadjustthedisplaylinetothepeaklevelofthetestcarrieron
the
spectrumanalyser.Recordthedisplaylinelevel.
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(n) Determinethedifferenceinreferencelevelsbetweensteps(l)and(j) which is
the (C+N)/N.

(o) Changethe(C+N)/NtoC/Nbythefollowingconversion:

Thisstepis not necessaryifthe(C+N)/Nratiois morethan20dBbecause the

resulting correction is less than 0.1 dB.

(p) Calculatethecarriertonoisepowerdensityratio(C/No)using:

The2.5dBfigurecorrectsthenoisepowervaluemeasuredbythelog
convertersinthespectrumanalysertoatrueRMSpowerlevel,andtheSA corr
factor takes into account the actual resolution filter
bandwidth.(q)CalculatetheG/Tusingthefollowing:

where,
EIRPSC – Downlink EIRP measured by the
PMOC(dBW)Acorr–
AspectcorrectionsuppliedbythePMOC (dB)
FSL – Free Space Loss to the AUT supplied by the PMOC (dB)
La – Atmospheric attenuation supplied by the PMOC (dB)

(r)Repeatthemeasurementseveraltimestocheckconsistencyoftheresult.

AntennaGain

Antennagainisusuallydefinedastheratioofthepowerproduced by
theantennafrom a far-field source on theantenna'sbeam axis to the
powerproducedbyahypotheticallosslessisotropicantenna,whichisequally
sensitivetosignalsfrom alldirections.
www.EnggTree.com

Figure3.6OnepossiblearrangementforMeasurementof
Antenna Gain
TwodirectmethodsofmeasuringtheRxgaincanbeused;integrationof
theRxsidelobepatternorbydeterminationofthe3dBand10dBbeamwidths.
 The use of pattern integration will produce the more accurate results but
wouldrequiretheAUTtohaveatrackingsystem.Inbothcasesthetest configurations
for measuring Rx gain are identical, and are illustrated in Figure.

In order to measure the Rx gain using pattern integration the AUT

measures the elevation and azimuth narrowband (±5° corrected) sidelobe
patterns.

The AUT then calculates the directive gain of the antenna through
integration of the sidelobe patterns. The Rx gain is then determined by reducing
the directive gain by the antenna inefficiencies.

InordertomeasuretheRxgainusingthebeamwidthmethod,theAUT
measuresthecorrectedazimuthandelevation3dB/10dBbeamwidths.From
theseresultstheRxgainoftheantennacanbedirectlycalculatedusingthe formula
below.

where:

effecti ve a nt e n n a g ai n ( d B i )
Gisthe w w w . E n g g T r ee . com
Az3 is the corrected azimuth 3dB beamwidth
(°) El3 is the elevation 3dB beamwidth (°)
Az10 is the corrected azimuth 10dB beamwidth
(°) El10 is the elevation 10dB beamwidth (°)
FLoss isthe insertion lossofthe feed (dB)

RLoss isthereduction inantenna gainduetoreflector inaccuracies, andis given

by:

RLoss=4.922998677(Sdevf)2dB

where:Sdevisthestandarddeviationoftheactualreflectorsurface(inches) f is the
frequency (GHz)
 APPLICATIONS

FigureanexampleofMATVsystem
www.EnggTree.com

FigureanexampleofSatelliteEarthStation
 POSTTESTMCQ

1. Theearthsegmentofasatellitecommunicationssystemconsistsof .
a) Theearthsegmentofasatellitecommunicationssystemconsistsofthe transmit
and receive earth stations
b) Withactiveattitudecontrol,thereisnooverallstabilizingtorquepresenttoresist the
disturbance torques
c) Propermoment
d) Noneofthese
2. IntheAmericas,forexample,thedown-linkbandis
a) 12.2to12.7GHz
b) With active attitude control, there is no overall stabilizing torque present toresistthe
disturbance torques
c) TheKu(12-GHz)band
d) 64-GHzto164GHz

3. ThemajordifferencebetweentheKu-bandandtheC-bandthatsatellitesintended
forDBShavemuch ww.EnggTree.com

w.
a) Lownoise
b) Theindoorunit
c) Thehomeunit
d) higherequivalentisotropicradiatedpower(EIRP)
4. MATVstandas
a) MultiamplitudeTV
b) MaximumAngularTV
c) MasterantennaTV
d) MultiplexAllTV
5. The orbital spacing is for the high-power satellites, so adjacent satellite
interference is considered nonexistent.
a) 18°
b) 9°
c) 27°.
d) 45°
 6. A satellitemay carry transponders
a) 32
b) 41
c) 24
d) 64
7. The frequencies for direct broadcast satellites vary from region to region
throughout the world, although these are generally in the
a) Kuband
b) Kaband
c) Cband
d) Wband

8. AmasterantennaTV(MATV)systemisusedtoprovidereceptionofDBSTV/FM
channels to a small group of users, for example
a) Tothetenantsinanapartmentbuilding
b) Withattitudecontrol,thereisnooverallstabilizingtorquepresenttoresistthe
disturbancetorques www.EnggTree.com
c) TheKu(12-GHz)band
d) Noneofthese
9. A master antenna TV (MATV) system is used to provide reception of toa
small group of users, for example to the tenants in an apartment building.
a) DBSTV/FMchannels
b) FMchannels
c) TheKu(12-GHz)band
d) Noneofthese

10. CATVstandsas
a) Communityantenna TV
b) CarrierangularTV
c) CostamplitudeTV
d) CostangularTV
11. The CATV system employs a single withseparatefeedsavailablefor
each sense of polarization.
a) Outdoorunit
b) Indoorunit
c) TVunit
d) Inputunit

12. WiththeCATVsystem,localprogrammingmaterialalsomaybedistributedto
subscribers, an option which is in the MATV system.
a) Notpermitted
b) Permitted
c) Transmitted
d) Noneofthese

13. Outofthefollowing,findwhatisanpolarantenna.
a) Asingle actuatorisusedwhich movesthe antennain acirculararc ie
knownaspolarmountantwewnnwa..EnggTree.com
b) Andoubleactuatorisusedwhichmovestheantennainacirculararcieknownas polar
mount antenna.
c) Asingleactuatorisusedwhichmovestheantennainaellipticalarcieknownas polar
mount antenna.
d) Noneofabove

14. Definitionofatransponderis
a) In a communication satellite, the equipment which provides
theconnectinglinkbetweenthesatellite’stransmit&receiveantennasis referred
to as the transponder.
b) In a communication satellite, the equipment which provides the power supply is
referred to as the transponder
c) a&b
d) Noneofabove
15. Definitionofspotbeamantenna is
a) A beam generated by a communication satellite antenna of sufficient size
thattheangularspreadofsufficientsizethattheangularspreadofthe
energyinthebeamisverysmallwiththeresultthataregionthatisonlya few
hundred kmin diameter is illuminated on earth.
b) A beam generated by a communication satellite antenna of sufficient size that the
angularspread of sufficient size thatthe angularspread of the energy in the beamis very
slarge with the result that a region that is only a few hundred mm in diameter is
illuminated on earth.
c) Eitheraorb.
d) Noneofabove

16. DefinitionofanEIRPis
a) Itisameasureofradiatedortransmittedpowerofanantenna.Itcanbecompleted from
the antenna gain & the power fed from the antenna output.
b) Itisameasureofradiatedortransmittedpowerofanantenna.Itcanbe completed
from the antenwnawgwa.iEnn&ggthTerepeo.wcoermfedto the antenna
input.
c) Eitheraorb
d) Noneofabove

17. Antennalossesisdefinedas
a) It is add to noise received as radiation is in the sum of the equivalent noise
temperature of all these sources.
b) Itisaddtonoisereceivedasradiation&thetotalantennanoisetemperatureisin the
dividerof the equivalent noise temperature of all these sources.
c) It is add to noise received as radiation& the total antenna noise
temperature is in the sum of the equivalent noise temperature of all these
sources.
d) Noneofabove
18. SatellitelaunchsitesareinvariablylocatedonEasternseaboardstoensurethat
a) launchtakesplaceeastward
b) expenditureofpropulsionfuelisreducedduringplanechanging
c) thesatelliteachievescircularorbitquickly
d) spentrocketmotorandotherlauncherdebrisfallsintothesea

19. Of the four INSAT-I satellites planned by India so for, only hasproved
to be successful.
a) INSAT-IA
b) INSAT-IB
c) INSAT-IC
d) INSAT-ID

20. India'sfirstdomesticgeostationarysatellite1NSAT-IAwaslaunchedon10th April 1982

from
a) USSR www.EnggTree.com
b) USA
c) UK
d) Ukraine

21. Atransponderisasatelliteequipmentwhich
a) receivesasignalfromEarthstationandamplifies
b) changesthefrequencyofthereceivedsignal
c) retransmitsthereceivedsignal
d) doesalloftheabove-mentionedfunctions
 CONCLUSION

 Inthisunitwedescribedtheearthsegmentandspacesegment.
 TheOutdoor UNIT–IndoorUNITforanalog (FM) TVwere elaborated.
 TheEquipmentMeasurementsonG/T,C/N,EIRPwasdiscussed.

REFERENCES

1. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, “Satellite

Communication Systems Engineering”, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
2. N.Agarwal,“DesignofGeosynchronousSpaceCraft”,PrenticeHall,1986.
3. Bruce R. Elbert, “Satellite Communication Applications”, Hand Book, Artech House
Bostan London,1997.
4. TriT.Ha,“DigitalSatelliteCommunication”,IIndedition,1990.
5. Robert G. Winch, “Telecommunication Transmission Systems”, Mc Graw-Hill Book
Co., 1983.
6. BrianAckroyd,“WorldSawtewllwite.ECnogmgmTureniec.actioomnandearthsta
tionDesign”,BSP professional Books, 1990.
7. G.B.Bleazard,“IntroducingSatellitecommunications“,NCCPublication,1985.
8. M.Richharia,“SatelliteCommunicationSystems-DesignPrinciples”,Macmillan 2003.
9. EmanuelFthenakis,“ManualofSatelliteCommunications”,McGrawHillBook Co.,
1984.

ASSIGNMENT

1. Whatis Cassegrainantennapopularforlargeearthstations?
2. WhyisG/Tratioausefulparametertocharacterizeearthstations?
3. Explainthemajortestequipmentsrequiredatanearthstation?
4. WriteshortnotesonCommunityantennaTVsystem?
5. WritetheshortnotesonTVROsystem?
6. Explainaboutthefeederlossesandantennamisalignmentlosses?
7. Derivelinkpowerbudgetequation.
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

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UNITIV SATELLITEACCESS
 UNIT IV SATELLITEACCESS

AIM&OBJECTIVE

 TounderstandthebasicsofModulationandMultiplexing
 ToanalyzetheAssignmentMethods.
 TounderstandtheSpreadSpectrumcommunication.

PRETESTMCQ

1. Insatellitecommunicationmodulationisused.
a) AM
b) FM
c) PWM
d) PAM

2. InTVbroadcastviasatellitetheTVsignalfromthemainbroadcaststationis
www.EnggTree.com
routedtotheearthstationvia
a) Lowpowertransmitter
b) Microwavelinks
c) TVrelay stations
d) Microwaverepeater stations

3. Themainadvantageofsatellitecommunicationis
a) Lowcost
b) Lowdistortion
c) Highreliability
d) Highbandwidth
 ModulationandMultiplexing:Voice,Data,Video

Communicationssatellitesareusedtocarrytelephone,video,anddata
signals,andcanusebothanalog anddigitalmodulation techniques.

Modulation
Modificationofacarrier’sparameters(amplitude,frequency,phase,ora
combination of them) in dependence on the symbol to be sent.
Multiplexing
Task of multiplexing is to assign space, time, frequency, and code toeach
communication channel with aminimum of interference andamaximum of medium
utilization Communication channel refers to an association of sender(s) and
receiver(s) that want to exchange data One of several constellations of a carrier’s
parameters defined by the used modulation scheme.

Voice,Data,Video
The modulation and multiplexing techniques that were used at this time
were analog, adapted from the technology developed for The change to digitalvoice
signals made it easier for long-distance.

Figure4.1ModulationandMultiplexing:Voice/Data/Video
 Communication carriers to mix digital data and telephone Fiber-opticCable
Transmission Standards System Bit rate (Mbps) 64 - kbps Voice channel capacity
Stuffing bits and words are added to the satellite data stream as needed to fill
empty bit and word spaces.

Primarily for video provided that a satellite link's overall carrier-to-noise

but in to older receiving equipment at System and Satellite Specification Ku -band
satellite parameters.

ModulationAndMultiplexing

In analog television (TV) transmission by satellite, the baseband video

signal and one or two audio subcarriersconstitute a compositevideo signal.

Digital modulation is obviously the modulation of choice for transmitting

digital data are digitized analog signals may conveniently share a channel with
digital data, allowing a link to carry a varying mix of voice and data traffic.

Digital signals from different channels are interleaved for transmission

throughtimedivisionmultiplexingTDMcarryanytypeoftraffic—thebent
pipetransponderthatca n c ar r y v o ic e , v i d e o ,ordataasthe
marketplacedemands. w w w . E n g g T r e e . c o m

Hybrid multiple access schemes can use time division multiplexing of

baseband channels which are then modulate.

Analog–digitaltransmissionsystem

Analogvs.DigitalTransmission

Compareattwolevels:

1. Data—continuous(audio)vs.discrete(text)
2. Signaling—continuouslyvaryingelectromagneticwavevs.sequenceofvoltage
pulses.

Also Transmission—transmit without regard to signal content vs. being

concerned with signal content. Difference in how attenuation is handled, but not
focus on this. Seeing a shift towards digital transmission despite large analogbase.
Why?
 Figure4.2basiccommunicationsystems

• Improvingdigitaltechnology
• Dataintegrity.Repeaterstakeoutcumulative problemsintransmission. Can
thustransmit longer distances.
• Easiertomultiplexlargechannelcapacities withdigital
• Easytoapplyencryptiontodigitaldata
• Better integration if all signals are in one form. Can integrate voice, video
and digital data.

DigitalDa t a/ An a lo gwSwigwn.aElns ggTree.com

Mustconvertdigitaldatatoanalogsignalsuchdeviceisamodemto
translatebetweenbit-serialandmodulatedcarriersignals?

To send digital data using analog technology, the sender generates acarrier
signal at some continuous tone (e.g. 1-2 kHz in phone circuits) that looks like a
sine wave. The following techniques are used to encode digital data into analog
signals.

Figure4.3Digital/AnalogTransmitter&receiver
Resultingbandwidthiscenteredonthecarrierfrequency.

• Amplitude-shift modulation (keying): vary the amplitude (e.g. voltage) of

the signal. Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
• Frequency-shift modulation: two (or more tones) are used, which are nearthe
carrier frequency. Used in a full-duplex modem (signals in bothdirections).
• Phase-shift modulation: systematicallyshift the carrier wave at uniformly
spaced intervals.

For instance, the wave could be shifted by 45, 135, 225, 315 degree at each
timing mark. In this case, each timing interval carries 2 bits of information.

Whynotshiftby0,90,180,270?Shiftingzerodegreesmeansnoshift,and
anextendedsetofnoshiftsleadstoclocksynchronizationdifficulties.

Frequencydivisionmultiplexing(FDM):Dividethefrequency spectrum
into smaller subchannels, giving each user exclusive use of
asubchannel(e.g.,radioandTV).OneproblemwithFDMisthatauserisgiven
allofthefrequencytouse,andiftheuserhasnodatatosend,bandwidthis wasted—
itcannotbeusedwbywawn.oEthnegrguTserer .e.com

Timedivisionmultiplexing(TDM):Usetime slicing togiveeachuser

thefullbandwidth, butforonly afractionofasecond atatime(analogous to time
sharing in operating systems). Again, if the user doesn’t have data to sent during
his time slice, the bandwidth is not used (e.g., wasted).

Statistical multiplexing:Allocate bandwidth to arriving packets on

demand. This leads tothemost efficient useof channel bandwidth because it only
carries useful data. That is, channel bandwidth is allocated to packets that are
waiting for transmission, and a user generating no packets doesn’t use any of the
channel resources.

4.3.DigitalVideoBroadcasting(DVB)

o DigitalVideoBroadcasting(DVB)hasbecomethesynonymfordigital television
and fordata broadcasting world-wide.

o DVBserviceshaverecentlybeenintroducedinEurope,inNorth-and
o SouthAmerica,inAsia,AfricaandAustralia.
o This article aims at describing what DVB is all about and at introducing
some of the technical background of a technology that makes possible the
broadcasting.

Figure4.4
wDwiwgi.tEalnVgigdeToreBero.cadocmastingsystems

MultipleAccessTechniques

 The transmission from the BS in the downlink can be heard by each and
everymobileuserinthecell,andisreferredasbroadcasting.
TransmissionfromthemobileusersintheuplinktotheBSismany-to- one, and is
referred to as multiple access.

 Multiple access schemes to allow many users to share simultaneously a

finite amount of radio spectrum resources.

 Shouldnotresultinseveredegradationintheperformanceofthe system
ascompared toasingle user scenario.
 Approaches can be broadly grouped into two categories: narrowband
and wideband.

 MultipleAccessingTechniques:withpossibleconflictandconflict-free
  Randomaccess
 Frequencydivisionmultipleaccess(FDMA)
 Timedivisionmultipleaccess(TDMA)
 Spreadspectrummultipleaccess(SSMA):anexampleis Code
division multiple access (CDMA)
 Spacedivisionmultipleaccess(SDMA)

Duplexing

For voice or datacommunications, must assure two way communication

(duplexing,itispossibletotalkandlistensimultaneously).Duplexing may be
done using frequency or time domain techniques.
 Forward(downlink)bandprovidestrafficfromtheBStothemobile
 Reverse(uplink)bandprovidestrafficfromthemobiletotheBS.

Frequencydivisionduplexing(FDD)

□ Providestwodistinctbandsoffrequenciesforeveryuser,onefordownlink
uplink.
andonefor www.EnggTree.com
□ Alargeintervalbetweenthesefrequencybandsmustbeallowedsothat
interference is minimized.

Figure4.5FrequencySeparation

4.4.2.Timedivisionduplexing(TDD)

 In TDD communications, both directions of transmission use one

contiguous frequency allocation, but two separate time slots to provideboth
a forward and reverse link.
 Because transmissionfrom mobile to BS and from BS to mobile alternates
in time, this scheme is also known as “ping pong”.
 As a consequence of the use of the same frequency band, the
communicationqualityinbothdirectionsisthesame.Thisisdifferent from FDD.

Figure4.6TimeSlot
FDMA

 In FDMA, each user is allocated a unique frequency band or channel.

During the period of the call, no other user can share the same frequency
band.
www.EnggTree.com

Figure4.7FDMAChannels

 All channels in a cell are available toallthe mobiles. Channel assignmentis

carried out on a first-come first- served basis.
  The number of channels, given a frequency spectrumBT, depends on the
modulation technique (henceBworBc) and the guard bands between the
channels 2Bguard .

 Theseguardbandsallowforimperfectfiltersandoscillatorsandcanbe
usedtominimizeadjacentchannelinterference.
 FDMAisusuallyimplementedinnarrowbandsystems.

Figure4.8FDMA/FDD/TDD

NonlineareffectsinFDMA

 In a FD MA system, many channels share t he same antenna at the BS. The

power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at or near
saturation are non linear.
 Thenonlineartiesgenerateinter-modulationfrequencies.
 Undesirable harmonics generated outside the mobile radio band cause
interference to adjacent services.
 Undesirable harmonics present inside the band ca use interference to other
users in the mobile system.
 TDMA

 TDMA systems divide the channel time into frames. Each frame is further
partitioned into time slots. In each slot only one user is allowed to either
transmit or receive.

 UnlikeFDMA,onlydigital dataand digitalmodulationmustbeused.

 Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot, so a channel may be

thought of as a particular time slot of every frame, whereNtime slots
comprise a frame.

Figure4.9TDMAChannels

Features

 MultiplechannelspercarrierorRFchannels.

 Bursttransmissionsincechannelsareusedonatimesharingbasis.
o Transmittercanbe turnedoffduringidleperiods.

 Narroworwidebandwidth–dependsonfactorssuchasmodulation scheme,
number of voice channels per carrier channel.

 HighISI–Highertransmissionsymbolrate,henceresultinginhighISI.
o Adaptiveequalizerrequired.
 Figure3.10TDMAChannelstimeslot

 Aguardtimebetweenthetwotimeslotsmustbeallowedinordertoavoid
o interference, especially in the uplink direction.  mobiles
Allsynchronize with BS to minimize interference. should

 Efficientpowerutilization:FDMAsystemsrequirea3-to6-dBpowerback
o
offinordertocompensateforinter-modulationeffects.

 Efficienthandoff:
wMwAws.yEstnegmgsTcraene.tcaokemadvantageofthefa
TD
ctthatthe
transmitter is switched off during idle time slots to improve the handoff
procedure. An enhanced link control, such as that provided by mobile
assisted handoff (MAHO) can be carried out by a subscriber by listening to
o
neighboringbasestationduringtheidleslotoftheTDMAframe.

 EfficiencyofTDMA

 Efficiency of TDMA is a measure of the percentage of bits per frame which

contain transmitted data. The transmitted data include source and channel
coding bits.


 bOHincludesalloverheadbitssuchaspreamble,guardbits,etc.
 CodeDivisionMultipleAccess(CDMA)

 Spreading signal(code)consistsofchips

 HasChipperiodandandhence,chiprate

 Spreading signal use a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence (a pseudo-

random sequence)

 PNsequenceiscalledacodeword

 Eachuserhasitsowncordword

 Codewordsareorthogonal.(lowautocorrelation)

 Chiprateisorderofmagnitudelargerthanthesymbolrate.

 Thereceivercorrelatordistinguishes thesenderssignalbyexamining the

widebandsignalwiththesametime-synchronizedspreadingcode

 Thesentsignalisrecoveredbydespreading processatthereceiver.

CDMAAdvantages:
www.EnggTree.com
 Lowpowerspectraldensity.

 Signalisspreadoveralargerfrequencyband

 Othersystemssufferlessfromthetransmitter

 Interferencelimitedoperation

 Allfrequencyspectrumisused

 Privacy

 The codeword is known only between the sender and receiver.

Hence other users can not decode the messages that are in
transit

 Reductionofmultipathaffectsbyusingalargerspectrum
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CDMAdata

Figure4.11CDMAChannelstransmission
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DSSSTransmitter:

Figure4.12CDMATransmitter

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DSSSReceiver

Figure4.13CDMA Receiver

 FDMA/CDMA
www.EnggTree.com
 Availablewidebandspectrumisfrequencydividedintonumbernarrowban
d radiochannels.CDMAisemployed insideeachchannel.

 DS/FHMA

 The signals are spread using spreading codes (direct sequence

signals
 areobtained),butthesesignalarenot
transmitted overaconstant
 carrierfrequency;theyaretransmittedoverafrequency
hoppingcarrierfrequency.

TimeDivisionCDMA(TCDMA)

□ Eachcellisusingadifferentspreadingcode(CDMAemployed
betweencells)thatisconveyedtothemobilesinitsrange.

□ Insideeachcell(insideaCDMAchannel),TDMAisemployedto
multiplexmultipleusers.

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 TimeDivisionFrequencyHopping

□ Ateachtimeslot,theuserishoppedtoanewfrequency according to a
pseudo-random hopping sequence.

□ Employedinsevereco-interferenceandmulti-pathenvironments.

BluetoothandGSMareusingthistechnique

 Alargenumberofindependentlysteeredhigh-gainbeamscanbeformed without
anyresulting degradation inSNRratio.

 Beamscanbeassignedtoindividualusers,therebyassuringthatalllinks operate
with maximum gain.

 Adaptivebeamformingcanbeeasilyimplementedtoimprovethesystemcapacity by
suppressing co channel interference.

AdvantageofCDMA

 ItisrecognizedthatCDMA’scapacitygainsoverTDMA

 FDMAareentirelyduetoItstighter,dynamiccontrolovertheuseofthe
powerdomain. www.EnggTree.com
 Choosing a new non-orthogonal PN sequence a CDMA system does not
encounterthedifficultiesofchoosingasparecarrierfrequencyortimeslotto
carry a Traffic Channel

 Ensurethatinterferencewillnotbetoogreatifitbeginstotransmit-that there is still

enough space left in the power domain.

DisadvantagesofCDMA

 Satellite transponders are channelized too narrowly for roadband

CDMA,whichisthemostattractiveformofCDMA.

 Powercontrolcannotbeastightasitisinaterrestrialsystembecause oflong
round-trip delay.

4.5.Channelallocationschemes

In radio resource management for wireless and cellular network, channel

allocationschemesarerequiredtoallocatebandwidthandcommunication channels
tobase stations, access points andterminal equipment.

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The objective is to achieve maximum system spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz/siteby
means of frequency reuse, but still assure a certain grade of service by avoidingco-
channel interference and adjacent channel interference among nearby cells or
networks that share the bandwidth. There are two types of strategies that are
followed:-

 Fixed:FCA,fixedchannelallocation:Manuallyassignedbythenetwork
operator
 Dynamic:

 DCA,dynamicchannelallocation,
 DFS,dynamicfrequencyselection
 Spreadspectrum

4.5.1FCA

InFixedChannelAllocationorFixedChannelAssignment(FCA)each cell is
given a predetermined set of frequency channels.

FCArequiresmanualfrequencyplanning,whichisanarduoustaskin TDMA and

FDMA based systems, since such systems are highly sensitive to co-
channelinterference
fromnweawrbwy.cEelnlsgtghTatreaere.creoumsingthesame channel.

This results in traffic congestion and some calls being lost when traffic gets
heavy in some cells, and idle capacity in other cells.

4.5.2.DCAandDFS

Dynamic Frequency Selection(DFS) may be applied in

wirelessnetworkswithseveraladjacentnon-centrallycontrolledaccesspoints.

A more efficient way of channel allocation would beDynamic Channel

Allocation or Dynamic Channel Assignment(DCA) in which voice channel are
not allocated to cell permanently, instead for every call request base station
request channel from MSC.

Spreadspectrum

Spread spectrum can be considered as an alternative to complex DCA

algorithms.Spreadspectrumavoidscochannelinterferencebetweenadjacent

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cells,sincethe probabilitythatusersin nearbycellsuse the same spreadingcode is
insignificant.

Thusthefrequencychannelallocationproblemisrelaxedincellular
networksbasedonacombinationofSpreadspectrumandFDMA,forexample IS95 and 3G
systems.

In packet based data communication services, the communication is burstyand

the traffic load rapidly changing. For highsystem spectrum efficiency, DCA should be
performed on a packet-by-packet basis.

Examples of algorithms for packet-by-packet DCA areDynamic Packet

Assignment(DPA), Dynamic Single Frequency Networks (DSFN) andPacketand
resource plan scheduling (PARPS).

SpreadspectrumTechniques

1 In telecommunication and radio communication, spread-spectrum

techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic, or
acousticsignal)generatedwithaparticularbandwidthisdeliberatelyspread
inthefrequency domain,resultinginasignalwithawiderbandwidth.
2 Thesetechniquesareuse d fo r a v a ri et y
w w w .E n g g T r eeof.croemasons,includin
gthe establishmentofsecurecommunications,increasingresistancetonatural
interference, noise and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power flux
density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).
3 Spread-spectrum telecommunications this is a technique in which a
telecommunicationsignalistransmittedonabandwidthconsiderablylargerthan the
frequency content of the original information.
4 Spread-spectrumtelecommunicationsisasignalstructuring
technique that employs direct sequence, frequency hopping, or a hybrid of these,
which can be used for multiple access and/or multiple functions.
5 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum(CSS).
6 Techniquesknownsincethe1940sandusedinmilitarycommunication systems
since the 1950s"spread" aradio signaloverawide
frequencyrangeseveralmagnitudeshigherthanminimumrequirement.
7 Resistance to jamming (interference). DS (direct sequence) is good atresisting
continuous-time narrowband jamming, while FH (frequency hopping) is better
at resisting pulse jamming.
8 Resistancetofading.Thehighbandwidthoccupiedbyspread-spectrum
signalsoffersomefrequencydiversity,i.e.itisunlikelythatthe

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signal will encounter severe multipath fading over its whole bandwidth, andin
other cases the signal can be detectedusing e.g. a Rake receiver.
9 Multiple access capability, known as code-division multiple access
(CDMA) or code-division multiplexing (CDM). Multiple users can transmit
simultaneously inthesamefrequency bandaslongastheyusedifferent spreading
codes.

Compression–Encryption

Atthebroadcastcenter,thehigh-qualitydigitalstreamofvideogoes
throughanMPEGencoder,whichconvertstheprogrammingtoMPEG-4videoof the
correct size and format for the satellite receiver in your house.

Encodingworksinconjunctionwithcompression toanalyze eachvi deo

frameandeliminateredundantorirrelevantdataandextrapolateinformation
fromotherframes.Thisprocess reducestheoverallsizeofthefile.Eachframecan be
encoded in one of three ways:

 Asanintraframe,which containsthecomplete imagedataforthatframe.

This method provides the least
ompression.
Asapredictedframwew,wwh.iEchngcognTtareines.cjuosmtenoughinformati
ontotellthe
satellitereceiverhowto displaythe framebasedon the most
recently displayed intraframe or predicted frame.

As a bidirectional frame, which displays information from the
surroundingintraframeorpredictedframes.Usingdatafromtheclosest
surroundingframes,thereceiverinterpolatesthepositionandcolor
ofeachpixel.

This process occasionally producesartifacts --glitches in the video image.

One artifact ismacroblocking,in which the fluid picture temporarily dissolves
into blocks. Macroblocking is often mistakenly calledpixilating,a technically
incorrectterm whichhas been acceptedas slang for this annoyingartifact.

There really are pixels on your TV screen, but they're too small for yourhuman
eye to perceive them individually -- they're tiny squares of video data that
makeuptheimageyousee.(Formoreinformationaboutpixelsandperception, see How TV
Works.)

The rate of compression depends on the nature of the programming. If the

encoder is converting a newscast, it can use a lot more predicted frames because
most of the scenestays the samefrom one frameto the next.

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In more fast-paced programming, things change very quickly from one
frame to the next, so the encoder has to create more intraframes. As a result, a
newscastgenerallycompressesto a smallersizethansomethinglike a car race.

EncryptionandTransmission

Afterthevideois compressed,theproviderencryptsit tokeeppeoplefrom

accessing it for free.Encryption scrambles the digital data in such a way that it can
only bedecrypted(converted back into usable data) if the receiver has the
correctdecryptionalgorithmand securitykeys.

Oncethesignaliscompressedandencrypted,thebroadcastcenterbeamsit
directly to one of its satellites. The satellite picks up the signal with an onboard
dish, amplifies the signal and uses another dish to beam the signal back to Earth,
where viewers can pick it up.

Inthenextsection,we'llseewhathappenswhenthesignalreachesaviewer's house.

VideoandAudioCompression

Video and Audiofiwleswwar.eEnvgergyTrleareg.ecobmeasts.Unless we

develop and
maintainveryhighbandwidthnetworks(Gigabytespersecondormore)wehave to
compress to data.

Relying on higher bandwidths is not a good option -- M25 Syndrome: Traffic

needseverincreases andwilladapttoswamp current limitwhatever thisis.

Aswewillcompressionbecomespartoftherepresentationorcoding
schemewhichhavebecomepopularaudio,imageandvideoformats.

Wewillfirst study basic compression algorithms and thengoontostudy some

actual coding formats.

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Figure4.14 codingscheme
WhatisCompression?

Compressionbasicallyemploysredundancyinthedata:

 Temporal--in1Ddata,1Dsignals,Audioetc.
 Spatial--correlationbetweenneighbouringpixelsordataitems
 Spectral--correlationbetweencolourorluminescence components.This
usesthe frequency domain to exploit relationships between frequency of
changeindata.
 psycho-visual--
explowitwpwer.cEepntgugalTprreoep.ecrotimesofthehumanvisualsystem.

Compressioncanbecategorizedintwobroadways:

LosslessCompression

-- where data is compressed and can be reconstituted

(uncompressed)withoutloss of detail or information.These are referred to
asbit-preservingor reversible compression systems also.

LossyCompression

--wheretheaimistoobtainthebestpossiblefidelityforagivenbit-
rateorminimizingthebit-ratetoachieveagivenfidelitymeasure.Video and audio
compression techniques are most suited to this form ofcompression.

If an image is compressed it clearly needs to uncompressed (decoded) beforeit

can viewed/listened to. Some processing of data may be possible in encoded form
however. Lossless compression frequently involves some form ofentropy encoding
and are based in information theoretic techniques.

Lossy compression use source encoding techniques that may involve

transformencoding,differentialencodingorvectorquantization.

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MPEGStandards

AllMPEGstandardsexisttopromotesysteminteroperabilityamongyour
computer,televisionandhandheldvideoandaudiodevices.Theyare:

 MPEG-1:the originalstandardfor encodingand decodingstreaming

video and audio files.
 MPEG-2:thestandardfordigitaltelevision,thiscompressesfiles for
transmission of high-quality video.
 MPEG-4:thestandard forcompressing high-definition video intosmaller-
scalefilesthatstreamtocomputers,cellphonesandPDAs(personal digital
assistants).
 MPEG-21:alsoreferredtoastheMultimediaFramework.Thestandard
thatinterpretswhatdigitalcontenttoprovidetowhichindividualuser sothat
media plays flawlessly under any language, machine or
userconditions.

Figure 4.15MPEGscheme

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Encryption

Itisthemosteffectivewaytoachievedatasecurity.Toreadanencrypted
file,youmusthaveaccesstoasecretkeyorpasswordthatenablesyoutodecrypt
it.Unencrypteddataiscalledplaintext;encrypteddataisreferredtoas cipher text.

Figure4.16Encryptionmethods
www.EnggTree.com

Symmetrickeyencryption

Insymmetric-keyschemes,theencryptionanddecryptionkeysarethe
same.Thuscommunicatingpartiesmusthavethesamekeybeforetheycan achieve secret
communication.

Inpublic-keyencryptionschemes,theencryptionkeyispublishedfor
anyonetouseandencryptmessages.However,onlythereceivingpartyhasaccess to the
decryption key that enables messages to be read.

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Figure4.17GeneralblockdiagramEncryptionmethods

Decryption www.EnggTree.com

It is the process of taking encoded or encrypted text or other data and

converting it back into text that you or the computer are able to read and
understand.

This term could be used to describe a method of un-encrypting the data

manually orwith un-encrypting thedata using theproper codes orkeys.

Data may be encrypted to make it difficult for someone to steal the

information.Somecompaniesalso encryptdatafor general protectionofcompany
dataandtradesecrets.Ifthisdataneedstobeviewable,itmayrequiredecryption.

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FigureanexampleofDigitalvideoBroadcast

www.EnggTree.com

Figureanexampleofstreamingvideoandcompression

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1. Inacommunicationsatellite,thetelephonechannels areassembledin
a) AM
b) FM
c) TDM
d) FDM

2. The24-MHzbandwidthofatransponderiscapableofcarrying
a) Oneanalogtelevisionchannel
b) Twoanalogtelevisionchannel
c) Fouranalogtelevision channel
d) Noneofthese

3. InDBSsystems
a) MPEG-2isusedforvideocompression
b) MPEG-2isusedforvideoewnwhawn.cEinngggTree.com
c) MPEG-2isusedforaudiocompression
d) Noneofthese

4. 4:4:4Samplingmeansthat
a) The samplingratesofY,Cb,and Crare equal
b) ThesamplingratesofY,Cb,andCrareunequal
c) a&b
d) Noneofthese

5. Amacro-blockconsistsof
a) 16*16pixels.
b) 8 *8 pixels.
c) 2*2pixels.
d) Noneofthese.

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6. MPEGstandsas .
m
a) Moving PicturesExpertGroup
b) Most PicturesExpert Group
c) MovingPicturesEnhanceGroup
d) MotorPistonExpertGroup

7. Thebitratefordigitaltelevisiondependsverymuchonthe .
a) Pictureformat
b) Informationformat
c) Voiceformat
d) NoneoftheseInDBSsystems

8. MPEG-2uses
a) 4:2:0sampling
b) 2:0:0sampling
c) 3:2:0sampling
d) 0:0:9sampling www.EnggTree.com

9. Themultipleaccesstechniquesuitableonlyfordigitaltransmission is
a) PacketAccess
b) CDMA
c) FDMA
d) TDMA

10. MPEG-4 provides the major advantage is the inbitrateofferedin

satellite television.
a) Reduction
b) Increment
c) double
d) Triple

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11. The most popular access method is , which allows the use of
comparatively low-power VSAT terminals
a) FDMA
b) TDMA
c) CDMA
d) TDD

12. TheuplinkFrequencyofC-band?
a) 4GHz
b) 6GHz
c) 8GHz
d) 12GHz

13. Using the HDTV format having a pixel count per frame of and a refresh
rate of 30 frames per second
a) 192*108
b) 1920*1080 www.EnggTree.com
c) 920*1000
d) 148*156

14. IdentifywhichofthefollowingisatypeofCDMA.
a) Spreadspectrummultipleaccess
b) pulseaddressmultipleaccess
c) botha&b
d) Noneofabove

15. VSATstandsas .
a) Verysmallapertureterminalsystem
b) Vast small apertureterminalsystem
c) Virtualsmall apertureterminal system
d) Videosmallapertureterminalsystem

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1. InthisunitwediscussedtheModulationandMultiplexing.
2. Themultipleaccess:FDMA,TDMA,CDMAwasdiscussed.
3. Thecompression–encryptionwerediscussed.

REFERENCES

1. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, “Satellite

Communication Systems Engineering”, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
2. N.Agarwal,“DesignofGeosynchronousSpaceCraft”,PrenticeHall,1986.
3. BruceR.Elbert,“SatelliteCommunicationApplications”,HandBook,ArtechHouse
Bostan London,1997.
4. TriT.Ha,“DigitalSatelliteCommunication”,IIndedition,1990.
5. RobertG.Winch,“TelecommunicationTransmissionSystems”,McGraw-Hill Book
Co., 1983.
6. BrianAckroyd,“WorldSawtewlliwte.ECnomggmTurneicea.tcioonmandearths
tationDesign”,BSPprofessional Books, 1990.
7. G.B.Bleazard,“IntroducingSatellitecommunications“,NCCPublication,1985.
8. M.Richharia,“SatelliteCommunicationSystems-DesignPrinciples”,Macmillan
2003.
9. EmanuelFthenakis, “ManualofSatellite Communications”,McGrawHillBook Co.,
1984.
ASSIGNMENT

1. Distinguishsingleaccessandmultipleaccesses.
2. Comparetheuseofdatacompressionandencryptioninsatellitecommunication.
3. Comparepre-assignedFDMAanddemand-assignedFDMA.
4. ExplainthefollowingwithrespecttoTDMA:Referenceburst,preambleandpost amble
and carrier recovery.
5. ComparetheuplinkpowerrequirementsofFDMAandTDMA.
6. ExplainprinciplesofCode-DivisionmultipleAccess.

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SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

UNITVSATELLITEAPPLICATIONS

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UNITVSATELLITEAPPLICATIONS

AIM&OBJECTIVE

 Tounderstandtheapplicationsofsatellites.
 TounderstandtheMobilesatelliteservices.
 TounderstandtheVideoconferencingandInternet.

PRE-TESTMCQ

1. Thefamiliardirectviewcathoderaytube(CRT)usedforanalogTVis
of displaying HDTV.
a) Notcapable
b) Capable
c) Accept
d) Noneofthese

2. DirecTVplanstouse
www. Ei nngi tgs THreDeT.Vcosma t el l it e broadcastsandallHD
TV
servicesinEuropeareexpectedtousethisratherthantheMPEG-2.
a) H.264/AVC
b) H.24/AVC
c) H.64/AVC
d) H.456/AVC

3. The main factor governing performance of a DBSsystem will be the [Eb/N0] of

the
a) Uplink
b) Downlink
c) Up-downlink
d) Noneofthese

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THEORY
INTELSATSeries

INTELSAT stands forInternational Telecommunications Satellite.The

organization was created in 1964 and currently has over 140 member countries and
morethan40investingentities(seehttp://www.intelsat.com/formoredetails).

In July 2001 INTELSAT became a private company and in May 2002 the
company began providing end-to-end solutions through a network of teleports,
leasedfiber,andpointsofpresence(PoPs)aroundtheglobe.

Starting with the Early Bird satellite in 1965, a succes- sion of satellites has
been launched at intervals of a few years. Figure 1.1 illustrates the evolution of
some of the INTELSAT satellites. As the figure shows, the capacity, in terms of
number of voice channels, increased dramatically with each succeeding launch,as
well as the design lifetime.

These satellites are ingeostationary orbit,meaning that they appear to be

stationaryinrelationtotheearth.Atthispointitmaybenotedthatgeosta- tionary satellites
orbit in the earth’s equatorial plane and their position is specifiedby their longitude.

For internationaltwrawffwic,.EInNgTgETLrSeAeT.cocomversthree
main regions—the Atlantic Ocean Region(AOR), theIndian OceanRegion(IOR),and
thePacific Ocean Region (POR) and what is termed Intelsat America’s Region.

For the ocean regions the satellites are positioned in geostationary orbitabove
the particular ocean, where they provide a transoceanic telecommunications
route.Forexample,INTELSAT satellite 905ispositioned at335.5° eastlongitude.

The INTELSAT VII-VII/A series was launched over a period from October
1993toJune1996.Theconstructionissimilarto thatfortheVand VA/VBseries,
shown in Fig. in that the VII series has solar sailsratherthanacylindricalbody.

TheVIIserieswasplannedforserviceinthePORandalsoforsomeofthe
lessdemandingservicesintheAOR.Theantennabeamcoverageisappropriate for that of
the POR. Figure 1.3 shows the antenna beam footprints for the C -band hemispheric
cover- age and zone coverage, as well as the spot beam coveragepossiblewiththeKu-
bandantennas(Lilly,1990;Sachdevetal.,1990).

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When used in the AOR, the VII series satellite is inverted north for south
(Lilly, 1990), minor adjustments then being needed only to optimize the antenna
pat- terns for this region. The lifetime of these satellites ranges from 10 to 15
yearsdepending on the launch vehicle.

Recent figures from the INTELSAT Web site give the capacity for the
INTELSAT VII as 18,000 two-way telephone circuits and three TV channels; up to
90,000 two-way telephone circuits can be achieved with the use of “digital circuit
multiplication.”

The INTELSAT VII/A has a capacity of 22,500 two-way telephone circuits

andthree TV channels;up to 112,500 two-waytelephonecircuitscan be achieved
with the use of digital circuit multiplication. As of May 1999, four satellites were
in serviceover theAOR, one in the IOR, and two in the POR.

Figure5.1INTELSATSeries

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TheINTELSATVIII-VII/Aseriesofsatelliteswaslaunchedoverthe period
February 1997 to June 1998. Satellites in this series have similar capacity as the
VII/Aseries, and the lifetime is 14 to 17 years.
Itisstandardpracticetohaveasparesatelliteinorbitonhigh- reliability
routes(whichcancarrypreemptible traffic) andtohaveaground spare in case of launch
failure.
Thusthecostforlargeinternationalschemescanbehigh;forexample,
seriesIX,describedlater,representsatotalinvestmentofapproximately$1 billion.

Figure5.2Regionofglob

INSAT

INSATortheIndianNationalSatelliteSystemisaseriesof multipurpose geo-

stationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications,
broadcasting, meteorology, and search and rescue operations.
Commissionedin1983,INSATisthelargestdomesticcommunication
systemintheAsiaPacificRegion.ItisajointventureoftheDepartmentof
Space,DepartmentofTelecommunications,IndiaMeteorologicalDepartment,

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All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of
INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee.
INSATsatellitesprovidetranspondersinvariousbands(C,S,ExtendedC and Ku) to
serve the television and communication needs of India. Some of the
satellitesalsohavetheVeryHighResolutionRadiometer(VHRR),CCDcamerasfor
metrological imaging.
Thesatellitesalsoincorporatetransponder(s)forreceivingdistressalert
signalsforsearchandrescuemissionsintheSouthAsianandIndianOcean
Region,asISROisamemberoftheCospas-Sarsatprogramme.

INSATSystem
TheIndianNationalSatellite(INSAT)SystemWasCommissioned With The
Launch Of INSAT-1B In August 1983 (INSAT-1A, The First Satellite Was Launched
In April 1982 But Could Not Fulfil The Mission).

INSAT System Ushered In A Revolution In India’s Television And Radio

Broadcasting, Telecommunications And Meteorological Sectors. It Enabled The
Rapid Expansion Of TV And Modern Telecommunication Facilities To Even The
Remote Areas And Off-Shore Islands.

SatellitesInService

OfThe24Satellites
wLawuwnc.hEendgIgnTTrheee.CcooumrseOfTheINSATProgram,10AreStill
InOperation.INSAT-2E
ItIsTheLastOfTheFiveSatellitesInINSAT-2Series{Prateek}.It Carries
Seventeen C-Band And Lower Extended C-Band Transponders Providing
ZonalAndGlobalCoverageWithAnEffectiveIsotropicRadiatedPower(EIRP) Of 36
Dbw.

It Also Carries A Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) With Imaging

Capacity In The Visible (0.55-0.75 µm), Thermal Infrared (10.5-12.5 µm) And
Water Vapour (5.7-7.1 µm) Channels And Provides 2x2 Km, 8x8 Km And 8x8 Km
Ground Resolution Respectively.
INSAT-3A

The Multipurpose Satellite, INSAT-3A, Was Launched By Ariane In April

2003. It Is Located At 93.5 Degree East Longitude. The Payloads On INSAT-3A
Are As Follows:

12 Normal C-Band Transponders (9 Channels Provide Expanded Coverage

From Middle East To South East Asia With An EIRP Of 38 Dbw, 3 ChannelsProvide
India Coverage With An EIRP Of 36 Dbw And 6 Extended C -Band Transponders
Provide India Coverage With An EIRP Of 36 Dbw).

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A CCD Camera Provides 1x1 Km Ground Resolution, In The Visible (0.63-
0.69µm),NearInfrared(0.77-0.86 µm)AndShortwaveInfrared(1.55-1.70 µm)
Bands.

INSAT-3D
LaunchedInJuly2013,INSAT-3DIsPositionedAt82DegreeEast Longitude.
INSAT-3D Payloads Include Imager, Sounder, Data Relay
Transponder And Search&Rescue Transponder. All The Transponders Provide
CoverageOverLargePartOfTheIndianOceanRegionCoveringIndia,
Bangladesh,Bhutan,Maldives,Nepal,Seychelles,SriLankaAndTanzaniaFor
Rendering Distress Alert Services

INSAT-3E
Launched In September 2003, INSAT-3E Is Positioned At 55 Degree East
Longitude And Carries 24 Normal C-Band Transponders Provide An Edge OfCoverage
EIRP Of 37DbwOver India And12Extended C-Band Transponders
ProvideAnEdgeOfCoverageEIRPOf38DbwOverIndia.

KALPANA-1
KALPANA-1IsAnExclusiveMeteorologicalSatelliteLaunchedByPSLV
InSeptember2002.ItCarriesVeryHighResolutionRadiometerAndDRT
PayloadsToProvideMeteorologicalServices.ItIsLocatedAt74DegreeEast
Longitude.ItsFirstNameWasMETSAT.ItWasLaterRenamedAsKALPANA-
1ToCommemorateKalpanwawChwa.wElna.ggTree.com

Edusat
ConfiguredForAudio-
VisualMediumEmployingDigitalInteractiveClassroomLessonsAndMultimediaCont
ent,EDUSATWasLaunchedByGSLV InSeptember 2004. ItsTransponders And Their
Ground Coverage AreSpecially Configured To Cater To The Educational
Requirements.

GSAT-2
LaunchedByTheSecondFlightOfGSLVInMay2003,GSAT-2Is
LocatedAt48DegreeEastLongitudeAndCarriesFourNormalC-Band Transponders To
Provide 36 Dbw EIRP With India Coverage, Two K uBand
TranspondersWith42DbwEIRPOverIndiaAndAnMSSPayloadSimilarTo
ThoseOnINSAT-3BAndINSAT-3C.
INSAT-4Series:

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Figure5.3INSAT4A

INSAT-4Aispositionedat83degreeEastlongitudealongwithINSAT-2E
and INSAT-3B. It carries 12 Kuband 36 MHz bandwidthtransponders
employing140WTWTAst o pr ov i d e a nTErIeReP.coof m52dBWatthee
w w w . E n g g
dgeofcoverage
polygonwithfootprintcoveringIndianmainlandand12C-band36 MHz bandwidth
transponders provide an EIRP of 39 dBW at the edge of coverage with expanded
radiation patterns encompassing Indian geographical boun dary, area beyond India in
southeast and northwest regions.[8]Tata Sky, a joint venturebetween theTATA
GroupandSTARusesINSAT-4A fordistributing their DTH service.

 INSAT-4A
 INSAT-4B
 GlitchInINSAT4B
 China-StuxnetConnection
 INSAT-4CR
 GSAT-8/INSAT-4G
 GSAT-12/GSAT-10

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VSAT

VSAT stands forvery small aperture terminalsystem. This is the dis-

tinguishing feature of a VSAT system, the earth-station antennas being typically
less than 2.4 m in diameter (Rana et al., 1990). The trend is toward even smaller
dishes, not more than 1.5 m in diameter (Hughes et al., 1993).

Inthissense,thesmallTVROterminalsfordirectbroadcastsatellitescould be
labeled as VSATs, but the appellation is usually reserved for private
networks,mostlyprovidingtwo-waycommunications facilities.
Typical user groups include bank- ing and financial institutions, airlineand
hotel bookingagencies, and large retail storeswith geographicallydispersed
outlets.

Figure5.4VSATBlockDiagrams

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VSAT network
The basic structure of a VSAT network consists of a hub station whichprovides
a broadcast facility to all the VSATs in the network and the VSATs
themselveswhichaccessthesatelliteinsomeformofmultiple-accessmode.
The hub station is operated by the service provider, and it may be shared
among a number of users, but of course, each user organ- ization has exclusiveaccess
to its own VSAT network.
Time division mul- tiplex is the normal downlink mode of transmission
from hubto theVSATs, and the transmission can be broadcast forreception byall
the VSATs in a network, or address coding can be used to direct messages to
selected VSATs.
A form ofdemand assigned multiple access(DAMA) is employed in some
systems in which channel capacity is assigned in response to the fluctuating
demandsoftheVSATsinthenetwork.
Most VSAT systems operate in the Ku band, although there are some C-
band systems in existence (Rana et al., 1990).

Applications

 Supermarketshops(tills,ATMmachines,stocksaleupdatesandstock
ordering). www.EnggTree.com
 Chemistshops-ShoppersDrugMart-Pharmaprix.
Broadbanddirecttothehome.e.g.DownloadingMP3audiotoaudio players.
 Broadband direct small business, office etc, sharing local use with
many PCs.
 Internet access from on board ship Cruise ships with internet cafes,
commercial shipping communications.

Mobilesatelliteservices

GSM

ServicesandArchitecture

If your work involves (or is likely to involve) some form of wireless public
communications,youarelikelytoencountertheGSMstandards.Initially
developedtosupportastandardizedapproachtodigitalcellularcommunications in
Europe, the"Global System for Mobile Communications" (GSM) protocols are rapidly
being adopted to the next generation of wireless telecommunicationssystems.

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IntheUS,itsmaincompetitionappearstobethecellularTDMAsystemsbasedon the IS-54

standards. Since the GSM systems consist of a wide range of components, standards,
and protocols.

TheGSManditscompanionstandardDCS1800(fortheUK,wherethe
900MHzfrequenciesarenotavailableforGSM)havebeendevelopedoverthe
lastdecadetoallowcellularcommunicationssystemstomovebeyondthe limitations
posed bytheolder analogsystems.
Analog system capacities are being stressed with more users that can be
effectively supported by the available frequency allocations. Compatibility
between types of systems had been limited, if non-existent.
Byusingdigitalencodingtechniques,moreuserscansharethesamefrequencies
thanhadbeenavailableintheanalogsystems.Ascomparedtothe
digitalcellularsystemsintheUS(CDMA[IS -95]andTDMA[IS-54]),theGSM market
has had impressive success. Estimates of the numbers of telephones run
from7.5millionGSMphonesto.5millionIS54phonesto.3millionforIS95.

GSMhasgainedin a cc ep t a nc e f ro m i ts initialbeginnin
w w w . E n g g T re e. c om
gsinEuropeto otherpartsoftheworldincludingAustralia,NewZealand,countriesinthe
Middle East and the far east. Beyond its use in cellular frequencies (900 M Hz
forGSM,1800MHzforDCS1800),portionsoftheGSMsignalingprotocolsarefindingtheirw
ayintothenewlydevelopingPCSandLEOSatellite communications systems.
While the frequencies and link characteristics of these systems differ from
thestandardGSMairinterface,allofthesesystemsmustdealwithusers
roamingfromonecell(orsatellitebeam)toanother,andbridgeservicestopublic
communicationnetworksincludingthePublicSwitchedTelephoneNetwork (PSTN),
and public data networks (PDN).
TheGSMarchitectureincludesseveralsubsystems
The Mobile Station (MS)-- These digital telephones include vehicle,
portableandhand-heldterminals.AdevicecalledtheSubscriberIdentity Module
(SIM) that is basically a smart-card provides custom information about users such
as the services they've subscribed to and their identification in the network
TheBaseStationSub-System(BSS)--TheBSSisthecollectionof
devicesthatsupporttheswitchingnetworksradiointerface.MajorcomponentsoftheBSSi
ncludetheBaseTransceiverStation(BTS)thatconsistsoftheradiomodems and antenna
equipment.

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InOSIterms,theBTSprovidesthephysicalinterfacetotheMSwherethe
BSCisresponsibleforthelinklayerservicestotheMS.Logicallythe
transcodingequipmentisintheBTS,however,anadditionalcomponent.

TheNetworkandSwitchingSub-System(NSS)--TheNSSprovides the
switching between the GSM subsystem and external networks along with the
databases used for additional subscriber and mobility management.

MajorcomponentsintheNSSincludetheMobileServi cesSwitching
Center(MSC),HomeandVisitingLocationRegisters(HLR,VLR).TheHLRand
VLRdatabasesareinterconnectedthroughthetelecommstandardSignaling System 7
(SS7) control network.

The Operation Sub-System (OSS)-- The OSS provides the support functions
responsible for the management of network maintenance and services.
Components of the OSS are responsible for network operation and maintenance,
mobile equipment management, and subscription management and charging.

Figure5.5GSMBlockDiagrams

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Severalchannelsare used intheairinterface

 FCCH-thefrequency correction channel-provides frequency synchronization

information in a burst
 SCH- Synchronization Channel - shortly following the FCCH burst (8 bits
later), provides a reference to all slots on a given frequency
 PAGCH- Paging and Access Grant Channel used for the transmission of
paging information requesting the setup of a call to a MS.
 RACH- Random Access Channel - an inbound channel used by the MS to
requestconnectionsfromthegroundnetwork.Sincethisisusedforthe
firstaccessattemptbyusersofthenetwork,arandomaccessschemeis used to aid
in avoiding collisions.
 CBCH -Cell Broadcast Channel - used for infrequent transmission of
broadcasts by the ground network.
 BCCH-BroadcastControlChannel-providesaccessstatusinformation to the MS.
The information provided on this channel is used by the MS to determine
whether ornottorequestatransition toanewcell

 FACCH-FastAssociatedControlChannelforthecontrolofhandovers
 TCH/F-TrafficChannel,FullRateforspeechat13kbpsordataat12,6,
or3.6kbps www.EnggTree.com
 TCH/H-TrafficChannel,HalfRateforspeechat7kbps,ordataat6or
3.6kbps

MobilityManagement

OneofthemajorfeaturesusedinallclassesofGSMnetworks(cellular,PCS and
Satellite) is the ability to support roaming users. Through the control
signalingnetwork,theMSCsinteracttolocateandconnecttousersthroughout the
network.
"LocationRegisters"areincludedintheMSCdatabasestoassistinthe
roleofdetermininghow,andwhetherconnectionsaretobemadetoroaming
users.EachuserofaGSMMSisassignedaHomeLocationRegister(HLR)that is used to
contain the user's location and subscribed services.

Difficultiesfacingtheoperatorscaninclude

a. Remote/Rural Areas. To service remote areas, it is often economically

unfeasible to provide backhaul facilities (BTS to BSC) via terrestrial lines
(fiber/microwave).

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b. Timetodeploy.Terrestrialbuild-outscan takeyearstoplanand
implement.
c. Areasof‘minor’interest.Thesecanincludesmallisolatedcenterssuchas
touristresorts,islands,mines,oilexploration sites,hydro-electric facilities.
d. TemporaryCoverage.Specialevents,even inurbanareas,canoverloadthe
existing infrastructure.

GSMservicesecurity

GSMwasdesignedwithamoderatelevelofservicesecurity.GSMuses several
cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1, A5/2, and A5/3 stream ciphers
are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy.

GSM uses General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) for data transmissions like
browsing the web. The most commonly deployed GPRS ciphers were publicly
brokenin2011TheresearchersrevealedflawsinthecommonlyusedGEA/1.

GlobalPositioningSystem (GPS)

TheGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)isasatellitebasednavigation
systemthatcanbeusedtolocatepositions anywhere onearth.Designed and
w w w .E n g g T r e e . c o m
operatedbytheU.S.Depar tm e nt o f D e f e n s e , i t c o n s i s t s ofsat
ellites,controland
monitorstations, andreceivers. GPSreceivers takeinformationtransmitted
fromthesatellitesandusestriangulationtocalculateauser’sexactlocation. GPS is
used on incidents in a variety of ways, such as:

 Todeterminepositionlocations;forexample,youneedtoradioa
helicopterpilotthecoordinatesofyourpositionlocationsothepilotcan pick you up.
 To navigate from one location to another; for example, you need to travel
from a lookout to the fire perimeter.
 To create digitized maps; for example, you are assigned to plot the fire
perimeter and hot spots.
 To determine distance between two points or how far you are from another
location.

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F
i

Figwuwrew5..6EGnPgSgBlTocrkeDei.acgroamms

The purpose of this chapter is to give a general overview of the Global

Positioning System, not to teach proficiency in the use of a GPS receiver. To
become proficient with a specific GPS receiver, study the owner’s manual and
practice using the receiver.

Thechapterstartswithageneralintroductiononhowtheglobal
positioningsystemworks.ThenitdiscussessomebasicsonusingaGPSreceiver.

ThreeSegmentsofGPS:

SpaceSegment—Satellitesorbitingtheearth

The space segment consists of 29 satellites circling the earth every 12hours
at 12,000 miles in altitude. This high altitude allows the signals to cover a
greaterarea.ThesatellitesarearrangedintheirorbitssoaGPSreceiveron earth can
receive a signal from at least four satellites at any given time. Each satellite
contains several atomic clocks.

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ControlSegment—Thecontrolandmonitoringstations

The control segment tracks the satellites and then provides them with
corrected orbital and time information. The control segment consists of five
unmanned monitor stations and one Master Control Station. The five unmanned
stations monitor GPS satellite signals and then send that information to the
Master Control Station where anomalies are corrected and sent back to the GPS
satellites through ground antennas.

UserSegment—TheGPSreceiversownedbyciviliansandmilitary

The user segment consists of the users and their GPS receivers. Thenumber
of simultaneous users is limitless.

HowGPSDeterminesaPosition

TheGPSreceiverusesthefollowinginformationto determineaposition.

 Preciselocationofsatellites
 WhenaGPSreceiverisfirstturnedon,itdownloadsorbitinformationfrom
allthesatellitescalledawnwalwm.aEnnagc.gTThries ep.rcoocemss,thefirsttime
,cantakeaslong as12minutes;butoncethisinformationisdownloaded,itisstoredinthe
receiver’smemoryforfutureuse.

 Distancefromeachsatellite

The GPS receiver calculates the distance from each satellite to the receiver by
using the distance formula: distance = velocity x time. The receiver alreadyknows
the velocity, which is the speed of a radio wave or 186,000 miles per second (the
speed of light).

 Triangulationtodetermineposition

Thereceiverdeterminespositionbyusingtriangulation. Whenitreceives signals from

at least three satellites the receiver should be able to calculate its approximate
position (a 2D position). The receiver needs at least four or more satellites to
calculate a more accurate 3D position.

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UsingaGPSReceiver

ThereareseveraldifferentmodelsandtypesofGPSreceivers.Refertothe owner’s manual

for your GPS receiver and practice using it to become proficient.

 WhenworkingonanincidentwithaGPSreceiverit isimportantto:

 Alwayshave acompassandamap.

 HaveaGPSdownloadcable.

 Haveextrabatteries.

 KnowmemorycapacityoftheGPSreceivertopreventlossofdata, decrease in

accuracy of data,or other problems.

 Useanexternalantennaewheneverpossible,especiallyundertreecanopy, in

canyons, or while flying or driving.

 SetupGPSreceiveraccordingtoincidentoragencystandardregulation;
www.EnggTree.com
coordinatesystem.

 Takenotesthat describewhatyou aresavinginthereceiver.

5.6.INMARSAT

Inmarsat-IndianMaritimeSATelliteisstillthesoleIMO-mandatedprovider
of satellite communications for the GMDSS.

 AvailabilityforGMDSSisaminimumof99.9%

Inmarsat has constantly and consistently exceeded this figure

&Independently audited by IMSO and reported on to IMO.

NowInmarsatcommercialservicesusethesamesatellitesandnetwork
&InmarsatAclosesatmidnighton31December2007AgreedbyIMO–MSC/Circ.1076.
Successful closure programme almost concluded Overseen
throughout by IMSO.

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Figure5.7INMARSATSatelliteService

GMDSSservicescontinuetobeprovidedby:

 InmarsatB,InmarsatC/mini-CandInmarsatFleetF77
 PotentialforGMDSSonFleetBroadbandbeingassessed

TheIMOCriteriafortheProvisionofMobileSatelliteCommunications Systems inthe

G l o b a wl Mwawri.tEimnegDgiTstrreeess.caonmdSafety System (GMDSS)

Amendmentswereproposed;potentiallytomakeitsimplerforothersatellite
systems to be approved

TheoriginalrequirementsremainandwereapprovedbyMSC83
• Nodilutionofstandards

Minoramendmentsonly;replacementResolutionexpectedtobeapproved by the
IMO 25thAssembly

Inmarsatremainsthesole,approvedsatcomproviderfortheGMDSS

LEO:Low EarthOrbit satelliteshavea small area of coverage.They are

positionedinanorbitapproximately3000kmfromthesurfaceoftheearth

 They completeoneorbitevery90minutes
 Thelargemajorityofsatellitesareinlowearthorbit
 TheIridiumsystemutilizesLEOsatellites(780kmhigh)
 ThesatelliteinLEOorbitisvisibletoapointontheearthfora very short
time

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Figure5.8LEO,MEO&GEOrange

MEO: MediumEarthOrbit satelliteshave orbitalaltitudesbetween3,000and

30,000 km.

 TheyarecommonlyusedusedinnavigationsystemssuchasGPS
www.EnggTree.com
GEO:Geosynchronous(Geostationary)EarthOrbitsatellitesarepositioned
overtheequator.Theorbitalaltitudeisaround30,000-40,000km

⦿ Thereisonlyonegeostationaryorbitpossiblearoundtheearth
⚫ Lyingontheearth’sequatorialplane.
⚫ Thesatelliteorbitingatthesamespeedastherotationalspeedofthe
earth on its axis.
⚫ Theycompleteoneorbitevery24hours.Thiscausesthesatelliteto
appearstationarywithrespecttoapointontheearth,allowingone
satellitetoprovidecontinualcoveragetoagivenareaontheearth's
surface
⚫ OneGEOsatellitecancoverapproximately 1/3oftheworld’ssurface

Theyarecommonlyusedincommunicationsystems

⦿ Advantages:
⚫ Simplegroundstationtracking.
⚫ Nearlyconstantrange
⚫ Verysmallfrequencyshift

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⦿ Disadvantages:
m
⚫ Transmissiondelayoftheorderof250msec.
⚫ Largefreespaceloss.
⚫ Nopolarcoverage

⦿ Satelliteorbitsintermsoftheorbitalheight:
⦿ Accordingtodistancefromearth:
⚫ GeosynchronousEarthOrbit(GEO),
⚫ MediumEarthOrbit(MEO),
⚫ LowEarthOrbit(LEO)

Fig u re 5. 9 L E O ,M E O & G EO Orbits

w w w . E n g g T re e .c o m

Figure5.10Diffb/wLEO,MEO&GEOOrbits

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GEO: 35,786 km above the earth,MEO: 8,000-20,000 km above the earth & LEO: 500-
2,000kmabovetheearth.

SatelliteNavigationalSystem:Benefits

 EnhancedSafety
 IncreasedCapacity
 ReducedDelays

Advantage

o IncreasedFlightEfficiencies
o IncreasedSchedulePredictability
o EnvironmentallyBeneficialProcedures

Figure5.11LEO,MEO&GEOOrbits

• UsingICAOGNSSImplementationStrategyandICAOStandardsand
Recommended Practices
• GPSAviationUseApprovedforOveraDecade
– AircraftBasedAugmentationSystems(ABAS)–(e.g.RAIM)
• SpaceBasedAugmentationSystem (SBAS)since2003
– WideAreaAugmentationSystem(WAAS) augmentingGPS

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□ DevelopmentofGNSSGroundBasedAugmentation System(GBAS)
Continues
– LocalAreaAugmentationSystem(LAAS)
□ GNSSisCornerstoneforNationalAirspaceSystem

DirectBroadcastsatellites(DBS)

Satellites providebroadcast transmissions in the fullest sense of the word,

because antenna footprintscan be made to cover large areas of the earth.
The idea of using satellites to provide direct transmissions into the home
has been around for many years, and the services provided are known generally
as direct broadcast satellite (DBS) services.
Broadcastservicesincludeaudio,television,andInternetservices.

PowerRatingandNumberofTransponders

From Table 1.4 it will be seen that satellites primarily intended for DBS
have a higher [EIRP] than for the other categories, being in the range 51 to 60
dBW.AtaRegionalAdministrativeRadioCouncil(RARC)meetingin1983,the
valueestablishedforDBS
wwwasw5.7EdnBgWgT(rMeeea.dc,o2m000).Transpondersareratedby the
power output of their high-power amplifiers.

Typically,asatellitemaycarry32transponders.Ifall32areinuse,eachwill
operateatthelowerpowerratingof120W.

Theavailablebandwidth(uplinkanddownlink)isseentobe500MHz.A total
number of 32 transponder channels, each of bandwidth 24 MHz, can be
accommodated.

The bandwidth is sometimes specified as 27 MHz, but this includes a 3-

MHz guard band allowance. Therefore, when calculating bit-rate capacity, the 24
MHz value is used.

The total of 32 transponders requires the use of bothright- hand circular

polarization (RHCP) and left-hand circular polarization (LHCP) in order to permit
frequency reuse, and guard bands are inserted between channels of a given
polarization.

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Figure5.12DBSService

BitRatesfor DigitalTelevision

The bit rate for digital television depends very much on the picture
format.Onewayofestimatingtheuncompressedbitrateistomultiplythenumberof pixels
in a frame by the number of frames per second, and multiply this by the numberof
bits used to encode each pixel.

MPEGCompressiownwSwta.nEdnagrgdTs ree.com

MPEG is a group within theInternational Standards Organization and the

International Electrochemical Commission(ISO/IEC) that undertook the job of
definingstandardsforthetransmissionandstorageofmovingpicturesandsound.

The MPEG standards currently available are MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4,and

MPEG-7.

DirecttohomeBroadcast(DTH)

DTHstands forDirect-To-Home television. DTH isdefined as the reception of

satellite programmes with a personal dish in an individual home.

 DTH Broadcasting to home TV receivers take place intheku band(12

GHz). This service is known as Direct To Home service.
 DTHserviceswerefirstproposedin Indiain 1996.
 Finallyin2000,DTHwasallowed.
 ThenewpolicyrequiresalloperatorstosetupearthstationsinIndia

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within12monthsofgettingalicense.DTHlicensesinIndiawillcost
$2.14millionandwillbevalidfor10years.
Working principal of DTH is the satellite communication. Broadcaster
modulates the received signal and transmit itto the satellite in KU Band andfrom
satellite one can receive signal by dish and set top box.

DTHBlockDiagram

 ADTH network consists of abroadcasting centre, satellites, encoders,

multiplexers, modulators and DTH receivers

 The encoder converts the audio, video and data signals into the digital
format and the multiplexer mixes these signals.

ItisusedtoprovidetheDTHserviceinhighpopulated areaAMulti Switch is

basically abox that contains signal splitters and A/B switches. Aoutputs of group
of DTH LNBs are connected to the A and B inputs of the Multi Switch.

Figure5.13DTHService

Advantage

 DTH also offers digital qualitysignals which do not degrade the picture or
sound quality.
 Italsooffers interactive channelsand program guideswithcustomers
havingthechoicetoblockoutprogrammingwhichtheyconsider undesirable
 One of the great advantages of the cable industry has been the ability to
providelocalchannels,butthishandicaphasbeenovercomebymany

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DTHprovidersusingotherlocalchannelsorlocalfeeds.
 TheotheradvantageofDTHistheavailabilityofsatellitebroadcastin rural and
semi-urban areas where cable is difficult to install.
Digitalaudiobroadcast(DAB)

DABProjectisanindustry-ledconsortiumofover300companies

 TheDABProjectwaslaunchedon10thSeptember,1993

 In1995itwasbasicallyfinishedandbecameoperational

 Thereareseveral sub-standardsoftheDABstandard

 DAB-S(Satellite)–usingQPSK–40Mb/s

 DAB-T(Terrestrial)–usingQAM–50Mb/s

 DAB-C(Cable)–usingOFDM–24Mb/s

 Thesethree sub-standards basically differ only in the specifications to the

physicalrepresentation,modulation,transmissionandreceptionof the
signal. www.EnggTree.com
 TheDABstreamconsistsofaseriesoffixedlengthpacketswhichmake up a
Transport Stream (TS). The packets support ‘streams’ or ‘data sections’.

 Streams carry higher layer packets derived from an MPEG stream & Data
sections are blocks of data carrying signaling and control data.

 DAB is actually a support mechanism for MPEG.& One MPEG stream

needing higher instantaneous data can ‘steal’ capacity from another with
spare capacity.

Worldspaceservices

World Space (Nasdaq: WRSP) is the world's only global media and
entertainment company positioned to offer a satellite radio experience to
consumers in more than 130 countries with five billion people, driving 300
million cars. World Space delivers the latest tunes, trends and information
from around the world and around the corner.

World Space subscribers benefit from a unique combination of local

programming,originalWorldSpacecontentandcontentfromleadingbrands

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aroundtheglobe,includingtheBBC,CNN,VirginRadio,NDTVandRFI. World
Space's satellites cover two-thirds of the globe with six beams.

Each beam iscapable ofdelivering upto80channels of high quality digital

audio and multimedia programming directly to World Space Satellite Radios
anytime and virtually anywhere in its coverage area. World Space is a pioneer
of satellite-based digital radio services (DARS) and was instrumental in the
development of the technology infrastructure used today by XMSatellite Radio.

BusinessTelevision(BTV)-AdaptationsforEducation

Business television (BTV) is the production and distribution, via satellite,of

video programs for closed user group audiences. It often has two-way audio
interaction component made through a simple telephone line. It is being used by
many industries including brokerage firms,pizza houses, car dealers anddelivery
services.

BTVisanincreasinglypopularmethodofinformationdeliveryfor
corporationsandinstitutions.Privatenetworks,accountforabout70percentof all
BTV networks. It is estimated that by the mid-1990s BTV has the potential
togrowtoa$1.6billionmarketinNorthAmericawithmoreandmoreFortune 1,000
companies getting involved. The increase in use of BTV has been dramatic.

Institution updates,wnwewws.,EtnragignTinrge, em.ceoetmingsand

other events canbe broadcast live to multiple locations. The expertise of the best
instructors can be delivered to thousands of people without requiring trainers to go
to the site. Informationcanbedisseminatedtoallemployeesatonce,notjustafewata
time.Deliverytotheworkplaceatlowcostprovidestheaccesstotrainingthat
hasbeendeniedlowerlevelemployees.Itmaybethekeytore-training America's work
force.

Television has been used to deliver training and information

withinbusinessesformorethan40years.Itsrecentgrowthbeganwiththeintroduction
ofthevideocassetteintheearly1970s.Eventhoughmostprogrammingis
producedforvideocassettedistribution,businessisusingBTVtoprovideefficientdelivery
ofspecializedprograms viasatellite.

Theadventofsmallerreceivingstations-calledverysmallaperture terminals
(VSATs) has made private communication networks much moreeconomical to
operate. BTV has a number of tangible benefits, such as reducingtravel, immediate
delivery of time-critical messages, and eliminating cassette duplication
anddistribution hassles.

TheprogrammingonBTVnetworksisextremelycost-effectivecomparedto
seminar fees and downtime for travel. It is an excellent way to get solid
andcurrentinformationveryfast.Somepeopleprefertoattendseminarsand

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conferences where they can read, see, hear and ask questions in person. BTVprovides
yet another piece of the education menu and is another way to provide professional
development.

Akeyadvantageisthatitsformatallowsviewerstointeractwith presenters by
telephone, enabling viewers to become a part of the program. The satellite effectively
places people in the same room, so that sales personnel in thefieldcanlearnabout
newproductsatthesametime.

Speed of transmission may well be the competitive edge which s ome firms
needastheyintroducenewproductsandservices.BTVenablesemployeesin many
locations to focus on common problems or issues that might develop
intocriseswithout quickcommunication andresolution.

BTV networks transmit information every business day on a broad rangeof

topics, and provide instructional courses on various products, market trends,
selling and motivation. Networks give subscribers the tools to apply the
information they have to real world situations.

GRAMSAT

ISROhascomeupwiththeconceptofdedicatedGRAMSATsatellites, keeping in
mind the urgent need to eradicate illiteracy in the rural belt which is necessary
fortheallrounddevelopment ofthenation.
www.EnggTree.com
This Gramsat satellite is carrying six to eight high powered C-band
transponders, which together with video compression techniques candisseminate
regional and cultural specific audio-visual programmes of relevance in each of the
regional languages through rebroadcast mode on an ordinary TV set.

The high power in C-band has enabled even remote area viewers outside
the reach of the TV transmitters to receive programmers of their choice in adirect
reception mode with a simple .dish antenna.

ThesalientfeaturesofGRAMSATprojectsare:

i. Its communications networks are at the state level connecting the state
capitaltodistricts,blocksandenablingareachtovillages.

ii. It is also providing computer connectivity data broadcasting, TV-

broadcasting facilities having applications like e- governance, development
information, teleconferencing, helping disaster management.

iii. Providingrural-educationbroadcasting.

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However,theGramsatprojectshaveanappropriatecombinationof following
activities.

(i) Interactivetraining atdistrictandblocklevelsemployingsuitable

configuration

(ii) Broadcastingservicesforruraldevelopment

(iii) Computerinterconnectivityanddataexchangeservices

(iv) Tele-healthandtele-medicineservices.

Specialized services

5.17.1Satellite-emailservices

TheadditionofInternetAccessenablesAstriumtoactasanInternet Service
Provider (ISP) capable of offering Inmarsat users a tailor -made Internet connection.

With Internet services added to our range of terrestrial networks, you will
no longer need to subscribe to a third party for Internet access (available for
Inmarsat A, B, M, mini-M, Fwlweewt,.GEAnNgg,RTergeieon.caolBmG A N &
SWIFT networks).
We treat Internet in the same way as the other terrestrial networks weprovide,
and thus offer unrestricted access to this service. There is no time - consuming log-on
procedure, as users are not required to submit a user-ID or password.

DescriptionofE-mailService

Astrium's E-Mail service allows Inmarsat users to send and receive e-mail
directlythroughtheInternetwithoutaccessingapublictelephonenetwork.

FeaturesandBenefits

 Noneedtoconfigureane-mailclienttoaccessaAstriume-mailaccount

 ServiceoptimizedforusewithlowbandwidthInmarsatterminals

 Filtere-mailbypreviewingtheInboxanddeletinganyunwantede-mails prior to
downloading

 Nosurchargeormonthlysubscriptionfees

 ServicebilledaccordingtostandardairtimepricesforInmarsatservice used

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5.17.2VideoConferencing(mediumresolution)

Videoconferencingtechnologycanbeusedtoprovidethesamefull,two -
wayinteractivityofsatellitebroadcastatmuchlowercost.ForMulti -Site meetings, video
conferencing uses bridging systems to connect eachsite to theothers.

It is possible to configure a video conference bridge to show all sites at the

same time on a projection screen or monitor. Or, as is more typical, a bridge can
show just the site from which a person is speaking or making a presentation.

The technology that makes interactive video conferencing possible,

compresses video and audio signals, thus creating an image quality lower than
that of satellite broadcasts.

5.17.3.SatelliteInternetaccess

Satellite Internet access is Internet access provided through

communicationssatellites.ModernsatelliteInternetserviceistypicallypro vided
tousersthroughgeostationarysatellitesthatcanofferhighdataspeeds,with
newersatellitesusingKabandtoachievedownstreamdataspeedsupto50 Mbps.

SatelliteInternetgenerallyreliesonthreeprimarycomponents:asatellite
ingeostationaryorbit(somewtwimwes.ErenfgergrTedreteo.acsoamgeosynch
ronousEarthorbit,or
GEO),anumberofgroundstationsknownasgatewaysthatrelayInternetdata
toandfromthesatelliteviaradiowaves(microwave),andaVSAT(very-small-
aperture terminal) dish antenna with a transceiver, located at the subscriber's
premises.

Other components of a satellite Internet system include a modem at the

user end which links the user's network with the transceiver, and a centralized
network operations center (NOC) for monitoring the entire system.

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APPLICATIONS

FigureexampleofINSAT-3satellites

www.EnggTree.com

FigureexampleofWeatherforecasting satellite

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1. The INTELSAT VI satellite used .

a) TheINTELSATVIsatelliteusedheaterstomaintainpropulsionthrusters and
line temperatures
b) With active attitude control, there is no overall stabilizing torque present to
resistthe disturbance torques
c) Propermoment
d) Noneofthese

2. Teledesicsatellitesare satellites.
a) GEO
b) MEO
c) LEO
d) noneoftheabove

3. GPSsatellitesare wswatwel.lEitnesg. gTree.com

a) GEO
b) MEO
c) LEO
d) noneoftheabove

4. Low-Earth-orbit (LEO)satelliteshave orbits

a) equatorial
b) polar
c) inclined
d) noneoftheabove

5. MEOsatellitesarelocatedataltitudesbetweenkm.
a) 3000and5000
b) 5000and10,000
c) 5000and15,000
d) 10and200

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6. INTELSATstandsfor
m
a) InternationalTelecommunicationsSatellite
b) IndiaTelecommunicationsSatellite
c) InterTelecommunicationsSatellite
d) Italian TelemetrySatellite

7. Whatisapplicationofsatellitesystems?
a) Weatherforecasting
b) Terrestrialcommunication
c) pointtopointcommunication
d) Multipointcommunication

8. Findouttheservicegivenbysatellitesystems.
a) Broadcastingsatelliteservices
b) Signaltransmission
c) Informationtransmission
d) Noneoftheabove www.EnggTree.com

9. Universaltimedayis
a) UTday=1/24(hours+minutes/60+seconds/3600)
b) UTday=1/24(hours+minutes+seconds/3600)
c) UTday=1/24(hours+minutes/6+seconds/360)
d) UTday=1/12(hours+minutes/6+seconds/360)

10. Identifythedifferencebetweenthegeodetic&geocentriclatitudes.
a) The latitudes reaches a maximum at a geocentric latitude of 45deg,
whenthe geodetic latitude is 45.192deg.
b) Thelatitudesreachesamaximumatageocentriclatitudeof30deg,whenthe
geodetic latitude is 45.192deg.
c) Thelatitudesreachesamaximumatageocentriclatitudeof45deg,whenthe
geodetic latitude is 4.192deg.
(d)Nodifference.

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11. The Orbital Communications Corporation (Orbcomm) system is a ,
which provides two-way message and data communications services and position
determination.
a) MEOsatellitesystem
b) GEOsatellitesystem
c) LEOsatellitesystem
d) Noneofthese

12. TheOrbitalCommunicationsCorporation(Orbcomm)systemisaLEOsatellite
system, which provides messageanddatacommunicationsservicesand
position determination.
a) Two-way
b) One-way
c) Half-way
d) Noneofthese

13. The GPS system uses www.Eng,gfrTomresea.tceollmitestousers,sothat

theuserdoes notrequireatransmitter,onlyaGPSreceiver.
a) One-waytransmissions
b) Two-waytransmissions
c) Half-waytransmissions
d) Noneofthese

14. Inthe GPSsystem, a constellation of24 satellites circles theearth in near-

circular .
a) GEO
(b) MEO
c) Inclinedorbits
d) Noneofthese

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 Inthisunitwediscussedsatelliteapplications.
 The Direct Broadcastsatellites (DBS) andDirect to Home (DTH) Broadcast were
discussed.
 TheVideoconferencing,Internetwerediscussed.

REFERENCES

1. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, “Satellite

Communication Systems Engineering”, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
2. N.Agarwal,“DesignofGeosynchronousSpaceCraft”,PrenticeHall,1986.
3. Bruce R. Elbert, “Satellite Communication Applications”, Hand Book, Artech
House Bostan London,1997.
4. TriT.Ha,“DigitalSatelliteCommunication”,IIndedition,1990.
5. EmanuelFthenakis,“ManualofSatelliteCommunications”,McGrawHillBook
Co.,1984. www.EnggTree.com
6. RobertG.Winch,“TelecommunicationTransmissionSystems”,McGraw-HillBook Co.,
1983.
7. Brian Ackroyd, “World Satellite Communication and earth station Design”, BSP
professional Books, 1990.
8. G.B.Bleazard,“IntroducingSatellitecommunications“,NCCPublication,19
85.
9. M.Richharia, “Satellite Communication Systems-Design Principles”, Macmillan
2003.

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ASSIGNMENT

1. ExplainwiththeneatdiagramtheindoorandoutdoorunitsofDBShome
receiver.
2. Discussthesatellitemobileservices.
3. Explainthefollowingsatelliteapplications.
i) GPS.
ii) SatelliteNavigationalsystem.
4. WhatarethemajorshortcomingsofpresentdayVASTsystem?
5. WritenoteonBitratefordigitaltelevision.
6. List out theMPEG compressionstandards.
7. Explain detailaboutthe VSAT.
8. WhatismeantbyDTH?Whatarethedesignissuestobeconsideredfor
launching DTH systems?
9. Whatistheorbitalspacingofsatellites?
10. Write brief notes on thwe

wadwva.EntnagggesTarneded.cisoamdvantagesof using satellite in

LEOs,MEOsandGEOsformobilesatellitecommunications.

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