CONCEPTS OF CALCULUS

1. Variable and Constant: We deal with many physical quantities in everyday life. Some of
1
these quantities have fixed value like length of a day (24 hrs.), one-year (365 ) day, ratio of
4
circumference to the diameter of a circle (π), Boiling point of water at normal atmospheric pressure
(1000 C), Atomic weight of an element etc. There are also physical quantities whose magnitude
continually vary like population of India, production of food in a country, temperature of various
places and of same place at various time, flow of water in a river, velocity of a moving train etc.
Definition: In a mathematical discussion if a physical quantity can assume various values,
then it is called a variable quantity.
On the other hand, if the value of a physical quantity remains constant and independent of
others, it is called a constant quantity.
Example: When a particle is falling freely from rest under gravity, its velocity, v, as a function
of distance travelled down, h, can be expressed as, 𝑣 = �2𝑔ℎ. Here, v and h are both variables but g
is a constant at a particular place.
Variable quantities are generally denoted as x, y, z, u, v, w i.e. lower alphabets and constant
quantities are denoted as a, b, c, d, e, the upper alphabets. But there can be exceptions also.
We also use Greek letters α, β, γ, δ, ε, η, θ, φ, ω etc. to indicate variable as well as constant
quantities.
2. Function: During various mathematical discussions we find that two variables are so
related that the value of one depends on the other. Like, the area of a circle depends on its radius.
For every definite value of radius, there is a definite value of area of the circle. In this case, the area
is said to be a function of radius.
Definition of function: If, in any mathematical discussion, two variables x and y are so related
that for every possible value of x, there exists a definite value of y, then y is said to be a function of
x. This is expressed as 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐹(𝑥), 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑒𝑡𝑐. Generally value of variable y
depends on that of x, which can assume values independently. Here y is called dependent variable
and x is called independent variable.
Example: 1. let x represents the sides of a cube and y represents its volume then
𝑦 = 𝑥3
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
2. Let s denotes the displacement of a particle after time t, whereby u and a are its initial
velocity and constant acceleration
1 1
then, you know, 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 , here 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 .
2 2
here s is dependent variable as its value depends on value of t, the independent variable.
Different Basic type of functions we need in discussion on Physics:
1. Power function: A power function is one that can be represented in the form
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 ,
here a and n are constant and real numbers, a is called coefficient and n is power of variable x.

2. Polynomial functions: Let n be a non-negative integer. A polynomial function is a function that

can be written in the form

y = f(x) = anxn+an-1xn-1.......+a2x2+a1x+a0
This is called the general form of a polynomial function. Each ai is a coefficient and can be any real
number. Each product aixi is a term of a polynomial function.

Let us introduce a famous polynomial series here that is very useful in calculus.

𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥)𝑛

𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3

= 1+ 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛
1 1.2 1.2.3

Remember this series, you will need it often.

3. Exponential Function, 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, b is a constant, a is a positive real number, and in which

variable x appears as an exponent. Let us further introduce a special exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ,
where e = 2.718281….., a constant number and like π is an irrational number. Also, we introduce the
defining series expansion of exponential function ex

𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + + 1.2 + 1.2.3 + ………….. to infinity, remember this series. By putting x = 1, you get
1
value of e.

4. Logarithmic Function: 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 , (where a is a non-zero positive real number, called the base of
logarithmic function) such that 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 . The common logarithmic function, you are familiar with has
base 10. We introduce here a special logarithmic function, called natural logarithm, where base of
logarithmic function is e, the constant that have already been introduced. 𝑦 = log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥. Note, by
definition of log, 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦 , that is x is an exponential function of y. Here again, we introduce a very
interesting logarithmic series which is of immense help in understanding calculus.

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
ln(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2
+ 3
− 4
+ ……. to infinite terms, provided |𝑥| < 1.

Remember this series, you will need it in calculus.

5. Trigonometric functions: You are familiar with them, like 𝑦 = sin 𝜃 , 𝑦 = cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = tan 𝜃 etc. let
us discuss about few useful rules of these functions.

a) you know that y can be a positive or negative number for a particular angle α. How to
decide? The rule is simple. Whatever be the value of angle α, you can always express it as 𝛼 = (𝑛𝜋 ±
𝜃), (where π = 1800), where θ is less than 900 and n is a positive integer even or odd. like, 750 =
(4π+30), 135 = (π-45), 600 = (3π+60) and so on. This also help you in ascertaining the quadrant in
which α lie. Like, in our example, 750 lie in 1st quadrant, 135 in 2nd, 600 in 3rd.

The rule says for α in 1st quadrant, all positive, i.e. sin, cos, tan and their inverses cosec, sec, cot are
always positive. In 2nd quadrant only sin and hence cosec are positive, all others are negative. In 3rd
quadrant tan and cot are positive, all others being negative. In 4th quadrant cos and sec are positive, all
others negative.

Then we apply the rule |sin 𝛼 = sin(𝑛𝜋 ± 𝜃)| = sin 𝜃. It is true not only for sin but for all
trigonometric functions. Mind that |𝑥| means magnitude of x.
You know the values of trigonometric functions for θ = 0, 300, 450, 600, 900. So to find sin8400, we
√3
can proceed now as |𝑠𝑖𝑛8400 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(5𝜋 − 60)0 | = 𝑠𝑖𝑛600 = 2
, finally as 8400 is in 2nd quadrant,
√3
where sin is positive, we get sin8400 = . Similarly, tan 8400 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛600 = √3.
2

Also remember for positive or negative angles, the rule is sin(±𝜃) = ± sin 𝜃 , cos(±𝜃) =
+ cos 𝜃 , tan(±𝜃) = ± tan 𝜃.

Let us also learn an interesting property of angle 370 and its complementary angle 530. If you
draw a right-angled triangle whose length of two sides adjacent to right angle are of 3 and 4 units then
its hypotenuse is of 5 units. For this particular triangle, the two angles adjacent to hypotenuse are
almost 370 and 530. Obviously, the angle opposite to smaller side of 3 unit is 370 and the angle
opposite to 4 is 530.

With the help of this triangles you can find the value of trigonometric functions of various
angles.

b) Few necessary rules of compound angles

sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵.
sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵.
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵.
cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵.
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 = 1
sin 2𝐴 = sin(𝐴 + 𝐴) = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴.
cos 2𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 1 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷 𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷 𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐷 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 � + � + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 � − � = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 .
2 2 2 2 2 2
Similarly, you can find the product rules of (sin C – sin D), (cos C +cos D) and (cos C – cos D).

c) when θ is very small (𝜃 ≤ 40 ), sin 𝜃 = 𝜃, 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, that is if θ = 30 = 3π/180

radian, then sin 30 = 3π/180 = (3x3.14)/180 = 0.052. Also, for these small values of θ, sin θ = tan θ = θ
in radian measure.

Few rules about functions:

if, y = f(x), and if, x = a, then y = f(a).

Example: 1. if, y = f(x) = x2 – x + 1,
then, f(0) = 02 – 0 +1 = 1.
f(2) = 22 – 2 + 1 = 3.
Let us introduce now rate of change of y per unit change of x, for a particular f(x)
Example: 2. if, y = f(x) = x3, then, when x changes by h,
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) (𝑥+ℎ)3 −𝑥 3 𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 ℎ+3𝑥ℎ 2 +ℎ3 −𝑥 3 ℎ(3𝑥 2 +3𝑥ℎ+ℎ 2 )
= = = = = 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ,
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
This is a useful rate measurer for evaluating limits and derivatives which you will see later.
Limit: A variable x is approaching a constant value a (𝑥 → 𝑎), means, value of x is continuously
changing in such a way that the distance between x and a i.e. |(𝑥 − 𝑎)| is always smaller than any
positive number, however small, but not zero.

Look at the number line shown above. It extends on either side of zero from - ∞ to + ∞. a is
any number on the line. x may approach a either from negative side of a or from positive side of a, in
either case the distance of x from a is |(𝑥 − 𝑎)|. So, x is approaching a constant value a (𝑥 → 𝑎),
means this gap between x and a is decreasing to the extent that it is always smaller than any
positive number, however small. but |(𝑥 − 𝑎)| ≠ 0.

Defining equation for limit :

lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠. i.e. it may so happen that f (x) is of such a form that
0
𝑓(𝑎) = , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡.
0

0
Well, in calculus we shall be mostly dealing with such limits where 𝑓(𝑎) = and as such the 𝑓(𝑎)
0
does not exist. How to evaluate the limit then? It is possible only if we can remove the “0” from
denominator, the bottom number of the fraction. How do we do that? Few examples below will help
you understand the concepts of limit.

1. If f(x) = x3 + x2, then lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎3 + 𝑎2 , as f(a) exists here.

𝑥 3 −𝑎3
2. If, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−𝑎
, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡. [this is because 𝑓(𝑎) =
𝑎 3 −𝑎3 0
= ] So, to evaluate the limit we factorise x3 – a3 and proceed as shown below:
𝑎−𝑎 0

𝑥 3 − 𝑎3 (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 ) (𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 )
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim = lim = 3𝑎2 .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 1

Points to note here:

1. to remove (x – a) from the bottom of fraction, we have divided both numerator and
denominator by (x – a). One may argue that as x → a, so, (x – a) = 0, and dividing both numerator and
denominator by 0 is an impermissible operation in mathematics, but nay, our definition of limit saves
us here. Because x → a, does not mean (x – a) = 0, it merely means �(𝑥 – 𝑎)� is smaller than any
positive number but not zero! So, we can very well divide both numerator and denominator by (x – a).

2. Note that we carried on with lim𝑥→𝑎 sign till the last but one step, when we apply the
limit and the sign finally disappears.