Thermal expansion

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to increase in

length, area, or volume, changing its size and density, in
response to an increase in temperature (usually excluding
phase transitions).[1] Substances usually contract with
decreasing temperature (thermal contraction), with rare
exceptions within limited temperature ranges (negative
thermal expansion).

Temperature is a monotonic function of the average

molecular kinetic energy of a substance. As energy in particles
increases, they start moving faster and faster, weakening the
intermolecular forces between them and therefore expanding
the substance. When a substance is heated, molecules begin
to vibrate and move more, usually creating more distance
between themselves.

The relative expansion (also called strain) divided by the

change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of
Expansion joint in a road bridge
linear thermal expansion and generally varies with used to avoid damage from thermal
temperature.[2] expansion.

Prediction
If an equation of state is available, it can be used to predict the values of the thermal expansion at
all the required temperatures and pressures, along with many other state functions.

Contraction effects (negative expansion)

A number of materials contract on heating within certain temperature ranges; this is usually
called negative thermal expansion, rather than "thermal contraction". For example, the
coefficient of thermal expansion of water drops to zero as it is cooled to 3.983 °C (39.169 °F) and
then becomes negative below this temperature; this means that water has a maximum density at
this temperature, and this leads to bodies of water maintaining this temperature at their lower
depths during extended periods of sub-zero weather.

Other materials are also known to exhibit negative thermal expansion. Fairly pure silicon has a
negative coefficient of thermal expansion for temperatures between about 18 and 120 kelvins
(−255 and −153 °C; −427 and −244 °F).[3] ALLVAR Alloy 30, a titanium alloy, exhibits
anisotropic negative thermal expansion across a wide range of temperatures.[4]
Factors
Unlike gases or liquids, solid materials tend to keep their shape when undergoing thermal
expansion.

Thermal expansion generally decreases with increasing bond energy, which also has an effect on
the melting point of solids, so high melting point materials are more likely to have lower thermal
expansion. In general, liquids expand slightly more than solids. The thermal expansion of glasses
is slightly higher compared to that of crystals.[5] At the glass transition temperature,
rearrangements that occur in an amorphous material lead to characteristic discontinuities of
coefficient of thermal expansion and specific heat. These discontinuities allow detection of the
glass transition temperature where a supercooled liquid transforms to a glass.[6]

Absorption or desorption of water (or other solvents) can change the size of many common
materials; many organic materials change size much more due to this effect than due to thermal
expansion. Common plastics exposed to water can, in the long term, expand by many percent.

Effect on density
Thermal expansion changes the space between particles of a substance, which changes the
volume of the substance while negligibly changing its mass (the negligible amount comes from
mass–energy equivalence), thus changing its density, which has an effect on any buoyant forces
acting on it. This plays a crucial role in convection of unevenly heated fluid masses, notably
making thermal expansion partly responsible for wind and ocean currents.

Coefficients
The coefficient of thermal expansion describes how the size of an object changes with a
change in temperature. Specifically, it measures the fractional change in size per degree change in
temperature at a constant pressure, such that lower coefficients describe lower propensity for
change in size. Several types of coefficients have been developed: volumetric, area, and linear.
The choice of coefficient depends on the particular application and which dimensions are
considered important. For solids, one might only be concerned with the change along a length, or
over some area.

The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is the most basic thermal expansion coefficient,
and the most relevant for fluids. In general, substances expand or contract when their
temperature changes, with expansion or contraction occurring in all directions. Substances that
expand at the same rate in every direction are called isotropic. For isotropic materials, the area
and volumetric thermal expansion coefficient are, respectively, approximately twice and three
times larger than the linear thermal expansion coefficient.

In the general case of a gas, liquid, or solid, the volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion is
given by
The subscript "p" to the derivative indicates that the pressure is held constant during the
expansion, and the subscript V stresses that it is the volumetric (not linear) expansion that enters
this general definition. In the case of a gas, the fact that the pressure is held constant is
important, because the volume of a gas will vary appreciably with pressure as well as
temperature. For a gas of low density this can be seen from the ideal gas law.

For various materials

This section summarizes the coefficients for some common
materials.

For isotropic materials the coefficients linear thermal

expansion α and volumetric thermal expansion αV are related
by αV = 3α. For liquids usually the coefficient of volumetric
expansion is listed and linear expansion is calculated here for
comparison.

For common materials like many metals and compounds, the Volumetric thermal expansion
coefficient for a semicrystalline
thermal expansion coefficient is inversely proportional to the
polypropylene.
melting point.[7] In particular, for metals the relation is:

X2CrNi12(1.4003,403)
X20L11301.4021,4201

C35E(1.1181,1035)
for halides and oxides X/CNIMON22-9-301.4462.2205.

XZLINIM017-12-21.4404,310L,

In the table below, the range for α is from 10−7 K−1 for hard
solids to 10−3 K−1 for organic liquids. The coefficient α varies
with the temperature and some materials have a very high Linear thermal expansion coefficient
variation; see for example the variation vs. temperature of the for some steel grades.
volumetric coefficient for a semicrystalline polypropylene
(PP) at different pressure, and the variation of the linear
coefficient vs. temperature for some steel grades (from bottom to top: ferritic stainless steel,
martensitic stainless steel, carbon steel, duplex stainless steel, austenitic steel). The highest linear
coefficient in a solid has been reported for a Ti-Nb alloy.[8]

(The formula αV ≈ 3α is usually used for solids.)[9]

Volumetric
Linear coefficient
coefficient αV
Material CLTE α
Material at 20 °C Notes
type at 20 °C
(x10−6
(x10−6 K−1)
K−1)
Aluminium Metal 23.1 69
Brass Metal alloy 19 57

Carbon steel Metal alloy 10.8 32.4

CFRP Composite –0.8[10] Anisotropic Fiber direction

Concrete Aggregate 12 36
Copper Metal 17 51

Diamond Nonmetal 1 3

Ethanol Liquid 250 750[11]

Gasoline Liquid 317 950[9]

Glass Glass 8.5 25.5

Borosilicate matched sealing partner for tungsten,

Glass 3.3[13] 9.9
glass[12] molybdenum and kovar.

Glycerine Liquid 485[12]

Gold Metal 14 42
Granite Rock 35–43 105–129

Ice Nonmetal 51
Invar 1.2 3.6
Iron Metal 11.8 35.4

Kapton 20[14] 60 DuPont Kapton 200EN

Lead Metal 29 87

Macor 9.3[15]

Mercury Liquid 60.4 181

Nickel Metal 13 39

Oak Biological 54[16] Perpendicular to the grain

Douglas-fir Biological 27[17] 75 radial

Douglas-fir Biological 45[17] 75 tangential

Douglas-fir Biological 3.5[17] 75 parallel to grain

Platinum Metal 9 27
Polypropylene
Polymer 150 450
(PP)
PVC Polymer 52 156

Fused quartz Nonmetal 0.59 1.77

alpha-Quartz Nonmetal 12–16/6–9[18] Parallel to a-axis/c-axis T = –50 to 150 °C

Rubber Biological disputed disputed see Talk

Rocksalt Rock 40 120

Sapphire Nonmetal 5.3[19] Parallel to C axis, or [001]

Silicon Nonmetal 2.77[20] 8.31

 Carbide

Silicon Nonmetal 2.56[21] 9

Silver Metal 18[22] 54

Glass-
"Sitall" 0±0.15[23] 0±0.45 average for −60 °C to 60 °C
ceramic
Stainless
Metal alloy 10.1 ~ 17.3 30.3 ~ 51.9
steel
Steel Metal alloy 11.0 ~ 13.0 33.0 ~ 39.0 Depends on composition

Titanium Metal 8.6 26[24]

Tungsten Metal 4.5 13.5

Water Nonmetal 69 207[25]

Glass-
"Zerodur"
ceramic ≈0.007–0.1[26] from 0 °C to 50 °C

ALLVAR Alloy exhibits negative thermal expansion in broad

Metal alloy −30[27] anisotropic
30 range of temperatures

In solids
When calculating thermal expansion it is necessary to consider whether the body is free to
expand or is constrained. If the body is free to expand, the expansion or strain resulting from an
increase in temperature can be simply calculated by using the applicable coefficient of thermal
expansion.

If the body is constrained so that it cannot expand, then internal stress will be caused (or
changed) by a change in temperature. This stress can be calculated by considering the strain that
would occur if the body were free to expand and the stress required to reduce that strain to zero,
through the stress/strain relationship characterised by the elastic or Young's modulus. In the
special case of solid materials, external ambient pressure does not usually appreciably affect the
size of an object and so it is not usually necessary to consider the effect of pressure changes.

Common engineering solids usually have coefficients of thermal expansion that do not vary
significantly over the range of temperatures where they are designed to be used, so where
extremely high accuracy is not required, practical calculations can be based on a constant,
average, value of the coefficient of expansion.

Length
Linear expansion means change in one dimension (length) as
opposed to change in volume (volumetric expansion). To a
first approximation, the change in length measurements of an
object due to thermal expansion is related to temperature
Change in length of a rod due to
change by a coefficient of linear thermal expansion (CLTE). It
thermal expansion.
is the fractional change in length per degree of temperature
change. Assuming negligible effect of pressure, one may
write:

where is a particular length measurement and is the rate of change of that linear
dimension per unit change in temperature.

The change in the linear dimension can be estimated to be:

This estimation works well as long as the linear-expansion coefficient does not change much over
the change in temperature , and the fractional change in length is small . If either
of these conditions does not hold, the exact differential equation (using ) must be
integrated.

Effects on strain
For solid materials with a significant length, like rods or cables, an estimate of the amount of
thermal expansion can be described by the material strain, given by and defined as:

where is the length before the change of temperature and is the length after the
change of temperature.

For most solids, thermal expansion is proportional to the change in temperature:

Thus, the change in either the strain or temperature can be estimated by:

where

is the difference of the temperature between the two recorded strains, measured in degrees
Fahrenheit, degrees Rankine, degrees Celsius, or kelvin, and is the linear coefficient of
thermal expansion in "per degree Fahrenheit", "per degree Rankine", "per degree Celsius", or
"per kelvin", denoted by °F−1, °R−1, °C−1, or K−1, respectively. In the field of continuum
mechanics, thermal expansion and its effects are treated as eigenstrain and eigenstress.

Area
The area thermal expansion coefficient relates the change in a material's area dimensions to a
change in temperature. It is the fractional change in area per degree of temperature change.
Ignoring pressure, one may write:

where is some area of interest on the object, and is the rate of change of that area per
unit change in temperature.

The change in the area can be estimated as:

This equation works well as long as the area expansion coefficient does not change much over the
change in temperature , and the fractional change in area is small . If either of
these conditions does not hold, the equation must be integrated.

Volume
For a solid, one can ignore the effects of pressure on the material, and the volumetric (or cubical)
thermal expansion coefficient can be written:[28]

where is the volume of the material, and is the rate of change of that volume with
temperature.

This means that the volume of a material changes by some fixed fractional amount. For example,
a steel block with a volume of 1 cubic meter might expand to 1.002 cubic meters when the
temperature is raised by 50 K. This is an expansion of 0.2%. If a block of steel has a volume of 2
cubic meters, then under the same conditions, it would expand to 2.004 cubic meters, again an
expansion of 0.2%. The volumetric expansion coefficient would be 0.2% for 50 K, or 0.004% K−1.

If the expansion coefficient is known, the change in volume can be calculated

where is the fractional change in volume (e.g., 0.002) and is the change in
temperature (50 °C).

The above example assumes that the expansion coefficient did not change as the temperature
changed and the increase in volume is small compared to the original volume. This is not always
true, but for small changes in temperature, it is a good approximation. If the volumetric
expansion coefficient does change appreciably with temperature, or the increase in volume is
significant, then the above equation will have to be integrated:
where is the volumetric expansion coefficient as a function of temperature T, and and
are the initial and final temperatures respectively.

Isotropic materials
For isotropic materials the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is three times the linear
coefficient:

This ratio arises because volume is composed of three mutually orthogonal directions. Thus, in an
isotropic material, for small differential changes, one-third of the volumetric expansion is in a
single axis. As an example, take a cube of steel that has sides of length L. The original volume will
be and the new volume, after a temperature increase, will be

We can easily ignore the terms as ΔL is a small quantity which on squaring gets much smaller
and on cubing gets smaller still.

So

The above approximation holds for small temperature and dimensional changes (that is, when
and are small), but it does not hold if trying to go back and forth between volumetric and
linear coefficients using larger values of . In this case, the third term (and sometimes even the
fourth term) in the expression above must be taken into account.

Similarly, the area thermal expansion coefficient is two times the linear coefficient:

This ratio can be found in a way similar to that in the linear example above, noting that the area
of a face on the cube is just . Also, the same considerations must be made when dealing with
large values of .

Put more simply, if the length of a cubic solid expands from 1.00 m to 1.01 m, then the area of one
of its sides expands from 1.00 m2 to 1.02 m2 and its volume expands from 1.00 m3 to 1.03 m3.

Anisotropic materials
Materials with anisotropic structures, such as crystals (with less than cubic symmetry, for
example martensitic phases) and many composites (with the homogenization of microstructure),
[29] will generally have different linear expansion coefficients in different directions. As a
result, the total volumetric expansion is distributed unequally among the three axes. If the crystal
symmetry is monoclinic or triclinic, even the angles between these axes are subject to thermal
changes. In such cases it is necessary to treat the coefficient of thermal expansion as a tensor with
up to six independent elements. A good way to determine the elements of the tensor is to study
the expansion by x-ray powder diffraction. The thermal expansion coefficient tensor for the
materials possessing cubic symmetry (for e.g. FCC, BCC) is isotropic.[30]

Temperature dependence
Thermal expansion coefficients of solids usually show little dependence on temperature (except
at very low temperatures) whereas liquids can expand at different rates at different temperatures.
There are some exceptions: for example, cubic boron nitride exhibits significant variation of its
thermal expansion coefficient over a broad range of temperatures.[31] Another example is
paraffin which in its solid form has a thermal expansion coefficient that is dependent on
temperature.[32]

In gases
Since gases fill the entirety of the container which they occupy, the volumetric thermal expansion
coefficient at constant pressure, , is the only one of interest.

For an ideal gas, a formula can be readily obtained by differentiation of the ideal gas law,
. This yields

where is the pressure, is the molar volume ( , with the total number of moles of
gas), is the absolute temperature and is equal to the gas constant.

For an isobaric thermal expansion, , so that and the isobaric thermal

expansion coefficient is:

which is a strong function of temperature; doubling the temperature will halve the thermal
expansion coefficient.

Absolute zero computation

From 1787 to 1802, it was determined by Jacques Charles (unpublished), John Dalton,[33] and
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac[34] that, at constant pressure, ideal gases expanded or contracted their
volume linearly (Charles's law) by about 1/273 parts per degree Celsius of temperature's change
up or down, between 0° and 100 °C. This suggested that the volume of a gas cooled at about
−273 °C would reach zero.

In October 1848, William Thomson, a 24 year old professor of Natural Philosophy at the
University of Glasgow, published the paper On an Absolute Thermometric Scale.[35][36][37]
In a footnote Thomson calculated that "infinite cold"
(absolute zero) was equivalent to −273 °C (he called the
temperature in °C as the "temperature of the air
thermometers" of the time). This value of "−273" was
considered to be the temperature at which the ideal gas
volume reaches zero. By considering a thermal expansion
linear with temperature (i.e. a constant coefficient of
thermal expansion), the value of absolute zero was
linearly extrapolated as the negative reciprocal of
0.366/100 °C – the accepted average coefficient of
thermal expansion of an ideal gas in the temperature
interval 0–100 °C, giving a remarkable consistency to the
currently accepted value of −273.15 °C.

In liquids
The thermal expansion of liquids is usually higher than in
solids because the intermolecular forces present in
liquids are relatively weak and its constituent molecules
are more mobile.[38][39] Unlike solids, liquids have no
definite shape and they take the shape of the container.
Consequently, liquids have no definite length and area, so
linear and areal expansions of liquids only have
significance in that they may be applied to topics such as
thermometry and estimates of sea level rising due to
global climate change.[40] Sometimes, αL is still Lord Kelvin, the namesake of the unit of
calculated from the experimental value of αV. measure

In general, liquids expand on heating, except cold water;

below 4 °C it contracts, leading to a negative thermal expansion coefficient. At higher
temperatures it shows more typical behavior, with a positive thermal expansion coefficient.[41]

Apparent and absolute

The expansion of liquids is usually measured in a container. When a liquid expands in a vessel,
the vessel expands along with the liquid. Hence the observed increase in volume (as measured by
the liquid level) is not the actual increase in its volume. The expansion of the liquid relative to the
container is called its apparent expansion, while the actual expansion of the liquid is called real
expansion or absolute expansion. The ratio of apparent increase in volume of the liquid per unit
rise of temperature to the original volume is called its coefficient of apparent expansion. The
absolute expansion can be measured by a variety of techniques, including ultrasonic methods.[42]

Historically, this phenomenon complicated the experimental determination of thermal expansion

coefficients of liquids, since a direct measurement of the change in height of a liquid column
generated by thermal expansion is a measurement of the apparent expansion of the liquid. Thus
the experiment simultaneously measures two coefficients of expansion and measurement of the
expansion of a liquid must account for the expansion of the container as well. For example, when
a flask with a long narrow stem, containing enough liquid to partially fill the stem itself, is placed
in a heat bath, the height of the liquid column in the stem will initially drop, followed
immediately by a rise of that height until the whole system of flask, liquid and heat bath has
warmed through. The initial drop in the height of the liquid column is not due to an initial
contraction of the liquid, but rather to the expansion of the flask as it contacts the heat bath first.

Soon after, the liquid in the flask is heated by the flask itself and begins to expand. Since liquids
typically have a greater percent expansion than solids for the same temperature change, the
expansion of the liquid in the flask eventually exceeds that of the flask, causing the level of liquid
in the flask to rise. For small and equal rises in temperature, the increase in volume (real
expansion) of a liquid is equal to the sum of the apparent increase in volume (apparent
expansion) of the liquid and the increase in volume of the containing vessel. The absolute
expansion of the liquid is the apparent expansion corrected for the expansion of the containing
vessel.[43]

Examples and applications

The expansion and contraction of the
materials must be considered when
designing large structures, when using tape
or chain to measure distances for land
surveys, when designing molds for casting
hot material, and in other engineering
applications when large changes in
dimension due to temperature are
expected.

Thermal expansion is also used in

mechanical applications to fit parts over Thermal expansion of long continuous sections of rail
one another, e.g. a bushing can be fitted tracks is the driving force for rail buckling. This
over a shaft by making its inner diameter phenomenon resulted in 190 train derailments during
1998–2002 in the US alone.[44]
slightly smaller than the diameter of the
shaft, then heating it until it fits over the
shaft, and allowing it to cool after it has been pushed over the shaft, thus achieving a 'shrink fit'.
Induction shrink fitting is a common industrial method to pre-heat metal components between
150 °C and 300 °C thereby causing them to expand and allow for the insertion or removal of
another component.

There exist some alloys with a very small linear expansion coefficient, used in applications that
demand very small changes in physical dimension over a range of temperatures. One of these is
Invar 36, with expansion approximately equal to 0.6 × 10−6 K−1. These alloys are useful in
aerospace applications where wide temperature swings may occur.

Pullinger's apparatus is used to determine the linear expansion of a metallic rod in the
laboratory. The apparatus consists of a metal cylinder closed at both ends (called a steam jacket).
It is provided with an inlet and outlet for the steam. The steam for heating the rod is supplied by
a boiler which is connected by a rubber tube to the inlet. The center of the cylinder contains a
hole to insert a thermometer. The rod under investigation is enclosed in a steam jacket. One of its
ends is free, but the other end is pressed against a fixed screw. The position of the rod is
determined by a micrometer screw gauge or spherometer.

To determine the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of a metal, a pipe made of that metal is
heated by passing steam through it. One end of the pipe is fixed securely and the other rests on a
rotating shaft, the motion of which is indicated by a pointer. A suitable thermometer records the
pipe's temperature. This enables calculation of the relative change in length per degree
temperature change.

The control of thermal expansion in brittle materials is a key

concern for a wide range of reasons. For example, both glass
and ceramics are brittle and uneven temperature causes
uneven expansion which again causes thermal stress and this
might lead to fracture. Ceramics need to be joined or work in
concert with a wide range of materials and therefore their
expansion must be matched to the application. Because glazes
need to be firmly attached to the underlying porcelain (or
other body type) their thermal expansion must be tuned to
Drinking glass with fracture due to
'fit' the body so that crazing or shivering do not occur. Good uneven thermal expansion after
example of products whose thermal expansion is the key to pouring of hot liquid into the
their success are CorningWare and the spark plug. The otherwise cool glass
thermal expansion of ceramic bodies can be controlled by
firing to create crystalline species that will influence the
overall expansion of the material in the desired direction. In addition or instead the formulation
of the body can employ materials delivering particles of the desired expansion to the matrix. The
thermal expansion of glazes is controlled by their chemical composition and the firing schedule to
which they were subjected. In most cases there are complex issues involved in controlling body
and glaze expansion, so that adjusting for thermal expansion must be done with an eye to other
properties that will be affected, and generally trade-offs are necessary.

Thermal expansion can have a noticeable effect on gasoline stored in above-ground storage tanks,
which can cause gasoline pumps to dispense gasoline which may be more compressed than
gasoline held in underground storage tanks in winter, or less compressed than gasoline held in
underground storage tanks in summer.[45]

Heat-induced expansion has to be taken into account in most

areas of engineering. A few examples are:

Metal-framed windows need rubber spacers.

Rubber tires need to perform well over a range of
temperatures, being passively heated or cooled by road
surfaces and weather, and actively heated by mechanical
flexing and friction.
Metal hot water heating pipes should not be used in long Expansion loop on heating pipeline
straight lengths.
Large structures such as railways and bridges need
 expansion joints in the structures to avoid sun kink.
A gridiron pendulum uses an arrangement of different metals to maintain a more temperature
stable pendulum length.
A power line on a hot day is droopy, but on a cold day it is tight. This is because the metals
expand under heat.
Expansion joints absorb the thermal expansion in a piping system.[46]
Precision engineering nearly always requires the engineer to pay attention to the thermal
expansion of the product. For example, when using a scanning electron microscope small
changes in temperature such as 1 degree can cause a sample to change its position relative
to the focus point.
Liquid thermometers contain a liquid (usually mercury or alcohol) in a tube, which constrains
it to flow in only one direction when its volume expands due to changes in temperature.
A bi-metal mechanical thermometer uses a bimetallic strip and bends due to the differing
thermal expansion of the two metals.

See also
Negative thermal expansion – Process in physical chemistry
Mie–Grüneisen equation of state
Autovent – greenhouse farming tool
Grüneisen parameter – Thermodynamical parameter of solids
Apparent molar property – Difference in properties of one mole of substance in a mixture vs.
an ideal solution
Heat capacity – Physical property describing the energy required to change a material's
temperature
Thermodynamic databases for pure substances – Thermodynamic properties list
Material properties (thermodynamics) – thermodynamic property of a material
Charles's law – Relationship between volume and temperature of a gas at constant pressure

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External links
Glass Thermal Expansion (http://glassproperties.com/expansion/ExpansionMeasurement.ht
m) Thermal expansion measurement, definitions, thermal expansion calculation from the
glass composition
 Water thermal expansion calculator (http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/volumetric-temperat
ure-expansion-d_315.html)
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package on Thermal Expansion and the Bi-material Strip (
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/thermal-expansion/simulation.php)
Engineering Toolbox – List of coefficients of Linear Expansion for some common materials (ht
tp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/linear-expansion-coefficients-d_95.html)
Article on how αV is determined (http://www.leybold-didactic.com/literatur/hb/e/p2/p2121_e.pd
f) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090225155002/http://www.leybold-didactic.com/lit
eratur/hb/e/p2/p2121_e.pdf) 2009-02-25 at the Wayback Machine
MatWeb: Free database of engineering properties for over 79,000 materials (http://www.matw
eb.com)
USA NIST Website – Temperature and Dimensional Measurement workshop (http://emtoolbo
x.nist.gov/Temperature/Slide1.asp#Slide1) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201106280
32311/http://emtoolbox.nist.gov/Temperature/Slide1.asp#Slide1) 2011-06-28 at the Wayback
Machine
Hyperphysics: Thermal expansion (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/thexp.
html)
Understanding Thermal Expansion in Ceramic Glazes (http://digitalfire.com/4sight/education/
understanding_thermal_expansion_in_ceramic_glazes_198.html)
Thermal Expansion Calculators (http://www.epsilonengineer.com/thermal-expansion-calculato
r.html)
Thermal expansion via density calculator (https://durathermfluids.com/calculators/thermal-exp
ansion/)

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