Chapter 1: Introduction To Research Methodology

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FOR ENGINEERING

1. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1.1. Defintion of Research

Research can be defined as a:

 Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific area of

interest.
 Careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch
of knowledge.
 Systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
 the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of
theory or in the practice of an art.

General definition
(i) Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and finally carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether
they fit the formulated hypothesis (Kothari, 2009).

(ii) Research is a process of planning, acquiring, analysing, and disseminating relevant

data, information, and insights to decision makers in ways that mobilise society (e.g.,
organisations, industry, institutions, communities, etc.) to appropriate actions that turn
and maximize performance (Cooper and Schindler, 2011).

Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization
and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term 'research' refers to the
systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collecting facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the
form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation.

1.2. Objectives of Research

Research objectives fall into a number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
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diagnostic research studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

As for management research:

 To identify and define opportunities and problems.
 To define, monitor, and refine strategies.
 To define, monitor, and refine tactics.
 To improve the understanding of the various fields of management.

Therefore:
 Decision makers require information to have competitive advantage.
 Understanding the relationship between decision making research and other sources of
information–decision support systems and decision making intelligence–is critical for
understanding how information drives decisions relating to society mission, goals,
strategies and tactics.

1.3. Thinking Like a Researcher

1.3.1. The Language of Research

a) Decision-Making Intelligent
 This is designed to provide the decision maker with ongoing information about events
and trends in the technological, economic, political and legal, demographic, cultural,
social, and, most critically, competitive arenas.

b) Strategy
 This is defined as the general approach one (e.g., organisation) follows to achieve
his/her goals.

c) Tactics
 Research contributes significantly to the design tactics–those specific, timed activities
that execute a strategy.
 Research can also help one to decide which of several tactics is likely to successfully
execute the desired strategy.

d) Concepts
 A concept is a generally accepted collection of meaning or characteristics associated
with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviours,
 Classifying and categorising objects or events that have common characteristics
beyond any single observation creates concepts.

Sources of concepts
 Through personal experience.
 Borrow from other languages: the concept of gravitation is borrowed from physics and
used in marketing in an attempt to explain why people shop where they do.
 Adopt new meanings for words to cover a different concept.

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Importance to research
 In research special problems grow out of the need for concept precision and
inventiveness.
 Hypotheses are designed using concepts.
 Measurement concepts are devised to tests hypothesis statements.
 Data is gathered using measurement concepts.
 The success of research hinges on (i) how well we conceptualize and (ii) how well
others understand the concepts we use.

e) Constructs
 A construct is an image or abstract idea specifically invented for a given research
and/or theory-building purpose.
 We build constructs by combining the simpler, more concrete concepts, especially
when the idea or image we intend to convey is not subject to direct observation.

f) A variable is a symbol of an event, act, characteristic, trait, or attribute that can be

measured and to which we assign categorical values.
 Independent variable (IV) is manipulated by the researcher, and the manipulation
causes an effect on the dependent variable.
 Dependent variable (DV) is measured, predicted, or otherwise monitored and is
expected to be affected by manipulation of an independent variable.
 A moderating or interactive variable (MV) is a second independent variable that is
included because it is believed to have a significant contribution to contingent effect
on the original IV-DV relationship.
 Extraneous variables (EVs): an almost infinite number of EVs exist that might
conceivably affect a given relationship. Some can be treated as IVs or MVs, but most
must either be assumed or excluded from the study.
 Others might influence the DVs, but their effect is not at the core of the problem to be
investigated.
 Still we want to check whether our results are influenced by them.
 We include them as control variables (CVs) to ensure that the results are not biased
by including them.
 Extraneous variables can also be confounding variables (CFVs) to our
hypothesized relationship, similar to MVs.
 Intervening variables (IVVs) are conceptual mechanism through which the IV and
MV might affect the DV.
 It is a factor that theoretically affects the DV but cannot be observed or has not been
measured.
 Its effect must be inferred from the effects of the independent and moderator
variables on the observed phenomenon.

g) Propositions and Hypothesis

 A proposition is a statement about observable phenomena (concepts) that may be
judged as true or false.
 When a proposition is formulated for empirical testing, it is referred to as a
hypothesis. It is a declarative statement about the relationship between two or more
variables, and is of tentative and conjectural nature.
 Descriptive hypotheses state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some

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variable.
 Researchers often use a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis.
 Relational hypotheses are statements that describe a relationship between two
variables with respect to some cases.
 A strong hypothesis should (i) be adequate for its purpose, (ii) testable, and
(iii) better than its rivals.

The role of hypothesis

 It guides the direction of the study.
 It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not.
 It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate.
 It provides a framework for organizing the conclusion.

h) A theory is set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that

are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts).
 Hypotheses play an important role in the development of theory.
 The difference between the two is one of degree of complexity and abstraction.
 In general theories tend to be complex and abstract and to involve multiple variables.
 Hypotheses tend to be more simple, limited-variable statements involving concrete
instances.

i) A model is a representation of a system that is constructed to study some aspect of that

system, or the system as a whole.
 Models differ from theories in that a theory’s role is explanation whereas a model’s
role is representation.

1.3.2. Research and the Scientific Method

 Good research is based on sound reasoning.

 Competent researchers and astute managers alike practice thinking habits that reflect
sound reasoning. – finding correct premises, testing the connections between their
facts and assumptions, making claims based on adequate evidence.
 In the reasoning process, induction, and deduction, observation, and hypothesis
testing can be combined in a systematic way.
 If the tools of thinking are the mind of science, then the scientific attitude is the
spirit; it unleashes the creative drive that makes discovery possible.
 The scientific method guides the approach to problem solving.

Essential tenets of the scientific method

 Direct observation of phenomena.
 Clearly defined variables, methods, and procedures.
 Empirically testable hypotheses.
 The ability to rule out rival hypotheses.
 Statistical rather than linguistic justification of conclusions.
 The self-correcting process.

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1.3.3. Sound Reasoning for Useful Answers

 Exposition consists of statements that describe without attempting to explain.

 Argument allows us to explain, interpret, defend, challenge, and explore meaning.
 Two types of arguments of great importance to research are deduction and
induction.
 Deduction is a form of argument that purports to be conclusive – the conclusions
must necessarily follow from the reasons given.
 These reasons are said to imply the conclusions and represent a proof.

For a deduction to be correct, it must be both true and valid:

 Premises (reasons) given for the conclusion must agree with the real world (true).
 The conclusion must necessarily follow from the premises (valid).

1. A deduction is valid if it is impossible for the conclusion to be false if the premises are
true.
2. Conclusions are not logically justified if one or more premises are untrue or the
argument form is invalid.

 In induction there is no such strength of relationship between reasons and

conclusions.
 Conclusions are drawn from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence.
 The conclusion explains the facts, and the facts support the conclusion.

1.3.4. Hierarchy of Information-Based Decision Makers

Top tier (visionaries)

 Every decision is guided by research.
 Firms develop proprietary methodologies and are innovative in their combination of
methodologies.
 Enterprise-wide access to research data and findings.

Middle tier (Standardised decision makers)

 Some decisions based on research.
 Firms use tried-and true methodologies excluding others that might be appropriate.
 Limited enterprise-wide data and findings
Base tier (intuitive decision makers)
 Most decisions based on past experience or instinct.
 Decisions supported with limited qualitative research.

1.4. Types of Research

The basic types of research are as follows:

(i) Descriptive research - includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different

kinds. Major purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In
social science and business research it is often referred to as Ex post facto
research. The researcher has no control over the variables; he/she can only report
what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects
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are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such
items as: frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post
facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when
they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive
research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational
methods.

(ii) In analytical research - the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the information.

(iii) Applied research - aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organization. Research aimed at certain
conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political
trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find
out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing
research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the
central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem. The problem-solving nature of applied research means it is
conducted to reveal answers to specific questions related to action, performance,
or policy needs.

(iv) Fundamental (basic) research - is mainly concerned with generalizations and with
the formulation of a theory. "Gathering knowledge for knowledge's sake is termed
'pure' or 'basic' research." Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly,
research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make
generalisations about human behaviour are also examples of fundamental
research. Basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad
base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of
scientific knowledge. Pure, fundamental or basic research is also problem-solving
based; it aims to solve perplexing questions or obtain new knowledge of an
experimental or theoretical nature that has little direct or immediate impact on
action, performance, or policy decisions.

(v) Quantitative research - is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is

applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

(vi) Qualitative research - is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena

relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain
things), we quite often talk of 'Motivation Research', an important type of
qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying
motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques
of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story
completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion
research, i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think
about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative
research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we
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can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular
manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated,
however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job
and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologists.

(vii) Conceptual research - is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is

generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.

(viii) Empirical research - relies on experience or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We
can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is
necessary to get at facts first-hand, at their source, and actively to go about doing
certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a
research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or
guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to
prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he
thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth
the desired information. Such research is thus characterised by the
experimenter's control over the variables under study and his deliberate
manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate
when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered
to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

1.5. Research Approaches

There are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative
approach. The former involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can
be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation approaches to
research. The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which
to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research
where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its
characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.
Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other
variables. Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within
which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the
dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term
'simulation' in the context of business and social sciences applications refers to "the
operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given the
values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to
represent the behaviour of the process over time." Simulation approach can also be useful in
building models for understanding future conditions.

Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,

opinions and behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of researcher's insights
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and impressions. Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative

form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the
techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used.

Assignment 1
1. Highlight and discuss examples of appropriate uses of qualitative research in your area
of expertise (e.g., electrical and electronic engineering, civil engineering, etc.).

2. Outline and discuss several key distinctions between qualitative and quantitative
research in terms of:

(i) the relationship between theory and data,

(ii) epistemological considerations; and
(iii) ontological considerations.

1.6. Significance/Reasons for Studying Research

 Research drives decision making in society.

 Research enables one to break out of traditional habits, solve problems using modern
approaches.
 Research makes possible one to see the decision moment through a trained capacity to
plan, acquire, analyse, and disseminate insights that one mobilises to improve
performance in society.
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking and organisation.
 The increasingly complex nature of society has focused attention on the use of research
in solving operational problems, which may be political, technical, socio-economic,
environmental, etc.

 Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in the economic system.
 For instance, government's budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and
desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs.
The cost of needs has to be equated to probable revenues and this is a field
where research is most needed. Through research we can devise alternative
policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives.

 Research facilitates the decisions of the policy maker. Government has to chalk
out programmes for dealing with all facets of the country's existence and most of
these will be related directly or indirectly to economic conditions. The plight of
cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry, working
conditions, trade union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and
nature of defence services are matters requiring research. Thus, research is
considered necessary with regard to the allocation of nation's resources.

 Another area in government, where research is necessary, is collecting

information on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such information
indicates what is happening in the economy and what changes are taking place.
Collecting such statistical information is by no means a routine task, but it
involves a variety of research problems. These days nearly all governments
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maintain large staff of research technicians or experts to carry on this work. Thus,
in the context of government, research as a tool to economic policy has three
distinct phases of operation, viz., (i) investigation of economic structure through
continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and
the analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis, i.e., the
prediction of future developments.

 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry.
 Operations research and market research, along with motivational research, are
considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking
business decisions. Market research is the investigation of the structure and
development of a market for the purpose of formulating efficient policies for
purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers to the application of
mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business
problems of cost minimisation or of profit maximisation or what can be termed as
optimisation problems. Motivational research of determining why people behave
as they do is mainly concerned with market characteristics. In other words, it is
concerned with the determination of motivations underlying the consumer
(market) behaviour. All these are of great help to people in business and industry
who are responsible for taking business decisions.

 Research with regard to demand and market factors has great utility in business.
Given knowledge of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an
industry to adjust its supply schedule within the limits of its projected capacity.
Market analysis has become an integral tool of business policy these days.
Business budgeting, which ultimately results in a projected profit and loss
account, is based mainly on sales estimates, which in turn depends on business
research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient production and investment
programmes can be set up around which are grouped the purchasing and
financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more
logical and scientific decisions.

 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems.
 It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few things just for the sake of
knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know for the
sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner.

 Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake
and with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical concerns. On the one
hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body of principles that make
possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human
interactions. On the other hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly
being looked to for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human
relations.

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1.7. Research Methods versus Methodology

a) Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used
for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques", thus, refer to the methods the
researchers use in performing research operations. Since the object of research, particularly
the applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the
unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a solution
possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can be categorised as follows:

1. Those methods which are concerned with the collection of data. These methods will be
used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
2. Those statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships between the
data and the unknowns;
3. Those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.

Table 1.1: Examples of research methods

Type Methods Techniques
1. Library (i) Analysis of historical records Recording of notes, content analysis, tape and film
research listening and analysis.
(ii) Analysis of documents Statistical compilations and manipulations, reference
and abstract guides, contents analysis
2. Field (i) Non-participant direct observation Observational behavioural scales, use of score cards,
research etc.
(ii) Participant observation Interactional recording, possible use of tape recorders,
photo graphic techniques
(iii) Mass observation Recording mass behaviour, interview using
independent observers in public places.
(iv) Mail questionnaire Identification of social and economic background of
respondents.
(v) Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use of
sociometric scales.
(vi) Personal interview Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open and
closed questions.
(v ii) Focused interview Interviewer focuses attention upon a given experience
and its effects.
(viii) Group interview Small groups of respondents are interviewed
simultaneously.
(ix) Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for information and
for discerning opinion; may also be used as a
follow up of questionnaire.
(x) Case study and life Cross sectional collection of data for intensive
history analysis, longitudinal collection of data of
intensive character.
3. Laboratory Small group of random Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of
research behaviour, play and role observers, etc.
analysis

Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the
analytical tools of research.

b) Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be

understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the
various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem
along with the logic behind them.

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 Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to
calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how
to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these
methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and
indicate and why.

 Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques

and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and
procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means that
it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same
may differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a building,
has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and
on what basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows and
ventilators, uses particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in research
the scientist has to expose the research decisions to evaluation before they are
implemented. He has to specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects and
why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.

Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but
also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and
explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others
so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by
others.

1.8. Criteria of Good Research

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that
they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects
scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be
used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results
that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the
data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a
good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

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In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as:

1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified

steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of
rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking
but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at
conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole
whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion
which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research
more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for
external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified
by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

1.9. Questions

1. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process.

2. What is meant by the term “research”? Explain its significance in modern society.

3. Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology.

4. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference between an
experiment and a survey.

5. "Empirical research, in particular, creates so many problems for the researchers". State
the problems that are usually faced by such researchers.

6. “A research scholar has to work as a judge and derive the truth and not as a pleader
who is only eager to prove his case in favour of his plaintiff." Discuss the statement
pointing out the objectives of research.

7. "Creative management, whether in public administration or private industry, depends on

methods of inquiry that maintain objectivity, clarity, accuracy and consistency". Discuss
this statement and examine the significance of research".

8. "Research is much concerned with proper fact finding, analysis and evaluation." Do you
agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your answer.

9. It is often said that there is not a proper link between some of the activities under way in
the world of academics and in society. Account for this state of affairs and give
suggestions for improvement.

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