Q1.Define GIS. Write a short note on GIScience, GISystem and GIS application.

the real world in order to test what happens under various conditions, and help precision of a time value in a GIS or database (e.g. year, month, day, second, etc.).
us answer 'what if' questions. 5.)We can change the data or alter the parameters Different applications may obviously require different granularity
A GIS is a computer-based system that provides the following four sets of
of the model, and investigate the effects of the changes. 6.)Models-as
capabilities to handle georeferenced data: 1. Data capture and preparation 2. Q.4.Write a note on Irregular Tessellations.
representations-come in many different flavors. 7.)In the GIS environment, the
Data management, including storage and maintenance 3. Data manipulation and
most familiar model is that of a map. 8.)A map is a miniature representation of 1.)Irregular tessellations are more complex than the regular ones, but they are
analysis 4. Data presentation… GISystem: 1.)Geographic Information System
some part of the real world. 9.)Paper maps are the most common, but digital also more adaptive, which typically leads to a reduction in the amount of memory
(GISystem) is the most used concept of GIS. 2.)GISystem as a computerized
maps also exist. 10.)Databases are another important class of models. A database used to store the data. 2.)A well-known data structure in this family-upon which
system designed to dealing with the collection, storage, manipulation, analysis,
can store a considerable amount of data, and also provides various functions to many more variations have been based-is the region quadtree. 3.)It is based on a
visualization and displaying geographic information. 3.)GISystem is a tool to
operate on the stored data. 11.)The collection of stored data represents some regular tessellation of square cells, but takes advantage of cases where
perform the spatial analysis which will put insight to the activities and
real world phenomena, so it too is a model. neighbouring cells have the same field value, so that they can together be
phenomena carrying out everyday. 4.)GISystem include different components:-
represented as one bigger cell. A simple illustration is provided in Figure2.7. (1) It
1.hardware 2.software 3.data/info 4.user/people 5.procedure. GIScience: Q3.Define spatial temporal data model. Explain the concept of representing
shows a small 88 raster with three possible field values: white, green and blue. (2)
1.)Geographic Information Science (GIScience) is advocated to address a set of time in GIS.
The quadtree that represents this raster is constructed by repeatedly splitting up
intellectual and scientific questions which go well beyond the technical
The temporal dimension: Geographic phenomena are also dynamic; they change the area into four quadrants, which are called NW, NE, SE, SW for obvious rea-
capabilities of GlSystem. 2.)GIScience Talks about GIS as a scientific discipline of
over time. Examples of the kinds of questions involving time include: • Where and sons. This procedure stops when all the cells in a quadrant have the same field
study in the academia. This is the science behind the technology aimed at
when did something happen? • How fast did this change occur? • which order did value. (3) The procedure produces an upside-down, tree-like structure, known as
enhancing knowledge of Geospatial concepts and their computational
the changes happen? Representing time in GIS: • Spatiotemporal data models are a quadtree. (4) In main memory, the nodes of a quadtree (both circles and
implementations. 3.)The major contributing disciplines are:-1.Computer science 2.
ways of organizing representations of space and time in a GIS. • The most squares in the figure below) are represented as records. (5)The links between
Mathematics/Statistic 3. Geomatics (Land Surveying, Photogrammetry, Remote
common of these is a ‘snapshot’ state that represents a single point in time of an them are pointers, a programming technique to address (i.e. to point
Sensing, Geodesy, GPS, Drone mapping 4. Geography and 5. Cartography. GIS
ongoing natural or man-made process. • We may store a series of these snapshot to) other records.
Application: 1.)Geographic Information Application is the kind of services dealing
states to represent change. Different ‘concepts’ of time: • Discrete and
with the geographic information, such as the design and development of the GIS,
continuous time: Time can be measured along a discrete or continuous scale. •
geographic information retrieval, analysis, etc. For example, MapQuest
Discrete time is composed of discrete elements (seconds, minutes, hours days,
(www.mapquest.com) provides a routing service for people to find the best
months, or years). • In continuous time, no such discrete elements exist, and for
driving route between two points. 2.)GIService allows GIS users to access specific
any two different points in time, there is always another point in between. Derive
functions that are provided by remote sites through the internet. 3.)Some
temporal relationships between events and periods such as ‘before’, ‘overlap’,
examples are: MapQuest, Google maps, Bing Maps, Yahoo Maps, Apple Maps,
and ‘after’ Valid time and transaction time: Valid time (or world time) is the time
Yandex Maps, OpenStreetMap and WikiMapia Maps.
when an event really happened, or a string of events took place. Transaction time
Q2.Define Model. Explain how models help in representing real world in GIS. (or database time) is the time when the event was stored in the database or GIS.
• Linear, branching and cyclic time: Time can be considered to be linear,
1.)Modelling' is a term used in many different ways and which has many different
extending from the past to the present (‘now’), and into the future Branching
meanings. 2.)A representation of some part of the real world can be considered a
time—in which different timelines from a certain point in time onwards are
model because the representation will have certain characteristics in common
possible—and cyclic time—in which repeating cycles such as seasons or days of a
with the real world. 3.)Specifically, those which we have identified in our model
week are recognized. • Time granularity: When measuring time, granularity is the
design. 4.)This then allows us to study and operate on the model itself instead of

Q5.Define Geographic field. Explain its different data type and values. and end nodes, and #)The areas are still bounded by the same boundaries, only data sets are so big that storing them in text files or spreadsheet files becomes
the shapes and lengths of their perimeters have changed. Topology refers to the too awkward for use in practice. 4.)The result may be that finding simple facts
A field is a geographic phenomenon that has a value ‘everywhere’ in the study
spatial relationships between geographical elements in a data set that do not takes minutes and performing simple calculations perhaps even hours. 5.)A DBMS
area. We can therefore think of a field as a mathematical function f that associates
a specific value with any position in the study area. Hence if (x,y) is a position in change under a continuous transformation. Topological relationships are built is specifically designed for this purpose. A DBMS can be instructed to guard over
the study area, then f(x,y) stands for the value of the field at locality (x,y).Fields from simple elements into more complex elements: nodes define line segments, data correctness: 6.)An important aspect of data correctness is data entry
can be discrete or continuous. In a continuous field, the underlying function is and line segments connect to define lines, which in turn define polygons. The checking: ensuring that the data that is entered into the database does not
assumed to be ‘mathematically smooth’, meaning that the field values along any fundamental issues relating to order, connectivity and adjacency of geographical contain obvious errors. 7.)For instance, since we know the study area we are
path through the study area do not change abruptly, but only gradually. A elements form the basis of more sophisticated GIS analyses. These relationships working in, we also know the range of possible geographic coordinates, so we can
continuous field can even be differentiable, meaning we can determine a measure (called topological properties) are in variant under a continuous transformation, ensure the DBMS checks them.8.) A DBMS provides a high-level, declarative query
of change in the field value per unit of distance anywhere and in any direction. For
referred to as a topological mapping. language: -A query is a computer program that extracts data from the database
example, if the field is elevation, this measure would be slope, i.e. the change of
elevation per metre distance; if the field is soil salinity, it would be salinity that meets the conditions indicated in the query. -A DBMS supports the use of
gradient, i.e. the change of salinity per metre distance. Discrete fields divide the data models.
study space in mutually exclusive, bounded parts, with all locations in one part Q1.)Differentiate between Vector and Raster data representation.
Q3.Explain the relational data model using suitable example.
having the same field value. Typical examples are land classifications, for instance,
using either geological classes, soil type, land use type, crop type or natural A data model is a language that allows the definition of: (1.) The structures that
vegetation type. Data types and values: 1.) Nominal data values are values that will be used to store the base data, (2.) The integrity constraints that the stored
provide a name or identifier so that we can discriminate between different values, data has to obey at all moments in time, and (3.)The computer programs used to
but that is about all we can do. Specifically, we cannot do true computations with
manipulate the data. For the relational data model, the structures used to define
these values. An example are the names of geological units. This kind of data value
is called categorical data when the values assigned are sorted according to some set the database are at-tributes, tuples and relations. Computer programs either
of non-overlapping categories. For example, we might identify the soil type of a perform data extraction from the database without altering it, in which case we
given area to belong to a certain (pre-defined) category. 2.) Ordinal data values are call them queries, or they change the database contents, and we speak of updates
data values that can be put in some natural sequence but that do not allow any or transactions Relations, tuples and attributes A table or relation is itself a
other type of computation. Household income, for instance, could be classified as collection of tuples (or records). In fact, each table is a collection of tuples that are
being either ‘low’, ‘average’ or ‘high’. Clearly this is their natural sequence, but similarly shaped An attribute is a named field of a tuple, with which each tuple
this is all we can say—we cannot say that a high income is twice as high as an
associates a value, the tuple’s attribute value. An attribute’s domain is a (possibly
average income. 3.) Interval data values are quantitative; in that they allow simple
forms of computation like addition and subtraction. However, interval data has no infinite) set of atomic values such as the set Of integer number values, the set of
arithmetic zero value, and does not support multiplication or division. For instance, real number values, etc. When a relation is created, we need to indicate what
a temperature of 20◦ C is not twice as warm as 10◦C, and thus centigrade type of tuples it will store. This means that we must (1.) Provide a name for the
temperatures are interval data values, not ratio data values. 4.) Ratio data values Q2.What are the reasons for using DBMS in GIS ? relation, (2.) Indicate which attributes it will have, and (3.) Set the domain of each
allow most, if not all, forms of arithmetic computation. attribute. Finding tuples and building links between them A key of a relation
1.)A database is a large, computerized collection of structured data. 2.)A database
comprises one or more attributes. A value for these attributes uniquely identifies
Q6.Write a note on Topology and spatial relationships. management system (DBMS) is a software package that allows the user to set up,
a tuple if we have a value for each of the key attributes, we are guaranteed to find
Topology deals with spatial properties that do not change under certain use & maintain a database. #)Reasons for using DBMS: 1.)There are various
no more than one tuple in the table with that combination of values. It remains
transformations.#)Area E is still inside area D, #)The neighbourhood relationships reasons why one would want to use a DBMS for data storage and processing. 2.)A
possible that there is no tuple for the given combination.
between A, B, C, D, and E stay intact, and their boundaries have the same start DBMS supports the storage and manipulation of very large data sets. 3.)Some

Q.4.List the functional components of GIS. Explain any two of them in details. printing and publishing. The presentation may either be an end-product, for keyboard digitizing tablet with cursor. 2.) Automatic digitizing : scanner 3.) semi
example as a printed atlas, or an intermediate product, as in spatial data made Automatic digitizing : line-following software.
A GIS consists of several functional components—components which support key
available through the internet.
GIS functions. These are data capture and preparation, data storage, data Spatial data presentation: The presentation of spatial data, whether in print or
analysis, and presentation of spatial data. For a particular GIS, each of these Q.5 Explain the GIS Architecture and functionality using suitable diagram. onscreen, in maps or in tabular displays, or as ‘raw data’, is closely related to the
components may provide many or only a few functions. disciplines of cartography, printing and publishing. The presentation may either
GIS Architecture and Functionality: Geographic information system consists of
be an end-product, for example as a printed atlas, or an intermediate product, as
Data management refers to the storage and maintenance of the data transmitted software, data, people, and an infrastructure. A GIS consists of several functional
in spatial data made available through the internet. By Spatial data, we mean
by the buoys via satellite communication. This phase requires a decision to be components-components which support key GIS functions. These are data
representations that can be operated upon by a computer. More specifically, by
made on how best to represent our data, both in terms of their spatial properties capture and preparation, data storage, data analysis, and presentation of spatial
spatial data we mean data that contains positional values, such as (x;y)
and the various attribute values which we need to store. The data data. Data capture and preparation: Data can be collected through first hand
co ordinates. Sometimes the more precise phrase geospatial data is used as a
presentation: The data presentation phase deals with putting it all together into a observation called as primary source, or through individual, organization or
further refinement, which refers to spatial data that is georeferenced. The
format that communicates the result of data analysis in the best possible way. published data called as secondary source: Capturing and acquisition is done
presentation of spatial data, whether in print or on- screen, in maps or in tabular
Many issues arise in this phase. Among other things, we need to consider what through scanning, photogrammetric, remote sensing, digitization of analog map,
displays, or as ‘raw data’, is closely related to the disciplines of cartography,
the message is that we want to portray, who the audience is, what kind of field survey, GPS survey or manual data entry. This data is then prepared for an
printing and publishing. METHOD:DEVICES(TAble):- 1.)softcopy : computer. 2.)
presentation medium will be used, which rules of aesthetics apply, and what application under consideration by removing error, calibration, checking quality,
hardcopy : printer.
techniques are available for representation. Spatial data capture and rasterization, vectorization etc. Data storage: The different types of information
preparation: The functions for capturing data are closely related to the disciplines required for a GIS require storage which allows the information to be updated
of surveying engineering, photogrammetry, remote sensing, and the processes of and queried for analysis by the user. Spatial data is usually stored as themes,
Q.1) Explain the 2D geographic coordinate system using suitable example.
digitizing, i.e. the conversion of analogue data into digital representations. layers, or coverage. Attribute data is the information about an object or feature.
Remote sensing, in particular, is the field that provides photographs and images Data analysis: A good system and/or software package allows the user to define 1.) The most widely used global coordinate system consists of lines of geographic
as the raw base data from which spatial data sets are derived. Spatial data and execute spatial and attribute procedures. This is commonly thought of as the latitude (phi or or ') and longitude (lambda or). Lines of equal latitude are called
storage and maintenance: The way that data is stored plays a central role in the heart of the GIS. Overlaying, buffering, modeling, and analysis are some of the parallels. They form circles on the surface of the ellipsoid4. Lines of equal
processing and the eventual understanding of that data. In most of the available methods used in building a coverage or project. Presentation of spatial data: longitude are called meridians and they form ellipses (meridian ellipses) on the
systems, spatial data is organized in layers by theme and/or scale. For instance, After the careful preparation on several mapping tools which are integrated with ellipsoid. 2.)Latitude is zero on the equator ( = 0 ), and increases towards the two
the data may be organized in thematic categories, such as land use, topography GIS, the maps are presented to users. The final maps are of high cartographic poles to maximum values of = +90 (N 90 ) at the North Pole and = -90 (S 90 ) at
and administrative subdivisions, or according to map scale. Spatial query and quality and are brought out using a wide range of devices the South Pole. 3.) The longitude ( ) is the angle between the meridian ellipse
analysis: The most distinguishing parts of a GIS are its functions for spatial which passes through Greenwich and the meridian ellipse containing the point in
Q6. What are the different ways of spatial data capture and preparation ?
analysis, i.e. operators that use spatial data to derive new geoinformation. Spatial question. It is measured in the equatorial plane from the meridian of Greenwich (
queries and process models play an important role in this functionality. One of Spatial data capture and preparation: The functions for capturing data are closely = 0 ) either eastwards through = + 180 (E 180 ) or westwards through = -180 (W
the keys uses of GISs has been to support spatial decisions. Spatial decision related to the disciplines of surveying engineering, photogrammetry, remote 180 ). 4.) Latitude and longitude represent the geographic coordinates ( ; ) of a
support systems (SDSS) SDSS are a category of information systems composed of sensing, and the processes of digitizing, i.e. the conversion of analogue data into point P ’ (Figure 10) with respect to the selected reference surface. They are
a database, GIS software, models, and a so-called knowledge engine which allow digital representations. Remote sensing, in particular, is the field that provides always given in angular units. For example, the coordinates for City hall in
users to deal specifically with locational problems. Spatial data presentation: The photographs and images as the raw base data from which spatial data sets are Enschede are: = 52 13026:200N; = 6 53032:100E. 5.) The graticule on a map
presentation of spatial data, whether in print or onscreen, in maps or in tabular derived. METHOD:DEVICES(TAble):-1.)Manual digitizing: coordinate entry via represents the projected position of the geographic coordinates ( ; ) at constant
displays, or as‘raw data’, is closely related to the disciplines of cartography, intervals, or in other words the projected position of selected meridians and

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parallels .The shape of the graticule depends largely on the characteristics of the 1.) At present, two satellite-based positioning systems are operational (GPS and examples. Continuous fields are represented as rasters, and we will almost by
map projection and the scale of the map. GLONASS), and a third is in the implementation phase (Galileo). Respectively, default assume that they are. The main alternative for continuous field
these are American, Russian and European systems. 2.) Any of these, but representation is a polyline vector layer, in which the lines are isolines. We will
Q.2) What are the different classifications of Map Projections ? Explain any two.
especially GPS and Galileo, will be improved over time, and will be augmented also address these issues of representation below. The aim is to use
1.)Maps are representations of the Earth's surface, originally thought to be flat with new techniques. 3.) What GPS is to the US military, is GLONASS to the measurements to obtain a representation of the entire field using point samples.
but now understood to be curved. 2.)Map projections are techniques used to Russian military.  The GLONASS space segment consists of nominally 24 In this section we outline four techniques to do so: 1. Trend surface fitting using
translate the curved surface of the Earth onto a flat map. 3.) Map projections can satellites, organized in three orbital planes, with an inclination of 64.8◦ with the regression, 2. Triangulation, 3. Spatial moving averages using inverse distance
be classified based on the preserved property or the projection surface. 4.) equator. 4.) Orbiting altitude is 19,130 km, with a period of revolution of 11 hours weighting, 4. Kriging.
Cartographers classify map projections into four main categories based on 16 min. GLONASS uses the PZ–90 as its reference system, and like GPS uses UTC
Q6.) What is secondary data in GIS ? Explain any two ways to obtain secondary
preserved properties: conformal, equal area, equidistant, and azimuthal. 5.) as time reference, though with an offset for Russian daylight. 5.) GLONASS radio
data in GIS.
Conformal projections preserve local angles and shapes, while equal area signals are somewhat similar to that of GPS, but differ in the details. 6.) Satellites
projections represent areas in correct relative size. 6.) Equidistant projections use different identifier schemes, and their navigation message use other Spatial data can also be sourced indirectly. This includes data derived from
maintain consistent scale along certain lines, and azimuthal projections retain parameters. 7.) They also use different frequencies: GLONASS L1 is at existing paper maps. Secondary data through scanning, data digitized from a
accurate directions. 7.) Map projections often include their preserved property in approximately 1605 MHz (changes are underway), and L2 is at approximately satellite image, processed data purchased from data capture firms or
their name. 8.) Conformal and equivalent properties are mutually exclusive, but a 1248 MHz.  Otherwise, the GLONASS system performance is rather comparable international agencies, and so on. This type of data is known as secondary data.
map projection can have more than one preserved property. 9.)Conformal and to that of GPS. Two ways to obtain secondary data in GIS: 1.)Digitizing a.) A traditional method
equivalent properties are global, while equidistant and azimuthal properties are data is through digitizing existing paper maps. This can be done using various
local. 10.) The preserved property is crucial for selecting an appropriate map Q.5) What is interpolation ? Explain interpolation of continuous data. techniques. Before adopting this approach, one must be aware that positional
projection for thematic mapping, ensuring accurate representation for specific Interpolating Discrete Data If we are dealing with discrete (nominal, categorical or errors already in the paper map will further accumulate, and one must be willing
purposes like population distribution. ordinal) data, we are effectively restricted to using nearest-neighbour to accept these errors. b.) There are two forms of digitizing: i) on-tablet and ii) on-
interpolation. This is the situation shown in Figure below, though usually we screen manual digitizing.  In on-tablet digitizing, the original map is fitted on a
Q.3) Explain the working of GPS.
would have many more points. In a nearest- neighbour interpolation, each special surface (the tablet), while in on-screen digitizing, a scanned image of the
1.) GPS relies on a network of satellites orbiting the Earth. 2.) Satellites location is assigned the value of the closest measured point. Effectively, this map (or some other image) is shown on the computer screen. 2.)Scanning: a.)An
continuously broadcast signals containing their precise position and time technique will construct 'zones' around the points of measurement, with each ‘office’ scanner illuminates a document and measures the intensity of the
information. 3.) GPS receivers on the ground pick up signals from multiple point belonging to a zone assigned the same value. Effectively, this represents an reflected light with a CCD array. b.) The result is an image as a matrix of pixels,
satellites. 4.) By measuring the time it takes for signals to reach the receiver from assignment of an existing value (or category) to a location. If the desired output each of which holds an intensity value. c.) Office scanners have a fixed maximum
each satellite, the receiver calculates its distance from each satellite. 5.) Using was a polygon layer, we could construct Thiessen polygons around the points of resolution, expressed as the highest number of pixels they can identify per inch
trilateration, the receiver determines its exact location by intersecting spheres measurement. The boundaries of such polygons, by definition, are the locations
representing its distance from each satellite. 7.) The receiver's internal computer for which more than one point of measurement is the closest point. If the desired
processes the distance measurements to determine latitude, longitude, altitude, output was in the form of a raster layer, we could rasterize the Thiessen polygons.
and often velocity. 8.) GPS accuracy depends on factors like satellite geometry,
Interpolating Continuous Data Interpolation of values from continuous Q.7) How Root Mean Square is used to mean location accuracy ? Explain.
signal blockages, atmospheric conditions, and receiver quality. 9.) Correction
methods like differential GPS (DGPS) may be used to enhance accuracy. measurements is significantly more complex. Since the data are continuous, we Root mean square error: Location accuracy is normally measured as a root mean
can make use of measured values for interpolation. There are many continuous square error (RMSE). The RMSE is similar to, but not to be confused with, the
Q.4) Write a note on GLONASS. geographic fields-elevation, temperature and ground water salinity are just a few standard deviation of a statistical sample. The value of the RMSE is normally

calculated from a set of check measurements(coordinate values from an polygon data layers, but we note that most of the ideas also apply to overlay Q4.) How Error Propagates in GIS ? Explain using suitable diagram.
independent source of higher accuracy for identical points). The differences at operations with point or line data layers. The standard overlay operator for two
Error propagation in spatial data processing: A number of sources of error may be
each point can be plotted as error vectors, as is done in Figure 5.3 for a single layers of polygons is the polygon intersection operator. It is fundamental, as many
present in source data. It is important to note that the acquisition of base data to
measurement. The error vector can be seen as having constituents in the x- and y other overlay operators proposed in the literature or implemented in systems can
a high standard of quality still does not guarantee that the results of further,
directions which can be recombined by vector addition to give the error vector be defined in terms of it. The principles are illustrated in Figure. Two more
complex processing can be treated with certainty. As the number of processing
representing its locational error. For each checkpoint, the error vector has polygon overlay operators are illustrated in Figure. The first is known as the
steps increases, it becomes difficult to predict the behavior of error propagation.
components δx and δy. The observed errors should be checked for a systematic polygon clipping operator. It takes a polygon data layer and restricts its spatial
These various errors may affect the outcome of spatial data manipulations. In
error component, which may indicate a (possibly repairable)lapse in the extent to the generalized outer boundary obtained from all (selected) polygons in
addition, further errors may be introduced during the various processing steps.
measurement method. Systematic error has occurred when δx = 0 or δy = 0. The a second input layer. Besides this generalized outer boundary, no other polygon
systematic error δx in x is then defined as the average deviation from the true boundaries from the second layer play a role in the result. A second overlay
value. (formula) operator is polygon overwrite. The result of this binary operator is defined is a
polygon layer with the polygons of the first layer, except where polygons existed
in the second layer, as these take priority. Vector overlays are usually also defined
Q1.) What are neighborhood functions in GIS. for point or line data layers. Their definition parallels the definitions of operators
Neighbourhood functions: There is another guiding principle in spatial analysis discussed above. Different GISs use different names for these operators, and one
that can be equally useful. The principle here is to find out the characteristics of is advised to carefully check the documentation before applying any of these
the vicinity, here called neighbourhood, of a location. After all, many suitability operators.
questions, for instance, depend not only on what is at the location, but also on Q3.) Write a note on automatic classification.
what is near the location. Thus, the GIS must allow us ‘to look around locally’. To Q5.) List the four classifications of analytical functions of GIS. Explain any one in
Automatic classification: User-controlled classifications require a classification
perform neighbourhood analysis, we must: 1.) State which target locations are of details.
table or user interaction. GIS software can also perform automatic classification,
interest to us, and define their spatial extent, 2.) Define how to determine the
in which a user only specifies the number of classes in the output data set. The Classifications of analytical functions of GIS: There are many ways to classify the
neighbourhood for each target, 3). Define which characteristic(s) must be
system automatically determines the class break points. Two main techniques of analytical functions of a GIS. 1.) Classification, retrieval, and measurement
computed for each neighbourhood. Then, in the third step we indicate what it is
determining break points are in use. 1.) Equal interval technique: The minimum functions. All functions in this category are performed on a single (vector or
we want to discover about the phenomena that exist or occur in the
and maximum values vmin and vmax of the classification parameter are raster) data layer, often using the associated attribute data. • Classification allows
neighbourhood. This might simply be its spatial extent, but it might also be
determined and the (constant) interval size for each category is calculated as the assignment of features to a class on the basis of attribute values or attribute
statistical information like: • The total population of the area, • Average
(vmax - vmin)/n, where n is the number of classes chosen by the user. This ranges (definition of data patterns). On the basis of reflectance characteristics
household income, or • The distribution of high-risk industries located in the
classification is useful in revealing the distribution patterns as it determines the found in a raster, pixels may be classified as representing different crops, such as
neighbourhood. Determining neighbourhood extent: To select target locations,
number of features in each category. 2.) Equal frequency technique: This potato and maize. • Retrieval functions allow the selective search of data. We
one can use the selection techniques. To obtain characteristics from an eventually
technique is also known as quantile classification. The objective is to create might thus retrieve all agricultural fields where potato is grown. • Generalization
identified neighbourhood, the same techniques apply. So what remains to be
categories with roughly equal numbers of features per category. The total is a function that joins different classes of objects with common characteristics to
discussed here is the proper determination of a neighbourhood.
number of features is determined first and by the required number of categories, a higher level (generalized) class. • Measurement functions allow the calculation
Q2.) Explain vector overlay operations using suitable diagram. the number of features per category is calculated. The class break points are then of distances, lengths, or areas. 2.) Overlay functions. These belong to the most
Vector overlay operations: In the vector domain, overlay is computationally more determined by counting off the features in order of classification parameter value frequently used functions in a GIS application. They allow the combination of two
demanding than in the raster domain. Here we will only discuss overlays from (or more) spatial data layers comparing them position by position, and treating

areas of overlap—and of non-overlap—in distinct ways. Many GISs support guarantee that the resulting maps are easily understood by their users. How does be integrated with the map. Pointing to a country on a world map starts the
overlays through an algebraic language, expressing an overlay function as a this communication process work? It starts with information to be mapped (the national anthem of the country or shows its flag. It can be used to explore a
formula in which the data layers are the arguments. In this way, we can find 3.) ‘What’ from the sentence). Before anything can be done, the cartographer should country’s language; moving the mouse would start a short sentence in the
Neighbourhood functions. Whereas overlays combine features at the same get a feel for the nature of the information, since this determines the graphical region’s dialects. 3.)Static maps: Organizations, such as map libraries or tourist
location, neighbourhood functions evaluate the characteristics of an area options. Cartographic information analysis provides this. Based on this information providers, often make their maps available in this way. This form of
surrounding a feature’s location. A neighbourhood function ‘scans’ the knowledge, the cartographer can choose the correct symbols to represent the presentation can be very useful, for instance, to make historical maps more
neighbourhood of the given feature(s), and performs a computation on it. 4.) information in the map. S/he has a whole toolbox of visual variables available to widely accessible. Static, view-only maps can also serve to give web surfers a
Connectivity functions. These functions work on the basis of networks, including match symbols with the nature of the data. preview of the products that are available from organizations, such as National
road networks, water courses in coastal zones, and communication lines in mobile Mapping Agencies. 4.)Dynamic maps: Dynamic maps are about change in one or
Q.3) List and explain Bertin’s six categories of Visual Variables.
telephony. These networks represent spatial linkages between features more of the spatial data components. On the WWW, several options to play
Basic elements of a map, irrespective of the medium on which it is displayed, are animations are available. The so-called animated-GIF can be seen as a view-only
point symbols, line symbols, area symbols, and text. The appearance of point, version of a dynamic map.
Q1.) Explain using suitable diagram the Visualization strategy. line, and area symbols can vary depending on their nature. Most maps in this
Q.5) How to distinguish between three temporal cartographic techniques ?
book show symbols in different size, shape and colour. Points can vary in form or
The cartographic visualization process is used for translation or conversion of Explain.
colour to represent the location of shops or they can vary in size to represent
spatial data from a database into graphics. The producer of these visual products
Symbology aggregated values (like number of inhabitants) for an administrative Temporal cartographic techniques: 1.) Single static map: Specific graphic
may be a professional cartographer, but may also be a discipline expert, for
area. Lines can vary in colour to distinguish between administrative boundaries variables and symbols are used to indicate change or represent an event.
instance, mapping vegetation stands using remote sensing images, or health
and rivers or vary in shape to show the difference between railroads and roads. Figure(a) applies the visual variable value to represent the age of the built up
statistics in the slums of a city. To enable the translation from spatial data into
Areas follow the same principles: difference in colour distinguishes between areas; 2.) Series of static maps: A single map in the series represents a ‘snapshot’
graphics, we assume that the data are available and that the spatial database is
different vegetation stands. The variations in symbol appearance are only limited in time. Together, the maps depict a process of change. Change is perceived by
well-structured. Visualizations can be, and are, created during any phase of the
by the imagination they can be grouped together in a few categories. Bertin the succession of individual maps depicting the situation in successive snapshots.
spatial data handling processas indicated before. They can be simple or complex,
distinguished six categories, which he called the visual variables, and which may It could be said that the temporal sequence is represented by a spatial sequence,
while the production time can be short or long. The visualization process is guided
be applied to point, line and area symbols. which the user must follow, to perceive the temporal variation. The number of
by the question “How do I say what to whom?” “How” refers to cartographic
images should be limited since it is difficult for the human eye to follow long
methods and techniques. “I” represents the cartographer or map maker, “say” Q.4) Write a short note on Map Dissemination.
series of maps (Figure(b)); 3.) Animated map: Change is perceived to happen in a
deals with communicating in graphics the semantics of the spatial data. “What”
Map dissemination: single image by displaying several snapshots after each other just like a video cut
refers to the spatial data and its characteristics, (for instance, whether they are of
1.)On-screen maps: Currently, most maps are presented on screen, for a quick with successive frames. The difference with the series of maps is that the
a qualitative or quantitative nature). “Whom” refers to the map audience and the
view, for an internal presentation or for presentation on the WWW. Compared to variation can be deduced from real ‘change’ in the image itself, not from a spatial
purpose of the map—a map for scientists requires a different approach than a
maps on paper, on-screen maps must be smaller, and therefore their contents sequence.
map on the same topic aimed at children
should be carefully selected. This might seem a disadvantage, but presenting Q.6) Write a note on Map Cosmetics.
Q.2) Explain the statement “How do I say what to whom, and is it effective ?”
maps on-screen offers very interesting alternatives. A mouse click could also open
Map cosmetics refer to the aesthetic and design elements applied to maps to
The sentence “How do I say what to whom and is it effective?” guides the carto- the link to a database, and reveal much more information than a paper map could
enhance their visual appeal and usability. While maps must adhere to
graphic visualization process and summarizes the cartographic communication ever offer. 2.)Multimedia maps: Maps and multimedia (photography, sound,
cartographic grammar, they often lack additional information necessary for full
principle. Especially when dealing with maps in the realm of presentation video, and animation) can be integrated. Some of today’s electronic atlases, such
comprehension. Essential elements such as title, legend, scale indicator, north
cartograph, it is important to adhere to the cartographic design rules. This is to as the Encarta World Atlas are good examples of how multimedia elements can

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arrow, map datum, and lineage information provide context and clarity. Space
constraints on printed maps require these elements to be placed adjacent to the
map. On-screen maps may omit marginal information due to space limitations,
but interactive features compensate for this. Text is crucial for conveying
information alongside map symbols, utilizing visual variables like color and
placement. Contrast and visual hierarchy play key roles in creating visually
appealing maps, beyond basic cartographic guidelines. Appealing maps integrate
design principles alongside accurate representation, ensuring clarity and
engagement for map users.

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