RC IR OPERATED MULTI PURPOSE

TRACTOR

ABSTRACT:

This Project provides an overview of worldwide development and current status of precision-
agriculture technologies based on literatures generated mainly during the past years. The topics
include natural-resource variability; variability management; management zone; impact of
precisionagriculture technologies on farm profitability and environment;
engineering innovations; information management; worldwide application and adoption trend of
precision-agriculture technologies; and potentials of the technologies in modernizing the
agriculture in the world. A brief review of research in agricultural vehicle guidance
technologies is presented. Application of new popular robotic technologies will augment the
realization of agricultural vehicle in future. Agricultural Robotics is the logical proliferation of
automation technology into bio systems such as agriculture, forestry, green
house, horticulture etc. Presently a number of researches are being done to increase their
applications. Some of the scientist contributions are mobile robot, flying robot, forester robot,
Demeter which are exclusively used for agriculture. A brief discussion is being done about the
types of robots which increase the accuracy and precision of the agriculture.

The objective of this project is to build a RC IR OPERATED TRACTOR

that can be controlled by gesture/shadow mode wirelessly. User is able to control motions of the
tank by wearing the controller glove and performing predefined gestures. This tank can detect
block objects and stop automatically; in addition, feedback messages are sent to the controller
and warn the user by a vibration motor. This project provides a basic platform for many
potential applications such as wireless controlled car racing games, gesture human-machine
interfacing, and etc.
In industries, manufacturing units’ etc, in which there is no continuity between the
conveyor belts our prototype our robot can be used to make the necessary transfer
of goods. For a set of conveyor belts we use only one set of azimuth and elevation
co-ordinates.

If the goods are placed on the conveyor belt at regular intervals judged by the time
required for the arm to make the placement on the second conveyor regular
transfer can be achieved. Again the operation is quite simple.

We provide the two co-ordinates of the conveyor belt from which the goods have to
be transferred. At this time the arm picks up the material from the first conveyor
and places it in the second conveyor belt onto which the material has to be placed.

This enables the arm to make the placement. Thus continuous transfer of goods
between two distant conveyors are achieved.

Proposed System:

As the name implies “RC IR OPERATED TRACTOR” we use a simple RC IR

Cellphone as controller for Device. We, here use a low cost 8-bit microcontroller and a pre-
defined key which is burnt in the microcontroller. In the receiver section we use an RC IR
Receiver attached to the controller. The controller checks the output of RC IR receiver and
compares it with pre stored key. If it matches, the controller switches on the relay and in turn
controls the robot movement through a motor connected to it. Here we just use a display unit to
find the values returned by the RC IR for each Movement.

As we rotate the mobile the accelerometer inside it will return different values which
will be passed to the Receiver section through RC IR Transceivers. For each different
movement a different action will be initiated at the receivers side.
Block Diagram:

Remote control:
Receiver:

Water pump
Closing plate

IR RECEIVER
CONTROL
UNIT Relay Circuit Motor

Receiver
Power Supply Unit
Relay Circuit Motor

Relay Circuit Motor

Relay Circuit Motor

Hardware and the Software Requirements:

Hardware:

 CONTROL UNIT
 Servo Motors
 Power supply circuit
 Perforated plough
 Water tank
 Subrmissible pump
 IR transmitter & receiver
 Weed cutter
 Weed collecter
 Sowing Hoper with control tap
 Planning plate
 Flexible pipe for water sprinkling etc

In the field of agriculture, various operations for handling

heavy material are performed. For example, in vegetable cropping, workers should handle heavy
vegetables in the harvest season. Additionally, in organic farming, which is fast
gaining popularity, workers should handle heavy compost bags in the fertilizing season. These
operations are dull, repetitive, or require strength and skill for the workers.
In the 1980‟s many agricultural robots were started for research and development. Kawamura
and co-workers developed the fruit harvesting in orchard. Grand and co-
workers developed the apple harvesting robot. They have been followed by many other works.
Many of the works focus on structure systems design (e.g., mechanical systems design) of the
robot and report realization of the basic actions in actual open fields. However, many of the
robots are not in the stages
of diffusion but still in the stages of research and development. It is important to find rooms to
achieve higher performance and lower cost of the robots.
Over history, agriculture has evolved from a manual occupation to a highly industrialized
business, utilizing I wide variety of tools and machines. Researchers are now looking
towards the realization of autonomous agricultural vehicles. The first stage of development,
automatic vehicle guidance, has been studied for many years, with a number of innovations
explored as early as the 1920s. The concept of fully autonomous agricultural vehicles is far from
new; examples of early driverless tractor prototypes using leader cable guidance
systems date back to the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980s, the potential for combining computers
with image sensors provided opportunities for machine vision based guidance
systems. During the mid-1980s, researchers at Michigan State University and Texas A&M
University were exploring machine vision guidance. Also during that decade, a program
for robotic harvesting of oranges was successfully performed at the University of Florida. In
1997, agricultural automation had become a major issue along with the advocacy of
precision agriculture. The potential benefits of automated agricultural vehicles include increased
productivity, increased application accuracy, and enhanced operation safety.
Additionally, the rapid advancements in electronics, computers, and computing technologies
have inspired renewed interest in the development of vehicle guidance
systems. Various guidance technologies, including mechanical guidance, optical guidance, radio
navigation, and ultrasonic guidance, have been investigated.

WHAT IS A ROBOT?
The Webster defines a Robot as - An automatic apparatus or device that performs functions ordinarily ascribed to
humans or operates with what appears to be almost human intelligence, which means Robot, is defined as a
mechanical design that is capable of performing human tasks or behaving in a human-like manner

The Robotics Institute of America defines a robot as follows

A robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools or
specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks
and used for Relief operations

HISTORY ABOUT THE ROBOTS & ITS EVALUATION

The term “robot” has its origins in a Czech word “robotnik” meaning worker or serf. It was first
introduced by the playwright Karel Capek in a 1920 play. The robot theme was popularized by Isaac
Asimov in science fiction in the late 1940’s and the early 1950’s, and subsequently by Hollywood
movies.

Mechanization and automation can be traced back to the industrial revolution. The first example of
complete mechanization dates back to the development of Jacquard looms (named after the silk
weaver Joseph Maria Jacquard) used in the silk industry in France and Italy in the early 19 th century.
These looms could be mechanically reprogrammed to produce different patterns.
However, these looms were simply machines. There is no notion of “intelligence” that is built into these
looms. Further, the process of programming could be very tedious, particularly for complex patterns,
and had to be done manually.

The next 100-150 years saw many innovative engineering solutions to pressing problems in industry. A
rotary crane equipped with a motorized gripper to remove hot ingots from a furnace was developed by
Babbit in 1892. Pollard invented a mechanical arm for spray painting in 1938.

The first teleoperator or telecheric, a device that allows an operator to perform a task at a distance,
isolated from the environment that the task is performed in, was developed by Goertz 1. It was designed
to manipulate radioactive materials. The operator was separated from the radioactive task by a
concrete wall with viewing ports. Two handles on the “master” side allowed the operator to manipulate
a pair of tongs on the “slave” side

Robots come in different shapes and sizes and with different

An Industrial Robot is
a re-programmable
capabilities. They also perform several tasks, some of them are
device which is
quite beyond the capabilities of human beings.
designed to both
It was demonstrated by the first human cyborg Prof. Kevin manipulate and
Warwick of University of Reading, UK that humans can link with transport parts, tools,
robots to acquire several dimensions of nature for better or used for specialized
functioning. manufacturing
implementations
through variable
WHY ROBOTS
programmed motions
 Quality Improvement for the performance of
 Improvement of Working Environment

 Better-Cost Effectiveness

 Flexibility to Change

 Multi Specialty Operations

MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS

The four major areas where automation should be considered are as follows
 Heavy Lifting
 Repetitive Work
 Contaminated Environments (Solvents, Noise, Heat, Dust)
 Jobs Requiring Continuously High Levels of Concentration

ANATOMY OF A ROBOT
The Basic Components of a Robot System are
 The Mechanical linkage
 Actuators and Transmissions
 Sensors
 Controllers
 Stepper Motors
 User interface
 Power conversion unit

Applications:

 Heavy power grids.

 Industrial application.
 Crane handling.
 By doing little modifications, this same project can be used for any other power control.

COMPARISON BETWEEN HUMAN TERMS AND ROBOT TERMS

HUMAN TERMS ROBOT TERMS

 Brain  Computer
 Senses  Sensors
 Blood  Electrical/ Hydraulic
 Hands Power
 Feet  Manipulator
 Wheels (normally)

Robots can be Turtles, Vehicles, Rovers, Walkers

ADVANTAGES OF USING ROBOT

 The ROBOT is a basic tool for automation and will be of great use to perform repetitive tasks of picking
and placing in an industrial production line

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 Its use can be extended and exploited by few modifications to do difficult and hazardous tasks for nuclear
applications
 It can be used to do work effectively due to its great-added accuracy which will results the quality
improvement in the work

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE - DEFINITION

Artificial Intelligence is a branch of Science which deals with helping machines find solutions to
complex problems in a more human-like fashion. This generally involves borrowing characteristics
from human intelligence, and applying them as algorithms in a computer friendly way.
A more or less flexible or efficient approach can be taken depending on the requirements
established, which influences how artificial the intelligent behavior appears. AI is generally
associated with Computer Science, but it has many important links with other fields such as Maths,
Psychology, Cognition, Biology and Philosophy, among many others.
Our ability to combine knowledge from all these fields will ultimately benefit our progress in the quest
of creating an intelligent artificial being.

MATERIALS USED
MILD STEEL
1.1 An overview :-
The carburization provides a gradual change in carbon content and carbide volume from the
surface to the bulk, resulting in a gradual alteration of mechanical and wear properties. The heat
treatment and carburization increases the mechanical and wear resistance. Carburizing is the
addition of carbon to the surface of low-carbon steels at temperatures generally between 850 and
950°C (1560 and 1740°F), at which austenite, with its high solubility for carbon, is the stable
crystal structure. Hardening is accomplished when the high-carbon surface layer is quenched to
form martensite so that a high-carbon martensitic case with good wear and fatigue resistance is
superimposed on a tough, low-carbon steel core. Carburizing steels for case hardening usually
have base-carbon contents of about 0.2%, with the carbon content of the carburized layer generally
being controlled at between 0.8 and 1% C. However, surface carbon is often limited to 0.9%
because too high a carbon content can result in retained austenite and brittle martensite.
Carburizing is one of the most widely used surface hardening processes. The process involves
diffusing carbon into a low carbon steel alloy to form a high carbon steel surface. Carburizing steel
is widely used as a material of automobiles, form implements, machines, gears, springs and high
strength wires etc. which are required to have the excellent strength, toughness, hardness and wear
resistance, etc.because these parts are generally subjected to high load and impact. Such
mechanical properties and wear resistance can be obtained from the carburization and quenching
processes. This manufacturing process can be characterized by the key points such as: it is applied

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to low carbon workpieces, workpieces are in contact with high carbon gas, liquid or solid, it
produces hard workpiece surface, workpiece cores retain soft.

1.2 Need of present work :-

Agriculture is the backbone of economy for most of the developing nations including India and a
source of income for more than 60% of their population. In spite of the fact that the mechanization
of agriculture helps in reducing human drudgery and raising grain productivity, the level of
mechanization in these countries is still at very low level. The main reason for this is non-
availability of high quality implements and lack of demonstrated services for their populization.
Mechanization does not mean only the agro-machines operated by power, but also the implements
run by animals and men. Most commonly used farm implements are ploughs, harrows, cultivators,
peddlers, furro opener, khurpy, kudali, etc. Indian agro industries and village artisans usually use
cheaply and abundantly available low carbon and mild steels for the manufacture of these farm
implements to suit every farmer, either rich or poor.
During agricultural operations (either dry or wet ) the farm implements undergo abrasion by
the scratching actions of sand and stone particles present in the soil and it is the most common
cause of their quick failure and damage. It is therefore necessary to minimize wear. Due to limited
resources and unavailability of economically feasible technology, agro industries have not been
able to substantially improve the mechanical properties and wear resistance of these steels. The
attempt have been made by researchers to improve the wear resistance of steel materials, but very
little attention has been paid in reducing the wear of farm implements materials. Thus, there is an
urgent need to substantially upgrade the mechanical properties and wear resistance of low carbon
and mild steels in actual soil conditions.
The present work aims to improve the wear resistance and mechanical properties of mild
steel by developing an economically feasible carburization technique. Also the present work is
applicable not only for the farm implements but also for the applications like material of
automobiles, machines, gears, springs and high strength wires etc.

1.3 Ferrous materials :-

The word “ferrous” usually refers to the materials that have a lot of iron in them. It is common for
these materials to be strongly magnetic but not all of them are. Different type of iron and steel are
more or less magnetic. High-chromium stainless steel is nearly non-magnetic, while pure iron
tends to form magnets easily. Iron with impurities usually stays magnetic better than pure iron.
These ferrous materials are mainly classified in the two different types.
1. Steels: - Carbon contain up to 2% a. Plain carbon steel b. Alloy steel 2.
Cast iron: - Carbon contain above 2% to 6.67% a. Grey cast iron b. White
cast iron c. Malleable cast iron d. Ductile cast iron

1.4 Plain carbon steels :-

The plain steels are generally classified in following 3 types.
1. Low carbon steel: - up to 0.30% of carbon.

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Mild steel is the most common form of steel as its price is relatively low while it provides material
properties that are acceptable for many applications. Low carbon steel contains approximately
0.05–0.15% carbon and mild steel contains 0.16–0.30%
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carbon . Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable; surface
hardness can be increased through carburizing. It is used where ductility or softness are important.
Properties: Malleable and ductile, and therefore bends fairly easily
Uses: - It is used for nut, bolts, screws, automobile body panels, tin plate, wire product, tubes,
girders etc.
2. Medium carbon steel: - From 0.30 to 0.60% of carbon.
These are less ductile but harder and have greater tensile strength than low carbon steel. It balances
ductility and strength and has good wear resistance. They have also better machining qualities.
Properties: Harder, better tensile strength, good wear resistance.
Uses: - Shafts, connecting rods, spindles, gears, crank shaft, couplings, rail wheels, rail axle etc.
3. High carbon steel:- From 0.60 to 1.70% of carbon
They have higher tensile strength and harder than other plain carbon steels. They also readily
respond to heat treatment. These steels can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special
purposes like (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles or punches. Most of these steels with more
than 1.2% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy.
Properties: Tough rather than hard, and fairly ductile
Uses :- Used for making hand tools such as wrenches, chisels, punches, files, cutting tools such as
drills, wood working tools, rail road wheels, springs, high strength wires etc.

1.5 Case hardening :-

Case hardening is a simple method of hardening steel. This techniques is used for steels with a low
carbon content. Carbon is added to the outer surface of the steel, to a depth of approximately
0.03mm. This hardening process includes a wide variety of techniques is used to improve the
mechanical properties and wear resistance of parts without affecting the softer, tough interior of
the part. This combination of hard surface and resistance and breakage upon impact is useful in
parts such as a cam or ring gear that must have a very hard surface to resist wear, along with a
tough interior to resist the impact that occurs during operation. Further, the surface hardening of
steels has an advantage over through hardening because less expensive low-carbon and
mediumcarbon steels can be surface hardened without the problems of distortion and cracking
associated with the through hardening of thick sections. One advantage of this method of
hardening steel is that the inner core is left untouched and so still processes properties such as
flexibility and is still relatively soft.
1.6 Types of case hardening :-
The case hardening of steels is generally categorized into the two different types .
1.Steel with carbon content less than 0.25%
For this kind of case hardening the chemistry of the surface needs to be change by adding carbon
and nitrogen to get hard martensite. This category of treatment is known as chemical heat
treatment techniqe and involves carburizing, nitriding, carbonitriding and cyaniding.
Examples:- Carburizing, nitriding, carbonitriding, cyaniding

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2.Steel with carbon content more than 0.35%
For this kind of steel the surface can be hardened by flame, induction and laser hardening
techniques.
Examples :- Flame hardening, induction hardening, laser hardening

1.6.1 Carburization:-
Carburization is simply defined as the addition of carbon to the surface of low carbon steel at
temperature generally between 850-950 degree Celsius.
Carburization is the most widely used method of surface hardening. It consist of enrichment of
surface layers of low carbon / mild steel (c less than equal to 0.30%) with carbon up to 0.8 % to
1% by this way the good wear and fatigue resistance is superimposed on a tough low carbon steel
core. usually have base-carbon contents of about 0.2%, with the carbon content of the carburized
layer generally being controlled at between 0.8 and 1% C. However, surface carbon is often
limited to 0.9% because too high a carbon content can result in retained austenite and brittle
martensite.

1.6.2 Types of carburization:-

There are following types of carburization processes exist
1. Solid carburization 2. Gaseous carburization 3. Vacuum carburization 4. Plasma carburization 5.
Salt bath carburization 1. Solid carburization:-
The solid or pack carburization involves heating the steels parts embedded in powdery mixture of
85% coal and 15% BaCO3 at a temperature in range 900-950 degree Celsius. The residual air in
the box combines with carbon to produce Co gas. Carbon monoxide gas is unstable at the process
temperature and thus decomposes upon contacting the iron surface by reaction.
2CO = C + CO
2

The atomic carbon enters the steel through the following reaction.
Fe+2CO = Fe(C) + CO
The addition of BaCO
CO
2
3
2

enhances the carburizing effect. BaCO

which react with coal to form carbon monoxide.
C+CO
2
= 2CO
3
decomposes and evolves
solid carburization is a time consuming procedure. Typical carburizing time to obtain a case depth
of 1-2 mm is around 6-8 hours. Higher speed can be obtained by carburizing in gaseous medium.
2. Gaseous carburization:-

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The gaseous carburization is carried out at temperature in range 900-950 degree Celsius. Carbon
monoxide and various hydrocarbon are used as a carburizers. They decompose at the process
temperature and form atomic carbon according to the following reaction.

2CO = C + CO
C
n
+H
m
2

= nC + mH
It is very essential to accurately control the composition and flow rate of carburizing gas. Gas
carburization is the main process in mass production, while the simpler solid carburization is
economically more effective in small scale production.
3. Vacuum carburization:-
In efforts required to simplify the atmosphere, carburizing in an oxygen-free environment at very
low pressure (vacuum carburizing) has been explored and developed into a viable and important
alternative. Although the furnace enclosure in some respects becomes more complex, the
atmosphere is greatly simplified. A single-component atmosphere consisting solely of a simple
gaseous hydrocarbon, for example methane, may be used. Furthermore, because the parts are
heated in an oxygen-free environment, the carburizing temperature may be increased substantially
without the risk of surface or grain-boundary oxidation. The higher temperature permitted
increases not only the solid solubility of carbon in the austenite but also its rate of diffusion, so that
the time required to achieve the case depth desired is reduced.
Although vacuum carburizing overcomes some of the complexities of gas carburizing, it
introduces a serious new problem that must be addressed. Because vacuum carburizing is
conducted at very low pressures, and the rate of flow of the carburizing gas into the furnace is very
low, the carbon potential of the gas in deep recesses and blind holes is quickly depleted. Unless
this gas is replenished, a great non uniformity in case depth over the surface of the part is likely to
occur.
4. Plasma and salt bath carburization:-
A method that overcomes both of these major problems yet retains the desirable features of a
simple atmosphere and permissible operating temperature is plasma or ion carburizing.
These methods introduce carbon by the use of gas (atmospheric-gas, plasma, and vacuum
carburizing), liquids (salt bath carburizing), or solid compounds (pack carburizing). All of these
methods have limitations and advantages, but gas carburizing is used most often for large-scale
production because it can be accurately controlled and involves a minimum of special handling.
Vacuum carburizing and plasma carburizing have found applications because of the absence of
oxygen in the furnace atmosphere. Salt bath and pack carburizing arc still done occasionally, but
have little commercial importance today.
1.6.3 Nitriding :-
Nitriding is a surface-hardening heat treatment that introduces nitrogen into the surface of steel at a
temperature range (500 to 600°C) while it is in the ferrite condition. Thus, nitriding is similar to

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carburizing in that surface composition is altered, but different in that nitrogen is added into ferrite
instead of austenite. Because nitriding does not involve heating into the austenite phase field and a
subsequent quench to form martensite, nitriding can be accomplished with a minimum of
distortion and with excellent dimensional control. In this process pure ammonia dissociates by the
reaction
NH
= 3H + N
3
The atomic nitrogen thus formed diffuses into the steel. In addition to providing outstanding wear
resistance , the nitride layer increases the corrosion resistance of steel in moist atmosphere.
Practically only alloy steels are subjected to nitriding.
1.6.4 Carbonitriding and cyaniding :-
Carbonitriding is a modified form of gas carburizing, at a temperature range between 750 - 900
0
C.The modification consists of introducing ammonia into the gas carburizing atmosphere to add
nitrogen to the carburized case as it is being produced. Nascent nitrogen forms at the work surface
by the dissociation of ammonia in the furnace atmosphere; the nitrogen diffuses into the steel
simultaneously with carbon. Typically, carbonitriding is carried out at a lower temperature and for
a shorter time than is gas carburizing, producing a shallower case than is usual in production
carburizing.
In its effects on steel, carbonitriding is similar to liquid cyaniding. Because of problems in
disposing of cyanide-bearing wastes, carbonitriding is often preferred over liquid cyaniding. In
terms of case characteristics, carbonitriding differs from carburizing and nitriding in that
carburized cases normally do not contain nitrogen, and nitrided cases contain nitrogen primarily,
whereas carbonitrided cases contain both.
1.6.5 Flame hardening :-
This is the simplest form of heat treatment process. The workpiece is heated by means of a gas
torch (oxy-acetylene flame) followed by a water spray on the heated parts. The heat from the torch
penetrates only to small depth on the surface and consequently the steel in the outer layers gets
quenched to martensite and bainite. Case depth up to 3mm can be achieved by this process. This
process can be followed by heating to about 200
0
C for the purpose of stress relieving. The surface hardness is not appreciably affected by these
reheating operations. This process is suitable for any complex shape of component such as crank
shaft, large gears, cam, etc. with carbon percentage ranging from 0.3 to 0.6%. Though high carbon
steel can also be flame hardened, greater care is needed to avoid surface cracking.
1.6.6 Induction hardening :-
This is similar to flame hardening process where the heating of component surface is achieved by
the electromagnetic induction. The workpiece such as crank shaft is enclosed in the magnetic field
of an alternating (10 kHz to 2MHz) current conductor to obtain case depth of the order of 0.25 to
1.5 mm. This causes induction heating of the workpiece, The heated workpiece then quenched by
water spray. The induction heat penetrates only outer surface of the workpiece as a result only the
skin gets hardened by the quenching process. The whole process is very fast (5s to 4 minutes) and
result in hard outer surface (50 to 60 R) which is wear resistant.

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1.7 Tempering:-
After the hardening treatment is applied, steel is often harder than needed and is too brittle for
most practical uses. Also, severe internal stresses are set up during the rapid cooling from the
hardening temperature. To relieve the internal stresses and reduce brittleness, you should temper
the steel after it is hardened. Tempering consists of heating the steel to a specific temperature
(below its hardening temperature), holding it at that temperature for the required length of time,
and then cooling it, usually instill air. The resultant strength, hardness, and ductility depend on the
temperature to which the steel is heated during the tempering process.
The purpose of tempering is to reduce the brittleness imparted by hardening and to produce
definite physical properties within the steel. Tempering always follows, never precedes, the
hardening operation. Besides reducing brittleness, tempering softens the steel. That is unavoidable,
and the amount of hardness that is lost depends on the temperature that the steel is heated to during
the tempering process. That is true of all steels except high-speed steel. Tempering increases the
hardness of high-speed steel. Tempering is always conducted at temperatures below the low-
critical point of the steel. Normally, the rate of cooling from the tempering temperature has no
effect on the steel. Steel parts are usually cooled in still air after being removed from the tempering
furnace.
1.7.1 Why tempering of steel needed:-
After the hardening treatment is applied, steel is often harder than needed and is too brittle for
most practical uses. Also, severe internal stresses are set up during the rapid cooling from the
hardening temperature. To relieve the internal stresses and reduce brittleness, you should temper
the steel after it is hardened. So the main purpose of tempering is to reduce the brittleness imparted
by hardening and to produce definite physical properties within the steel.

1.8 Wear of material:-

Wear is commonly defined as the undesirable deterioration of a component by the removal of
material from its surface. It occurs by displacement and detachment of particles from surface. The
mechanical properties of steel are sharply reduced due to wear. The wear of material may be due to
the friction of metals against each other, eroding effect of liquid and gaseous media, scratching of
solid particles from the surface and other surface phenomena. In laboratory tests, wear are usually
determined by weight loss in a material and wear resistance is characterized by the loss in weight
per unit area per unit time. There are following principle types of wear as described below.
1.8.1 Abrasive wear: - It results when non metallic particles penetrate the metal surface and cause
removal of metallic debris. Abrasive wear is a dominant failure mechanism of engineering
components. The abrasive wear resistance in general increases with increase in hardness.
1.8.2 Adhesive wear or metal to metal wear: - This wear caused due to relatives sliding or
rolling movement of two mating metallic surfaces. If contact pressure are high it cause to
permanent plastic deformation of rubbing component.
1.8 3 Erosive wear: - Erosive wear occur as a result of relative movement between metal and
liquid or gas.
1.8.4. Corrosive wear: - The destruction of materials by the action of surrounding medium is
called corrosion. Corrosive wear begins at the surface and gradually penetrates into the matrix.

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1.8.5. Fatigue wear: - The removal of particles by cyclic processes comes under the category of
fatigue wear. This type of wear predominates in most practical machine component.
1.8.6 Factors affecting wear of metallic materials:-
The wear rate can be influenced by a number of factors as given below:-
1. Physico chemical properties of materials, such as composition, microstructure, hardness,
work hardening characteristics, corrosion resistance, wear strength, etc.
2. 2. Wear conditions such as contact areas, load applied, temperature, presence of lubricants,
degree of lubrication, rotational/sliding speed, flow rate of liquid or gas, nature of
environment, duration of wear etc.
3. 3. Characteristics of abrasive involving hardness, shape and size.
4. 4. Design properties involving transmission of load, type of motion, test geometry etc.
5. 1.9 Mechanical properties:-
6. Strength, hardness, toughness, elasticity, plasticity, brittleness, and ductility and
malleability are mechanical properties used as measurements of how metals behave under a
load. These properties are described in terms of the types of force or stress that the metal
must withstand and how these are resisted.
7. 1.9.1 Strength:-
8. Strength is the property that enables a metal to resist deformation under load. The ultimate
strength is the maximum strain a material can withstand. Tensile strength is a measurement
of the resistance to being pulled apart when placed in a tension load.
9. Fatigue strength is the ability of material to resist various kinds of rapidly changing stresses
and is expressed by the magnitude of alternating stress for a specified number of cycles.
10. Impact strength is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads.
11. 1.9.2 Hardness:-
12. Hardness is the property of a material to resist permanent indentation. Because there are

several methods of measuring hardness, the hardness of a material is always specified in

terms of the particular test that was used to measure this property. Rockwell, Vickers, or
Brinell are some of the methods of testing. Of these tests, Rockwell is the one most
frequently used. The basic principle used in the Rockwell testis that a hard material can
penetrate a softer one. We then measure the amount of penetration and compare it to a
scale. For ferrous metals, which are usually harder than nonferrous metals, a diamond tip is
used.

1.9.3 Toughness:-
Toughness is the property that enables a material to withstand shock and to be deformed without
rupturing. Toughness may be considered as a combination of strength and plasticity.
1.9.4 Elasticity:-
When a material has a load applied to it, the load causes the material to deform. Elasticity is the
ability of a material to return to its original shape after the load is removed. Theoretically, the
elastic limit of a material is the limit to which a material can be loaded and still recover its original
shape after the load is removed.

9
1.9.5 Plasticity:-
Plasticity is the ability of a material to deform permanently without breaking or rupturing. This
property is the opposite of strength. By careful alloying of metals, the combination of plasticity
and strength is used to manufacture large structural members. For example, should a member of a
bridge structure become overloaded, plasticity allows the overloaded member to flow allowing the
distribution of the load to other parts of the bridge structure
1.9.6 Brittleness:-
Brittleness is the opposite of the property of plasticity. A brittle metal is one that breaks or shatters
before it deforms. White cast iron and glass are good examples of brittle material. Generally,
brittle metals are high in compressive strength but low in tensile strength. As an example, you
would not choose cast iron for fabricating support beams in a bridge
1.9.7 Ductility and malleability:-
Ductility is the property that enables a material to stretch, bend, or twist without cracking or
breaking. This property makes it possible for a material to be drawn out into a thin wire. In
comparison, malleability is the property that enables a material to deform by compressive forces
without developing defects. A malleable material is one that can be stamped, hammered, forged,
pressed, or rolled into thin sheets.

1.10 Objectives of the present work:-

The aim of present work is to improve the mechanical properties and wear resistance of the mild
steels by using vasundhara coal as a carburizer and less energy consuming carburization technique.
In this connection the following studies were aimed to be carried out.
1. Proximate analysis of the vasundhara coal. 2. Carburization of mild steel samples under various
conditions and various temperatures by
using less energy consuming techniques. 3. Tempering of these carburized mild steel samples at a
definite temperature for a
particular period of time. 4. Determination of mechanical properties like hardness, toughness and
tensile strength of
these carburized and tempered mild steel samples. 5. Study of abrasive wear characteristics of
these carburized and tempered mild steel
samples. 6. Analysis of the results obtained.
1.10.1 Mechanical and wear properties studied:-
The following mechanical and wear properties were studied and analyzed in the present work.
1. Abrasive wear 2. Toughness 3. Tensile strength 4. Hardness
During these work the effects of following parameters on mechanical properties and wear
characteristics of carburized and tempered mild steel samples were examined.
1. Carburization temperature and soak time. 2. Quality of carburizer. 3. Tempering temperature
and time. 4. Carbon content in the parent steel.

WELDING

10
 Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to
suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure
alone, and with or without the use of filler material.

Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies,
aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general
repair work and ship building.

TYPES

 Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding

The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and forced together by external pressure

(Ex) Resistance welding

 Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding

The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify

(Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding

Classification of welding processes:

(i). Arc welding

1. Carbon arc
2. Metal arc
3. Metal inert gas
4. Tungsten inert gas
5. Plasma arc
6. Submerged arc
7. Electro-slag
(ii). Gas Welding

1. Oxy-acetylene
2. Air-acetylene
3. Oxy-hydrogen
(iii). Resistance Welding

11
 1. Butt
2. Spot
3. Seam
4. Projection
5. Percussion
(iv) Thermit Welding
(v) Solid State Welding
1. Friction
2. Ultrasonic
3. Diffusion
4. Explosive
(vi) Newer Welding
1. Electron-beam
2. Laser
(vii) Related Process
1. Oxy-acetylene cutting
2. Arc cutting
3. Hard facing
4. Brazing
5. Soldering

Arc welding methods

1. Metal arc welding

It is a process of joining two metal pieces by melting the edges by an electric arc. The electric arc is
produced between two conductors. The electrode is one conductor and the work piece is another
conductor. The electrode and the work piece are brought nearer with small air gap. (3mm app.)

When current is passed an electric arc is produced between the electrode and the work piece. The
work piece and the electrode are melted by the arc. Both molten piece of metal become one.
Temperature of arc is about 4000°c Electrodes used in arc welding are coated with a flux. This flux
produces a gaseous shield around the molten metal. It prevents the reaction of the molten metal with
oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. The flux removes the impurities from the molten metal and form

12
a slag. This slag gets deposited over the weld metal. This protects the weld seam from rapid cooling. Fig.1
shows arc welding process.

Equipments:(Refer Fig 2)

 A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.)

 Two cables- one for work and one for electrode
 Electrode holder
 Electrode
 Protective shield
 Gloves
 Wire brush
 Chipping hammer
 Goggles

13
 Fig. 1 Arc Welding

Fig 2 Electric Arc Welding Equipments

Advantages

 Most efficient way to join metals

 Lowest-cost joining method
 Affords lighter weight through better utilization of materials
 Joins all commercial metals
 Provides design flexibility

Limitations

1. Manually applied, therefore high labor cost.

2. Need high energy causing danger
3. Not convenient for disassembly.
4. Defects are hard to detect at joints.

2. Carbon arc welding

14
 In carbon arc welding, the intense of heat of an electric arc between a carbon electrode and work
piece metal is used for welding. DC power supply is used. The carbon electrode is connected to negative
terminal and work piece is connected to positive terminal, because positive terminal is hotter (4000°c)
than the negative terminal (3000°c) when an arc is produced. So carbon from the electrode will not fuse
and mix up with the metal weld. If carbon mixes with the weld, the weld will become weak and brittle. To
protect the molten metal from the atmosphere the welding is done with a long arc. In this case, a carbon
monoxide gas is produced, which surrounds the molten metal and protects it.

Carbon arc welding is used to weld both ferrous and non ferrous metals. Sheets of steel, copper
alloys, brass and aluminium can be welded in this method.( Refer Fig 3)

Fig 3 Carbon Arc Welding

Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding

Alternating Current (from Transformer) Direct Current (from Generator)

1 More efficiency Less efficiency

2 Power consumption less Power consumption more
3 Cost of equipment is less Cost of equipment is more
4 Higher voltage – hence not safe Low voltage – safer operation
5 Not suitable for welding non ferrous metals suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals
6 Not preferred for welding thin sections preferred for welding thin sections
7 Any terminal can be connected to the work or Positive terminal connected to the work

15
 electrode
Negative terminal connected to the electrode

Arc Welding Processes

Welding Process AWS Designation Electrode Shielding Gases Remarks

Carbon Arc Welding CAW Carbon Electrode None Earliest Process.

No longer
commonly
employed in
industry
Shielded Metal Arc SMAW Consumable Stick Some shielding. Gas Common in the
Welding (also known Electrode produced from field and in small
as “stick” welding) welding rod. shops. Produces
excessive fumes.

Gas Tungsten Arc GTAW Non Consumable Argon most common Relatively clean
Welding Tungsten Electrode gas. Helium used for process
penetrating welds

Gas Metal Arc Welding GMAW Consumable Wire Argon, CO2, and Metal flows across
Electrode CO2/Ar are typical arc from electrode
to work piece

Flux Core Arc Welding FCAW Consumable Wire External (e.g. CO2) or Variation of GMAW

16
 Electrode with Flux flux generated gas
Core

Plasma Arc Welding PAW Non Consumable Argon and Others Three principal
Tungsten Electrode modes: melt-in,
keyhole, and
needle arc

Welding Arc Characteristics

The most common high-intensity arc is probably the welding arc. These arcs vary in brightness and in
ultraviolet radiation content, primarily as a function of arc current, shielding gas, and the metals being
welded.

There are a variety of different welding arc processes and cutting processes which vary in their ultraviolet
and visible light output. The following pages summarize the principal techniques and the standard
nomenclature used by the American Welding Society (AWS). Although arc currents vary from
approximately 50 amperes up to nearly 1,000 amperes for different processes, there is no one process
that covers this entire range of currents. For instance Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) on soft metals
such as aluminum may use only 50 amperes; however, a very high-powered plasma cutting (PAC) torch
may exceed 1,000 amperes.

Arc welding requires a large current, generally of a relatively low voltage after the arc has been struck. The
arc is struck between an electrode and the work piece -- the base metal. The electrode may have either a
largely non-consumable metallic tip or it may be a consumable rod of carbon or a consumable metal rod or
wire. In some processes, a separate wire or rod – a welding rod (a rod of filler material that is not an
electrode and should not be confused with rod-shaped electrodes used in shielded metal arc welding) may
be used to supply filler metal. Welding does not necessarily require the addition of filler metal from a
consumable electrode or welding rod. Fusion of two metal surfaces can be produced with only the high
temperature of the arc. Some welding process may employ automatic wire feed systems and be totally
automated. In other semi-automatic operations, the welder must advance arc along the work piece, but the
wire is fed automatically.

17
Many electric arc welding processes make use of a direct current (DC) rather than alternating current. In
any direct current arc, the specification of polarity can be very important. If the electrode is a cathode and is
negative (dcen), the AWS refers to this as direct current straight polarity, or DCSP. If the welding electrode
is an anode or electrode positive (dcep), this is referred to as direct current reverse polarity (DCRP). In the
normal DCSP condition, the base metal being bombarded by the electrons is hotter than the electrode and
a deep, “penetrating” weld is produced. In contrast, DCRP produces a wider, shallower weld and the
electrode is hotter than the base metal. An ac arc will produce intermediate characteristics of DCRP and
DCSP welds since the arc polarity reverses every half cycle.

Welding AWS Designation Electrode Shielding Gases Remarks

Process

Carbon Arc CAW Carbon Electrode None Earliest

Welding Process. No
longer
commonly
employed in
industry

Carbon-arc welding (CAW) and carbon-arc (CAC) were the first arc welding and cutting processes. They

were developed near the close of the nineteenth century. These processes, although uncommon today,

are still employed in some special applications. A carbon electrode is typically the cathode and the base

metal is the anode. The intense heat of the arc melts the surfaces of the base metal to be joined. Often a

separate filler rod (the “welding rod”) is also used. In air-carbon-arc cutting (AAC), a high-pressure stream

of air at about 550 kPa blows away the molten metal through the kerf. The kerf is the slot cut in a metal

plate. The carbon electrodes are generally coated with copper to increase current capacity. AAC is one of

the more common arc cutting and gouging processes.

18
 Welding AWS Designation Electrode Shielding Gases Remarks
Process

Shielded Metal SMAW Consumable Stick Some shielding. Gas Common in

Arc Welding Electrode produced from the field and
(also known as welding rod. in small
“stick” welding) shops.
Produces
excessive
fumes.

Shielded-Metal-Arc Welding (SMAW) evolved from CAW when it was realized that a consumable electrode
– eliminating any need for a welding rod, could replace the carbon electrode. To reduce oxidation, the
electrode wire is coated with materials such as fluorides, oxides, carbonates, metal alloys, and binders to
stabilize the arc, to produce gases to shield the weld from oxygen and atmospheric contaminants, and to
introduce metal alloy to weld. SMAW is used principally with nickel and ferrous base metals. The
electrodes are typically 2 to 6mm (3/32 to ¼ inch) in diameter and are controlled by the welder in a clamp-
type electrode holder. Because of the rod shape of the electrode, SMAW is sometimes referred to as stick
welding.

The arc is struck by the welder when he briefly touches the electrode to the work piece and withdraws it

to an optimum gap. A very experienced welder can advance the rod and maintain an optimum arc gap

that produces a reasonably stable optical emission for short periods of time. But the optical radiation

emitted from this type of arc when most welders hold the stick will fluctuate substantially with time.

The principal advantage of SMAW is its cost and simplicity. Most arc welding machines found in home and
garage use are SMAW machines. Such units often sell for less than $200, although portable, industrial units
sell for more than $1,000. The size of the power supplies and cost make SMAW machines the favored units
used in pipeline construction, heavy construction, and shipbuilding. Most small power supplies operate
between 30A and 250A, although some heavy units may have capabilities of 600A. A shielded metal arc
may also be used for cutting at higher currents and slower speeds to permit melt-through. It is then referred
to a shielded metal arc cutting (SMAC). This is not a standard cutting process.

Welding AWS Designation Electrode Shielding Gases Remarks

Process

Gas Tungsten GTAW Non Consumable Argon most common Relatively

Arc Welding Tungsten Electrode gas. Helium used for

3
 penetrating welds clean process

During World War II a dramatically different type of welding process – originally called heliarc welding or
tungsten-inert-gas (TIG) welding – was developed. Now properly termed gas-tungsten-arc welding (GTAW),
this process was developed in the aircraft industry to permit effective welding of aluminum and magnesium
alloys. GTAW employs a non-consumable tungsten electrode and often a separate welding rod of filler
metal. The lack of any flux meant that slag did not have to be removed from the weld as is required in
SMAW.

An Inert gas shield is provided through a concentric gas nozzle surrounding the electrode. Because of the
requirements for compressed gas, a specialized welding gun, and more sophisticated current regulation
equipment, this process is found most often in heavy industry. Helium was used predominantly at first
(hence the term heliarc), whereas argon is now far more common as the inert gas. Helium, because of its
higher ionization temperature, produces a hotter arc and is still preferred (despite it’s high cost) for
specialized applications where a deeper penetrating arc is desired. Regardless of the shielding gas used,
GTAW is generally regarded as the process which produces the highest quality conventional weld.

Gas tungsten arc cutting (GTAC) would probably use the same arc producing equipment as GTAW, but is
run to permit burn-through of the bas metal. As in other arc cutting (AC) procedures, the arc is largely
buried in the base metal and the optical radiation emitted is thereby greatly reduced. GTAC is not
commonly used AC Processes

Welding AWS Designation Electrode Shielding Gases Remarks

Process

Gas Metal Arc Consumable Wire Argon, CO2, and Metal flows
Welding GMAW Electrode CO2/Ar are typical across arc from
electrode to
work piece.

Gas-Metal-Arc welding (GMAW) is one form of metal-inert-gas (MIG) welding. GMAW was an outgrowth of
the development of GTAW. As in the GTAW process, an inert shielding gas such as argon, helium, or CO 2

4
enshrouds the arc, but the GMAW electrode is consumable wire. GMAW is a much faster process than
GTAW.

Since metal is being transferred from the electrode and deposited in the weld, the nature of this transfer can
greatly affect the arc characteristics and resultant weld. Specialized GMAW current modes are used to
achieve specific forms of metal transfer. Spray transfer GMAW with an argon-shielded, high-current, DCRP
arc produces a fine “spray” of metal droplets at rates of hundreds per second. In spray transfer there is little
apparent “sputtering” of the arc because of the smooth transfer of metal. This results in a rather stable
emission of optical radiation. In the pulsed arc (GMAW-P), the spray of droplets is produced primarily during
high-current pulses, although a steady arc sustaining current exists between pulses. In the buried arc
process, CO2-rich gas mixtures are used to inhibit spray transfer and crater in the steel with lest optical
radiation emitted. The short-circuiting arc (GMAW-S) process for welding thin sections also produces a train
of high-current pulses resulting from a controlled short at least every 20 ms.

The various GMAW variations probably account for the largest volume of industrial welding. This is surely

true if one includes the sister process, FCAW. These two types of MIG welding are considered the most

effective of filler-type welding methods.

Gas metal arc cutting (GMAC) uses the GMAW welding machine to achieve burn-through, but this is not a
common AC process.

Welding AWS Designation Electrode Shielding Gases Remarks

Process

Flux Core Arc FCAW Consumable Wire External (e.g. CO2, or Variation of
Welding Electrode with Flux Flux generated gas) GMAW
Core

Flux-cored-arc welding (FCAW) is a variation of metal-inert-gas (MIG) welding where the electrode wire is
replaced by cored wire – a fine electrode tubing filled with flux. The flux may produce the shielding gas (self
shielding); however, external gas shielding (often CO2), as in the GMAW arrangement is frequently used.
The power supplies, guns, and electrode feed rolls are essentially the same as those used in GMAW.
Cored electrodes are most commonly 1.6mm (1/16 inch) in diameter, although electrode diameters of 2.4
mm (3/32 inch) are also used.

5
 Welding AWS Designation Electrode Shielding Gases Remarks
Process

Plasma Arc PAW Non Consumable Argon and others Three principal
Welding Tungsten Electrode Modes; Melt-in,
Keyhole, and
needle arc.

A more recently developed welding process – plasma arc welding (PAW) – resulted from progress in
plasma physics during the 1950’s and 1960’s. Although requiring more sophisticated and more costly
equipment, PAW features a more stable, more concentrated arc that permits faster welds of higher quality
than most competing processes. A pilot arc of argon introduced through an orifice inside a nozzle assembly
reaches very high temperatures and ionizes a blanket of shielding gases to produce a second, larger
plasma. The larger plasma forms the tight, “transferred” welding arc that exists between a tungsten
electrode and the base metal. Welding rod is sometimes used in the GTAW process.

PAW techniques are generally of three variations; the melt-in-mode, the keyhole mode for a very
penetrating arc, and the needle arc for low currents. The PAW arc, although rich in ultraviolet emission
because of its high temperature, does not always emit high levels of optical radiation since it is often buried
to a considerable extent in the base metal.

Plasma arc cutting (PAC) is a common AC process. At high currents of 600 to 1000 A, PAC is used to cut

very thick plate steel in excess of 2 cm in thickness. The elongated high-velocity jet arc that can be

achieved in specialized plasma arc cutting nozzles makes this possible. The high-velocity jet forces molten

metal through the kerf. Water injection is used to cool the work piece. Sometimes UV absorbing dyes are

added to this water. The high noise levels created by the plasma arc have lead to the development of a

water muffler that is a shield of flowing water that enshrouds the arc. The PAC power supply can be quite

expensive due to the high open-circuit voltages required to maintain a high arc voltage. Gas mixtures for

PAC make use of argon with hydrogen or hydrogen with nitrogen. As in other AC processes the arc is

largely occluded from view by the base metal.

6
Plasma arc spraying (PSP) – a surface treatment process – is one process where the intense plasma arc
may be completely exposed. This results in exceedingly high levels of ultraviolet and visible radiation in the
vicinity of this equipment.

7
Welding Hazard Index (WHI)* TABLE

Process Shielding Gas Base Metal WHI (UV)

GTAW He ms 85

GTAW Ar ms 6.3

GTAW Ar Al 3.3

GTAW He Al 6.7

GMAW CO2 ms 15

FCAW CO2 ms 6

GMAW Ar ms 60

GMAW Ar Al 70

GMAW He Al 40

SMAWº N/A ms 130

PAW He ms 140

PAW Ar, H ms 50

* Representative values based upon actual measurements with good local exhaust ventilation.
 Arc is not exposed, but largely occluded by the base metal.
º Varies greatly with welding rod. An extreme case is given.

EXAMPLE: Find t max for a gas-tungsten arc (GTAW) operating at 150 A on aluminum (Argon shielding
gas) as viewed at 60 feet. From the Table above the WHI in 3.3. The distance, 60 feet ( 0.3048 m/ft ), is
18.3 m or 1830 cm. Hence by equation 24-5:
t
max = (1000)(1830)²/(3.3)(150) ²
= 4.5 X 104s
= 750 minutes
= 12.5 hours

Obviously there is no UV hazard at this point, but a separate calculation would be required to show if
lengthy staring at the arc could be safe.

6
7
At the US Army Environment Hygiene Agency, a welding hazard index (WHI) was developed for different conditions that permit the calculation of a maximal safe
duration for bystanders at a given distance from the arc when shields are not feasible (as occasionally occurs in some industrial production lines). This index,
however, is not necessary in most operations where the welder is located in a booth. The ultraviolet radiation emitted by an open welding arc normally appears to
increase approximately as the square of the arc current. Measured ultraviolet radiation from several types of welding processes permitted the development of a
welding hazard index for estimating maximum permissible exposure duration.
t
max = (1000) (r²)/(WHI)(1a²)
r = distance in centimeters
1
a = welding amperage
t
max = maximum viewing time in seconds
(conversion factor feet to cm is feet X 100 X .3048)

(TMAX) SAFE TIME EXPOSURE TO ARC WELDING RADIATION AT VARIOUS DISTANCES DURING ANY DAILY WORK PERIOD (SHIFT)

Process Current
(AWS Abbrev.) (A) Base Metal 5 Feet 10 Feet 20 Feet 30 Feet 40 Feet 50 Feet
GTAW (He) 100 ms 27 sec. 1.8 min. 7.3 min. 14.9 min. 29.1 min. 45.6 min.
GTAW (He) 250 ms 4.4 sec. 17.5 sec. 1.9 min 2.6 min. 4.6 min. 7.3 min.
GTAW (Ar) 100 ms 6.2 min. 24.6 min. 1.6 hrs. 3.7 hrs. 6.6 hrs. 10.2 hrs.
GTAW (Ar) 250 ms 59 sec. 3.9 min. 15.7 min. 35.4 min. 1 hr. 1.6 hrs.
GTAW (Ar) 50 Al 47 min. 3.1 hrs. 12.5 hrs. 28.2 hrs. 50 hrs. 78.2 hrs.
GTAW (Ar) 100 Al 12 min. 47 min. 3.1 hrs. 7 hrs. 12.5 hrs. 19.6 hrs.
GMAW (Ar) 150 Al 15 sec. 59 sec. 3.9 min. 8.9 min. 15.7 min. 24.5 min.
GMAW (Ar) 300 Al 3.7 sec. 14.7 sec. 59 sec. 2.2 min. 3.9 min. 6.2 min.
GMAW (CO2) 90 ms 3.2 min. 12.8 min. 51 min. 1.9 hrs. 3.4 hrs. 5.3 hrs.
GMAW (CO2) 150 ms 1.2 min. 4.6 min. 18.4 min. 41.3 min. 1.2 hrs. 1.9 hrs.
GMAW (CO2) 350 ms 12.6 sec. 50.6 sec. 3.4 min. 7.6 min. 13.5 min. 21 min.
SMAW 100 ms 17.9 sec. 1.2 min. 4.8 min. 10.7 min. 19 min. 30 min.
SMAW 200 ms 4.5 sec. 18 sec. 1.2 min. 2.7 min. 4.8 min. 7.5 min
PAW (Ar) 200 ms 11.6 sec. 47 sec. 3.1 min. 7 min. 12.4 min. 19.4 min.
PAW (Ar) 260 ms 7 sec. 27 sec. 1.8 min. 4.1 min. 7.3 min. 11.5 min.
7
GAS WELDING

Oxy-Acetylene welding

In gas welding, a gas flame is used to melt the edges of metals to be joined. The flame is
produced at the tip of welding torch. Oxygen and Acetylene are the gases used to produce
the welding flame. The flame will only melt the metal. A flux is used during welting to
prevent oxidations and to remove impurities. Metals 2mm to 50mm thick are welded by gas
welding. The temperature of oxyacetylene flame is about 3200°c. Fig 3 shows Gas welding
equipments.

Gas Welding Equipment

1. Gas Cylinders

Pressure

Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2

Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2

2. Regulators

Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2

Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2

Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the work pieces welded.

3. Pressure Gauges

4. Hoses

5. Welding torch

6. Check valve

7. Non return valve

 Fig- 4 Gas Welding Equipment

TYPES OF FLAMES

• When acetylene is burned in air, it produces a yellow sooty flame, which is not enough
for welding applications
• Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white inner area (Feather)
surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is called Carburizing flame (30000c)
• This flames are used for hardening the surfaces
• Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded by the transparent
blue envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a balance of fuel gas and oxygen)
• Most commonly used flame because it has temperature about 32000c
• Used for welding steels, aluminium, copper and cast iron
• If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more pointed, while the
envelope becomes shorter and more fierce is called Oxidizing flame
• Has the highest temperature about 34000c
• Used for welding brass and brazing operation
Fig 4 shows the types of flames.
 Fig 5 Types of Gas Flames

Advantages

1. Equipment has versatile

2. Same equipment can be used for oxy acetylene cutting and brazing by varying the torch
size
3. Heat can controlled easily
Disadvantages

1. Slower process
2. Risk is involved in handling gas cylinders

GAS CUTTING

• Ferrous metal is heated in to red hot condition and a jet of pure oxygen is projected
onto the surface, which rapidly oxidizes
• Oxides having lower melting point than the metal, melt and are blown away by the force
of the jet, to make a cut
• Fast and efficient method of cutting steel to a high degree of accuracy
• Torch is different from welding
• Cutting torch has preheat orifice and one central orifice for oxygen jet
• PIERCING and GOUGING are two important operations
• Piercing, used to cut a hole at the centre of the plate or away from the edge of the plate
• Gouging, to cut a groove into the steel surface
 Fig 6 Automatic Gas Cutting

Fig 7 Manual Gas Cutting

Weld joint

There are 5 basic joint types in welding

• Butt joint: Two materials are in the same plane, joined from the edges.
• Corner joint:The corners of two materials form a right angle and joined.
• Lap joint: Two parts overlaps.
• Tee joint: One part is perpendicular to the other, making a T shape.
• Edge joint: Edges of the two materials joined.

Types of weld

1. Fillet weld: Used in T joints,corner joints, lap joints.

2. Groove weld:Used in butt joints.
3. Plug weld: Used in lap joints.
4. Slot weld: Used in lap joints.
5. Spot weld: Used in lap joints.
6. Seam weld: Used in lap joints.
7. Flange weld:Used in edge joints.
8. Surfacing weld:Not a joining process, it is used to increase the thickness of the plate, or
provide a protective coating on the surface.
 Fig 8 Types of Weld Joints

Weldability is the ease of a material or a combination of materials to be welded under

fabrication conditions into a specific, suitably designed structure, and to perform
satisfactorily in the intended service

Brazing and Soldering

Brazing
 It is a low temperature joining process. It is performed at temperatures above 840º F
and it generally affords strengths comparable to those of the metal which it joins. It is low
temperature in that it is done below the melting point of the base metal. It is achieved by
diffusion without fusion (melting) of the base

Depending upon the method of heating, brazing can be classified as

1. Torch brazing
2. Dip brazing
3. Furnace brazing
4. Induction brazing

Fig 9 Brazing

Advantages

 Dissimilar metals which canot be welded can be joined by brazing

 Very thin metals can be joined
  Metals with different thickness can be joined easily
 In brazing thermal stresses are not produced in the work piece. Hence there is
no distortion
 Using this process, carbides tips are brazed on the steel tool holders
Disadvantages

 Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding

 Joint preparation cost is more
 Can be used for thin sheet metal sections

Soldering

It is a low temperature joining process. It is performed at temperatures below 840ºF

for joining.

Soldering is used for,

• Sealing, as in automotive radiators or tin cans

• Electrical Connections
• Joining thermally sensitive components
• Joining dissimilar metals

Fig 9 Soldering
Worm & gear

COMMON APPLICATIONS: Worm and worm gear sets are used in many, everyday products including: electrical
mixers, hubometers, right angle speed reducers and medical equipment

now that you have an understanding of two of the more common types of gears – spur gears and helical
gears – let’s learn about two additional and highly versatile types of gears that are used to transmit motion
and power at various speeds and speed ratios: worms and worm gears.
A worm is a gear with one or more cylindrical, screw-like threads (also referred to as “starts”) and a face
width that is usually greater than its diameter. A worm has a center hole (bore) for mounting the worm on a
shaft.
Worm gears, like worms, also are cylindrical and bored for mounting on a shaft. However, unlike a worm, a
worm gear’s diameter is usually much larger than the width of its face.
Note: Worm gears differ from spur gears in that their teeth are somewhat different in shape and are always
formed on an angle to the hole (axis) in order to mate with worms.
In order to transmit motion and power at various speeds and speed ratios, worms and worm gears work in
sets, rotating on shafts at right angles to one another. The worm usually drives the worm gear. Accordingly,
the worm gear is usually the driven member.

Important: In worms and worm gear sets, both the worm and worm gear are of the same hand. Right-hand
sets are considered standard. As a result, right-hand sets will always be furnished unless otherwise
specified.

WHEN TO USE WORMS AND WORM GEARS

Worms and worm gears provide solutions to a wide range of drive problems, particularly when the following
factors need to be considered:
• High ratio speed reduction • Space limitations • Right angle shafts • Non-intersecting shafts
Now that you have been introduced to worms and worm gears, let’s take a closer look at each, starting with
the worm.

WORMS - IDENTIFYING THE NUMBER OF THREADS

Boston worms are cut with single, double, triple or quadruple threads. To determine the number of threads
on a worm, look at an end view so you can see the “start” of each thread. One start means that you have a
single thread, two starts a double thread, three starts a triple thread, and four starts, a quadruple thread.

DIAMETRAL AND CIRCULAR PITCH

As you learned from our lessons on spur gears and helical gears, diametral pitch and circular pitch are two
systems used to designate the size of a gear’s teeth. Boston Gear stock worms and (worm gears) are listed
in the Gears catalog according to their diametral pitch.

Diametral pitch (also referred to as pitch) is the relationship between the number of teeth in a gear and each
inch of the gear’s pitch diameter (PD). For example, a worm gear with 16 teeth (T) and a one-inch pitch
diameter is a 16-diametral pitch (DP) gear.
DP = T ÷ PD or DP = 16 teeth ÷ 1 PD = 16 DP
Note: Diametral pitch can be measured using a gear gauge.
Important: Diametral pitch can also be determined using the following formula: DP = 3.1416 ÷ Circular
(linear) pitch

CIRCULAR (LINEAR) PITCH

With a worm, circular (also referred to as linear) pitch is a distance measured along the pitch line of the gear.
It can be determined by measuring – with an ordinary scale – the distance between any two corresponding
points of adjacent threads parallel to the axis. (See Figure 4.1)

With a worm gear, circular pitch is a distance measured along the pitch circle of the gear. It can be
determined by measuring – with an ordinary scale – the distance between any two corresponding points of
adjacent teeth. As noted above, this measurement should be taken on the pitch circle, which is
approximately halfway down a tooth. (See Figure 4.2)
WORMS–THREAD DIMENSIONS
The dimensions of a worm thread are important because they provide valuable information when
determining a customer’s needs.
As noted earlier, a worm thread is the part of the worm that wraps (spirals) around the cylindrical base of the
worm, similar to the way the threads of a screw are configured.
The following terms are used when describing the dimensions of a worm-thread.
• Addendum – the part of the thread from the pitch line of the worm to the outer edge of the thread. (See
Figure 4.3A)
• Dedendum – the part of the thread from the pitch line of the worm to the bottom of the thread. The
dedendum is equal to one addendum plus the working clearance (defined below). (See Figure 4.3A)
• Working Clearance – the distance from the working depth (defined below) to the bottom of the thread. (See
Figure 4.3A)
• Working Depth – the space occupied by the mating worm gear tooth. It is equal to twice the addendum.
(See Figure 4.3A)
• Whole Depth – the distance from the bottom of the thread to its outside diameter.

WORMS–PITCH DIAMETER
The pitch diameter of a worm is the diameter of the pitch circle (the “imaginary” circle on which the worm and
worm gear mesh). There is no fixed method for determining the pitch diameter of a worm. (See Figure 4.3B)
Important: Pitch diameters can vary, but sound engineering practice dictates that they be as small as
possible for the most efficient performance. Why? A small pitch diameter reduces the sliding velocity and,
therefore, the efficiency of the worm.
WORMS–BASIC FORMULAS
The following formulas will be useful as you determine your customers’ needs with regard to the selection of
the correct worms.
• Diametral pitch – 3.1416 ÷ circular (linear) pitch • Circular (linear) pitch = 3.1416 ÷ diametral pitch • Pitch
diameter = outside diameter – 2 (addendum) • Bottom diameter = outside diameter – 2 (whole depth) •
Outside diameter = pitch diameter + 2 (addendum)
WORMS–HAND
Boston worms and worm gears are manufactured with rightor left-hand threads and teeth. The hand of a
worm or worm gear may be determined by noting the direction in which the threads or teeth lean when the
worm or worm gear is held with the hole facing up.
In a worm gear set, the worm and gear must have the same hand, pitch, number of threads, and tooth
dimensions. They also must have the same pressure angle and lead angle (terms you will learn about
below).
Reminder: Right hand worm and worm gear sets are considered standard. As a result, right-hand sets will
always be furnished unless otherwise specified.

WORMS–LEADS AND LEAD ANGLE

The lead of a worm is the distance any one thread advances in a single revolution. The lead may be
calculated using either one of the following formulas:
• Lead = (Number of worm threads x 3.1416) ÷ diametral pitch • Lead = Circular pitch x number of worm
threads The following information also will come in handy when
determining the lead of a worm: • The lead and circular (linear) pitch are equal on
single-thread worms. • The lead is twice the circular pitch on double-thread worms. • The lead is three times
the circular pitch on triple-
thread worms. • The lead is four times the circular pitch on quadruple- thread worms.
WORMS–LEAD ANGLES
The lead angle of a worm is the angle formed by the worm thread and a line perpendicular to the worm axis.

LEAD ANGLE VS. EFFICIENCY

The lead angle is an important factor in determining the efficiency of a worm and worm gear set. The
efficiency increases as the lead angle increases.
For a given pitch, the lead angle is controlled principally by two factors: (1) the number of threads and (2) the
pitch diameter of the worm. The lead angle can be determined from the lead and pitch diameter by using a
formula in concert with a table of cotangents (as follows).
(Pitch diameter of worm x 3.1416) ÷ lead = Cotangent of lead angle (See Figure 4.4)
Important: The mating worm and worm gear must have the same: • Pitch
• Number of threads • Tooth dimensions • Hand • Pressure angle • Lead angle
WORMS–PRESSURE ANGLE
The pressure angle is the angle at which a force is transmitted from the worm thread to the worm gear tooth.
It determines the relative thickness of the base and top of the thread.

Keypoints
• Worm gears are used only on 90 degree non-intersecting shafts
• Worm gears are excellent when higher ratios are needed
• Worm gears become more efficient after a run in period
• Most worm gear sets are available both right and left hand; right hand is considered standard
• Boston Gear worm gear sets can be selected by ratio

RC IR TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

This is the RC IR based Transmitter and Receiver module, which can facilitate the remote
applications

RC IR FEATURES
 Complete super regenerative RC IR Transmitter & Receiver Module operating @
433.92 MHz
 Compact in Size & Model
 No External Components & No tuning is required
 High Performance SAW based architecture with a maximum range of 100 feet @ 4800
bps data rate
 Low Power Consumption

 RC IR Receiver Module - 433.92 MHz (FT-COM-RX2), Bandwidth–4 MHz

 RC IR Transmitter Module -433.92 MHz (FT-COM-TX2), Bandwidth – 4 MHz

1.1 Communication

Communication is a process that allows exchange information by several

methods. Communication happens at many levels, in many different ways, and for most
beings, as well as certain machines.

1.2 Communication Types

1. Wired Communication
2. Telephone line.
3. Wired LAN.
4. Wireless communication
5. Mobile.
6. Broadcasting.
1.3 Wireless Communication
Wireless operations permits services, such as long range communications, that are
impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in the
telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g., radio transmitters
and receivers, remote controls, computer networks, network terminals, etc.) which use some
form of energy (e.g. radio frequency (RF), infrared light, laser light, visible light, acoustic energy,
etc.) to transfer information without the use of wires. Information is transferred in this manner
over both short and long distances.

Wireless Communication may be via:

 Radio frequency communication,

 Microwave communication, for example long-range line-of-sight via highly directional
antennas, or short-range communication, or
 Infrared (IR) short-range communication, for example from remote controls or via IRDA.

Applications may involve point-to-point communication, point-to-multipoint communication,

broadcasting, cellular networks and other wireless networks.

The term "wireless" should not be confused with the term "cordless” which is generally used to
refer to powered electrical or electronic devices that are able to operate from a portable power
source (e.g., a battery pack) without any cable or cord to limit the mobility of the cordless device
through a connection to the mains power supply. Some cordless devices, such as cordless
telephones, are also wireless in the sense that information is transferred from the cordless
telephone to the telephone's base unit via some type of wireless communications link.This has
caused some disparity in the usage of the term "cordless", for example in Digital Enhanced
Cordless Telecommunications.

1.4 Radio Frequency Technology

Radio Frequency (RC - IR) in the range of 3 Hz and 30 GHz.

RC - IR communications are typically support 1200 to 9600 baud. Recently developed

modulation schemes and spread spectrum technologies are achieving up to 19,200 baud.
1.5 RC - IR technology evolution challenges

 Higher frequency utilization

 Higher bit rates and thus larger BW’s
 RC - IR is affected by absorption, multi path interference, EMI etc.
 RC - IR is affected by material like steel, wall, window glass etc.

Radio based on frequency convertible platforms. Flexible and scalable modular architecture.
Increased integration to fit new standards and frequencies in the same cabinet.

Co-siting capabilities with other standards requires high performance transmitters and receivers.

1.6 RC - IR Network Configurations

 System Identification
 Should be unique
 Channel / Frequency
 Should have minimal interference with other systems
 Data Rates

1.7 Radio Frequency Deployment Options

 Two telemetry redundancy options for RC - IR use are space diversity and frequency
diversity
 Space diversity uses the same frequency to talk to one of two towers.
 Frequency diversity uses two frequencies the two different towers.
 The frequency diversity option greatly increases the RTU availability while interference
immunity increases significantly.

1.8 RC - IR Application
  Tactical radios
HF, VHF, UHF, multi-band

Man pack, handheld, vehicular mount

And accessories

 Cryptographic modules
 Integrated long-range high frequency communications systems
Shipboard and fixed-sites.

2.2 IR Transmitter & Receiver

To monitor the density of the traffic, we will be keeping a few sets of IR

transmitter & receiver sensors on the side of the roads. On side IR transmitter will
be placed & right opposite to the IR transmitter, an IR receiver will be kept. This set
of IR transmitter & receiver will be kept on roads at different intervals.

The IR transmitters are connected to supply, so that they will transmit high signal
all the time. The IR receivers are connected to the comparator circuit, to get digital
signals. A low power operational amplifier LM324 IC has been used to develop a
comparator circuit.

Two set of LM324 IC has been used in this project. The circuit diagram of the comparator
is shown below.
 +5V +5V

1
R3 R3 R3 R3
1K 10K 10K 1K

2
U 23 LM324
1

1
R x 1_1 1 14 R x 2_2
U 20 IR 1 OUT A OUT D IR 2 U 17

1
Tx 1 _ 1 R x 1_1 R x 2_2 Tx 2 _ 2

VR 2 2 A D
10K

-
2

2
2 13
+5V IN A- IN D -

3
3 12
4 IN A+ IN D + 11 +5V
+5V 5 V+ V- 10
IN B+ IN C +
6 9
IN B- IN C -

1
1

-
R3 R3
R3 R3 B C 10K 1K
1K 10K

2
R x 1_2 7 8 R x 2_1
OUT B OUT C
2

1
1

IR 2 U 17
U 17 IR 2 R x 2_1 Tx 2 _ 1
Tx 1 _ 2 R x 1_2

2
2

2.7 H-Bridge
How do we make a motor turn?
You take a battery; hook the positive side to one side of your DC motor. Then you
connect the negative side of the battery to the other motor lead. The motor spins forward.
If you swap the battery leads the motor spins in reverse.
Ok, that's basic. Now lets say you want a Micro Controller Unit (MCU) to control the
motor, how would you do it?
 Figure 2.11 Connections for clockwise rotation of motor

If you connect this circuit to a small hobby motor you can control the motor with a
processor (MCU, etc.) Applying a logical one, (+12 Volts in our example) to point A
causes the motor to turn forward. Applying a logical zero, (ground) causes the motor to
stop turning (to coast and stop).

Figure 2.12 Connections for anti clockwise rotation of motor

Hook the motor up in this fashion and the circuit turns the motor in reverse when
you apply a logical one (+12Volts) to point B. Apply a logical zero, which is usually a
ground, causes the motor to stop spinning.
 If you hook up these circuits you can only get the motor to stop or turn in one
direction, forward for the first circuit or reverse for the second circuit.
NOTE: If you connect up these relay circuits, remember to put a diode across the coil of
the relay. This will keep the spike voltage (back EMF), coming out of the coil of the relay,
from getting into the MCU and damaging it. The anode, which is the arrow side of the
diode, should connect to ground. The bar, which is the Cathode side of the diode, should
connect to the coil where the MCU connects to the relay.

You can also pulse the motor control line, (A or B) on and off. This powers the
motor in short burst and gets varying degrees of torque, which usually translates into
variable motor speed.

But if you want to be able to control the motor in both forward and reverse with a
processor, you will need more circuitry. You will need an H-Bridge.

An H-bridge is an electronic circuit which enables a voltage to be applied across a

load in either direction. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to
allow DC motors to run forwards and backwards. H-bridges are available as integrated
circuits, or can be built from discrete components.

Let's start with the name, H-bridge. Sometimes called a "full bridge" the H-bridge
is so named because it has four switching elements at the "corners" of the H and the
motor forms the cross bar. The basic bridge is shown in the figure to the right.

Figure 2.13 Basic H-bridge

 The key fact to note is that there are, in theory, four switching elements within the
bridge. These four elements are often called, high side left, high side right, low side right,
and low side left (when traversing in clockwise order).

The "high side drivers" are the relays that control the positive voltage to the
motor. This is called sourcing current. he "low side drivers" are the relays that control the
negative voltage to sink current to the motor. "Sinking current" is the term for connecting
the circuit to the negative side of the power supply, which is usually ground.

Figure 2.14 Schematic diagram of H-Bridge using relay

The switches are turned on in pairs, either high left and lower right, or lower left and high
right, but never both switches on the same "side" of the bridge. If both switches on one
side of a bridge are turned on it creates a short circuit between the battery plus and battery
minus terminals. This phenomena is called shoot through in the Switch-Mode Power
Supply (SMPS) literature. If the bridge is sufficiently powerful it will absorb that
load and your batteries will simply drain quickly. Usually however the switches in
question melt.

To power the motor, you turn on two switches that are diagonally opposed. In the
picture to the right, imagine that the high side left and low side right switches are turned
on.

Figure 2.15 Working of basic bridge

Then for reverse you turn on the upper right and lower left circuits and power
flows through the motor in reverse.

2.7.1 Semiconductor H-Bridges

We can better control our motor by using transistors or Field Effect Transistors
(FETs).Most of what we have discussed about the relays H-Bridge is true of these
circuits. You don't need diodes that were across the relay coils now. You should use
diodes across your transistors though. See the following diagram showing how they are
connected.
These solid state circuits provide power and ground connections to the motor, as
did the relay circuits. The high side drivers need to be current "sources" which is what
PNP transistors and P-channel FETs are good at. The low side drivers need to be current
"sinks" which is what NPN transistors and N-channel FETs are good at.
 Figure 2.16 Semiconductor H-Bridge

If you turn on the two upper circuits, the motor resists turning, so you effectively
have a breaking mechanism. The same is true if you turn on both of the lower circuits.
This is because the motor is a generator and when it turns it generates a voltage. If the
terminals of the motor are connected (shorted), then the voltage generated counteracts the
motors freedom to turn. It is as if you are applying a similar but opposite voltage to the
one generated by the motor being turned. Vis-ã-vis, it acts like a brake.

To be nice to your transistors, you should add diodes to catch the back voltage that
is generated by the motor's coil when the power is switched on and off. This flyback
voltage can be many times higher than the supply voltage! If you don't use diodes, you
could burn out your transistors.
 Figure 2.17 Semiconductor H-Bridge using diodes

Transistors, being a semiconductor device, will have some resistance, which

causes them to get hot when conducting much current. This is called not being able to
sink or source very much power, i.e.: Not able to provide much current from ground or
from plus voltage.

Mosfets are much more efficient, they can provide much more current and not get
as hot. They usually have the flyback diodes built in so you don't need the diodes
anymore. This helps guard against flyback voltage frying your MCU.

To use Mosfets in an H-Bridge, you need P-Channel Mosfets on top because they
can "source" power, and N-Channel Mosfets on the bottom because then can "sink"
power. N-Channel Mosfets are much cheaper than P-Channel Mosfets, but N-Channel
Mosfets used to source power require about 7 volts more than the supply voltage, to turn
on. As a result, some people manage to use N-Channel Mosfets, on top of the H-Bridge,
by using cleaver circuits to overcome the breakdown voltage.

It is important that the four quadrants of the H-Bridge circuits be turned on and
off properly. When there is a path between the positive and ground side of the H-Bridge,
other than through the motor, a condition exists called "shoot through". This is basically a
direct short of the power supply and can cause semiconductors to become ballistic, in
circuits with large currents flowing.

There are H-bridge chips available that are much easier, and safer, to use than
designing your own H-Bridge circuit.
2.7.2 H-Bridge devices
The L 293 has 2 H-Bridges, can provide about 1 amp to each and occasional peak
loads to 2 amps. Motors typically controlled with this controller are near the size of a 35
mm film plastic canister.

Figure 2.18 H-Bridge device

The L298 has 2 h-bridges on board, can handle 1amp and peak current draws to
about 3amps. You often see motors between the size a of 35 mm film plastic canister and
a coke can, driven by this type H-Bridge. The LMD18200 has one h-bridge on board, can
handle about 2 or 3 amps and can handle a peak of about 6 amps. This H-Bridge chip can
usually handle an average motor about the size of a coke. There are several more
commercially designed H-Bridge chips as well.

2.8 DC Motors

Electric motors are everywhere! In your house, almost every mechanical

movement that you see around you is caused by an AC (alternating current) or DC (direct
current) electric motor. Let's start by looking at the overall plan of a simple two-pole DC
electric motor. A simple motor has six parts, as shown in the diagram below:
 Armature or rotor
 Commutator
 Brushes
 Axle
 Field magnet
 DC power supply of some sort
 An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: A motor uses magnets to
create motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental
law of all magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel. So if you have two bar magnets with
their ends marked "north" and "south," then the north end of one magnet will attract the
south end of the other. On the other hand, the north end of one magnet will repel the north
end of the other (and similarly, south will repel south). Inside an electric motor, these
attracting and repelling forces create rotational motion.

Figure 2.19 Principle of working of motor

In the above diagram, you can see two magnets in the motor: The armature (or
rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent magnet (the field
magnet could be an electromagnet as well, but in most small motors it isn't in order to
save power).

To understand how an electric motor works, the key is to understand how the
electromagnet works. (See How Electromagnets Work for complete details.)

An electromagnet is the basis of an electric motor. You can understand how things
work in the motor by imagining the following scenario. Say that you created a simple
electromagnet by wrapping 100 loops of wire around a nail and connecting it to a battery.
The nail would become a magnet and have a north and south pole while the battery is
connected.
 Now say that you take your nail electromagnet, run an axle through the middle of
it and suspend it in the middle of a horseshoe magnet as shown in the figure below. If you
were to attach a battery to the electromagnet so that the north end of the nail appeared as
shown, the basic law of magnetism tells you what would happen: The north end of the
electromagnet would be repelled from the north end of the horseshoe magnet and
attracted to the south end of the horseshoe magnet. The south end of the electromagnet
would be repelled in a similar way. The nail would move about half a turn and then stop
in the position shown.

Figure 2.20 Electromagnet in Horse

shoe magnet

You can see that this half-turn of motion is simply due to the way magnets
naturally attract and repel one another. The key to an electric motor is to then go one step
further so that, at the moment that this half-turn of motion completes, the field of the
electromagnet flips. The flip causes the electromagnet to complete another half-turn of
motion. You flip the magnetic field just by changing the direction of the electrons flowing
in the wire (you do that by flipping the battery over). If the field of the electromagnet
were flipped at precisely the right moment at the end of each half-turn of motion, the
electric motor would spin freely.

2.8.1 Armature, Commutator and Brushes

Consider the image shown below. The armature takes the place of the nail in an
electric motor. The armature is an electromagnet made by coiling thin wire around two or
more poles of a metal core.
 Figure 2.21 Armature

The armature has an axle, and the commutator is attached to the axle. In the
diagram to the right, you can see three different views of the same armature: front, side
and end-on. In the end-on view, the winding is eliminated to make the commutator more
obvious. You can see that the commutator is simply a pair of plates attached to the axle.
These plates provide the two connections for the coil of the electromagnet.

Figure 2.22 Brushes and commutator

The "flipping the electric field" part of an electric motor is accomplished by two
parts: the commutator and the brushes.
 Figure 2.22 shows how the commutator and brushes work together to let current
flow to the electromagnet, and also to flip the direction that the electrons are flowing at
just the right moment. The contacts of the commutator are attached to the axle of the
electromagnet, so they spin with the magnet. The brushes are just two pieces of springy
metal or carbon that make contact with the contacts of the commutator.

2.8.2 Parts of motor put together

When you put all of these parts together, what you have is a complete electric
motor:

Figure 2.23 Commutator action

In this figure, the armature winding has been left out so that it is easier to see the
commutator in action. The key thing to notice is that as the armature passes through the
horizontal position, the poles of the electromagnet flip. Because of the flip, the north pole
of the electromagnet is always above the axle so it can repel the field magnet's north pole
and attract the field magnet's south pole.

If you ever have the chance to take apart a small electric motor, you will find that
it contains the same pieces described above: two small permanent magnets, a
commutator, two brushes, and an electromagnet made by winding wire around a piece of
metal. Almost always, however, the rotor will have three poles rather than the two poles
as shown in this article. There are two good reasons for a motor to have three poles:
 It causes the motor to have better dynamics. In a two-pole motor, if the electromagnet is
at the balance point, perfectly horizontal between the two poles of the field magnet when
the motor starts, you can imagine the armature getting "stuck" there. That never happens
in a three-pole motor.
Each time the commutator hits the point where it flips the field in a two-pole
motor, the commutator shorts out the battery (directly connects the positive and negative
terminals) for a moment. This shorting wastes energy and drains the battery needlessly. A
three-pole motor solves this problem as well.

It is possible to have any number of poles, depending on the size of the motor and
the specific application it is being used in.

The motor being dissected here is a simple electric motor that you would typically
find in a toy:

Figure 2.24 Dissected motor

You can see that this is a small motor, about as big around as a dime. From the
outside you can see the steel can that forms the body of the motor, an axle, a nylon end
cap and two battery leads. If you hook the battery leads of the motor up to a flashlight
battery, the axle will spin. If you reverse the leads, it will spin in the opposite direction.
Here are two other views of the same motor. (Note the two slots in the side of the steel
can in the second shot -- their purpose will become more evident in a moment.)
 Figure 2.25 Nylon end caps

The nylon end cap is held in place by two tabs that are part of the steel can. By
bending the tabs back, you can free the end cap and remove it. Inside the end cap are the
motor's brushes. These brushes transfer power from the battery to the commutator as the
motor spins.

2.8.3 More Motor Parts

The axle holds the armature and the commutator. The armature is a set of
electromagnets, in this case three. The armature in this motor is a set of thin metal plates
stacked together, with thin copper wire coiled around each of the three poles of the
armature. The two ends of each wire (one wire for each pole) are soldered onto a
terminal, and then each of the three terminals is wired to one plate of the commutator.
The figures below make it easy to see the armature, terminals and commutator.
 Figure 2.26 Other motor parts

The final piece of any DC electric motor is the field magnet. The field magnet in this
motor is formed by the can itself plus two curved permanent magnets.

One end of each magnet rests against a slot cut into the can, and then the retaining clip
presses against the other ends of both magnets.

CHAPTER 4

MOTORS & ACTUATORS

4.1 Geared DC motor:

Geared DC motor is used for vertical to and fro motion of elevator. It accepts PWM
pulses from the microcontroller and accordingly maintains speed of the elevator.
 Fig 4.1 Geared DC Motor

4.1.1 Features of Geared DC motor:

 Bidirectional Shaft rotation

 Accepts PWM pulses for Speed Control

 Works with wide range of Voltages

 Gear ratio of 50:1 provides a good torque for easy effortless elevator motion.

 Rugged Design for more reliability.

4.1.2 Technical Specification:

 • Rated Voltage: 12V

• Operating Voltage Range: 3V-12V

• Current at No Load: 50mA

• Current at Full Load: 500mA

• Gear Ratio is 50 :1

• Motor Shaft Speed: 100 RPM

• Torque:2.7 KgF-cm

4.2 Interfacing Geared DC motor to ATMEGA 32:

ATMEGA32 controls Geared DC motor using L298 Chip. The L298 is a high current
dual full-bridge driver created to accept standard TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads such
as solenoids, relays, stepping and DC motors. Fast Recovery Diodes are used to suppress
electrical noise generated by Electric DC Motor.
 Fig.4.2.Bidirectional DC motor connected to L298 Chip.

4.3 L298 Dual Full Bridge Motor Driver:

Features of L298 are as follows:

 Two enable inputs are provided to enable or disable the device independently of the
input signals.

 Clockwise/Counter Clockwise motor control

 Accepts PWM pulses for Motor Speed Control

 Brake Function to reduce and Stop motor rotation

 Over current and Short Circuit Protection

 Thermal Shutdown

 Uses very few external passive components

 Fig 4.3 L298 Pin Diagram

4.3.1 L298 Truth Table:

 Table 4.1 L298 Truth Table

In order to activate L298, enable pin must be set to high. When C=H; D=L, the motor
rotates in clockwise direction (upward movement of elevator).When C=L; D=H, the motor
rotates in Clockwise direction (Downward movement of elevator). When C=D, motor stops
rotating (Elevator stops moving).

4.4 Servo Motor Actuator:

These Brake Actuators comprises of Precision servo motor operating at 5V and a brake
mechanism. ECU applies brake by providing PWM pulses to Servo motor. Servo motor angle
can be defined by using PWM signals. The advantage of servo motor is precision braking by
applying appropriate pressure to brake pads.
 Fig 4.4 RC Servo Motor

A Servo is a small device that has an output shaft. This shaft can be positioned to specific
angular positions by sending the servo a coded signal. As long as the coded signal exists on the
input line, the servo will maintain the angular position of the shaft. As the coded signal changes,
the angular position of the shaft changes.

4.4.1 Inside Servo Motor:

Fig 4.5 Servo Motor parts

Servo Motor has following parts

• High rpm DC Electric Motor

• Gears with an output shaft,

• Position-sensing mechanism(pot)

• DC Motor Driver

• Error Amplifier

4.4.2 Technical Specifications:

 • Operating Voltage : 5V

• Operating Current : 500mA max

• Speed : 60 RPM

• Torque : 5Kgf-cm

• Weight : 120 grams

4.4.3 Servo Motor connector details:

Fig 4.6 Servo Motor Pin Connector

Servo Motor has 3 wires. Each wire has unique color and represents following:

Red Wire is +5V, Brown is Ground and Orange wire is Signal

4.5 Servo Motor Block Diagram:

 Fig 4.7 Servo Motor Block Diagram

4.5.1 Pulse width to voltage converter:

 The control pulse is feed to a pulse width to voltage converter. This circuit charges a
capacitor at a constant rate while the pulse is high. When the pulse goes low the charge
on the capacitor is fed to the output via a suitable buffer amplifier. This essentially
produces a voltage related to the length of the applied pulse.

 The circuit is tuned to produce a useful voltage over a 1ms to 2ms period. The output
voltage is buffered and so does not decay significantly between control pulses so the
length of time between pulses is not critical.

4.5.2 Position Sensor:

 The current rotational position of the servo motor output shaft is read by a sensor. This is
normally a potentiometer (variable resistor) which produces a voltage that is related to
the absolute angle of the output shaft.

The position sensor then feeds its current value into the Error Amplifier which compares the
current position with the commanded position from the pulse width to voltage converter
4.5.3 Error Amplifier:

 The error amplifier is an operational amplifier with negative feedback. It will always try
to minimize the difference between the inverting (negative) and non-inverting (positive)
inputs by driving its output is the correct direction.

 The output of the error amplifier is either a negative or positive voltage representing the
difference between its inputs. The greater the difference the greater the voltage.

 The error amplifier output is used to drive the motor; If it is positive the motor will turn
in one direction, if negative the other. This allows the error amplifier to reduce the
difference between its inputs (thus closing the negative feedback loop) and so make the
servo go to the commanded position.

 The servo normally contains a single integrated circuit and a hand full of discreet
components to implement the entire control system.

4.6 Defining Angle for Servo Motor:

 Fig 4.8 Shaft position of Servo motor

The control wire (Orange) is used to communicate the angle. The angle is determined by
the duration of a pulse that is applied to the control wire. This is called Pulse Coded
Modulation. The servo expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (.02 seconds). The
length of the pulse will determine how far the motor turns. A 1.5 millisecond pulse, for
example, will make the motor turn to the 90 degree position (often called the neutral
position). If the pulse is shorter than 1.5 ms, then the motor will turn the shaft to closer to 0
degrees. If the pulse is longer than 1.5ms, the shaft turns closer to 180 degrees.

CHAPTER 5

RELAY DRIVERS & INDICATORS

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil
current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw
(changeover) switches.
5.1 SPDT (Single Pole Dual Through) relay:

Fig.5.1 – Typical SPDT relay

5.1.1 Relay Construction:

Relays are amazingly simple devices. There are four parts in every relay:

 Electromagnet

 Armature that can be attracted by electromagnet

 Spring

 Set of electrical contacts

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from
the first.

For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains
circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is
magnetic and mechanical.

The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it
can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips)
cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the
larger value required for the relay coil.

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts,
for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. Most relays are
designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins providing you take care
to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.

The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious
and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when
they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage
you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil.
 The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see
a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves
the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind
them, making the relay DPDT.

The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

 COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.

 NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.

 NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.

5.2 DPDT (Dual Pole Dual Through) Relay:

Fig.5.2 - DPDT relay

This is similar to SPDT switch but it has pair of Normally Open (NO) and Normally Closed
(NC) contacts. When the relay is energized both side contacts will operate at a time. Thus it is
more use full at many applications

5.3 Relay Connected to Geared Motor:

 Fig. 5.3 - Relay and DC Motor Connection

As shown above initially the motor is connected to 12V supply. A DPDT relay requires
12V DC and 35mA of Current to operate. An amplifier stage is required to drive DPDT relay,
since microcontroller I/O provides only 25mA of current. ULN2803 IC is used for this purpose.
It accepts signal from the microcontroller and amplifies it operate DPDT relay. When
microcontroller output becomes high, ULN 2803 turn on the DPDT relay. Hence Motor gets
connected to Supply and starts rotating.

5.4 LED as Visual Indicator:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits visible light when an
electric current passes through it. In this project Light Emitting Diode is used as a Visual
indicator to represent the condition of the elevator.

Fig.5.4 LED Schematic

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