MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT.

OF EEE

UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION

A control system manages commands, directs or regulates the behavior of other devices or
systems using control loops. It can range from a single home heating controller using
a thermostat controlling a domestic boiler to large Industrial control systems which are used
for controlling processes or machines. A control system is a system, which provides the
desired response by controlling the output. The following figure shows the simple block
diagram of a control system.

Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine

Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input
signal is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be
on for some duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the
traffic study at a particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined.
Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights control system
operates on time basis.

Classification of Control Systems

Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.

Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and discrete
time control systems based on the type of the signal used.

 In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But,
in discrete time control systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.

SISO and MIMO Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control systems
based on the number of inputs and outputs present.

 SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one output.
Whereas, MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems have more
than one input and more than one output.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

Summing Point
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or more
inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the
summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of the inputs based
on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by one.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y
as sum of A and B i.e. = A + B.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B is
having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as the difference of A
and B i.e

Y = A + (-B) = A - B.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So, the
summing point produces the output Y as

Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.

Take-off Point
The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more
than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same input
to one or more blocks, summing points.In the following figure, the take-off point is used to
connect the same input, R(s) to two more blocks.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those two
blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’ blocks.

Parallel Connection
The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the following figure,
two blocks having transfer functions G1(s)G1(s) and G2(s)G2(s) are connected in parallel.
The outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing point.

That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of those two blocks.
The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’
blocks.

Feedback Connection
As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive feedback
and negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback control system. Here,
two blocks having transfer functions G(s)G(s) and H(s)H(s) form a closed loop.

Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is :

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

UNIT-II

TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

We can analyze the response of the control systems in both the time domain and the
frequency domain. We will discuss frequency response analysis of control systems in later
chapters. Let us now discuss about the time response analysis of control systems.

What is Time Response?

If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called
the time response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.

 Transient response
 Steady state response
The response of control system in time domain is shown in the following figure.

Where,

 ctr(t) is the transient response

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

 css(t) is the steady state response

Transient Response
After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady state.
So, the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. Therefore, the response
of the control system during the transient state is known as transient response.

The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’ is infinity
and practically, it is five times constant.

Mathematically, we can write it as

Steady state Response

The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero value
for large values of ‘t’ is known as steady state response. This means, the transient response
will be zero even during the steady state.

Example

Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time response of the control system

Here, the second term will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this is the transient term.
And the first term 10 remains even as t approaches infinity. So, this is the steady state term.
Standard Test Signals
The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic. These signals are used to
know the performance of the control systems using time response of the output.

Unit Impulse Signal

A unit impulse signal, δ(t) is defined as

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

So, the unit impulse signal exists only at‘t’ is equal to zero. The area of this signal under small
interval of time around‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit impulse signal is zero for
all other values of‘t’.

Unit Step Signal

A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as

Following figure shows unit step signal.

So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of‘t’ including zero. And its value is one
during this interval. The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative values of‘t’.
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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases non-linearly with respect to‘t’ during this interval. The value of the unit parabolic
signal is zero for all the negative values of‘t’.

In this chapter, let us discuss the time response of the first order system. Consider the
following block diagram of the closed loop control system. Here, an open loop transfer
function, 1/sT is connected with a unity negative feedback.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

Impulse Response of First Order System

Consider the unit impulse signal as an input to the first order system.

So, r(t)=δ(t)
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

R(s) =1

Rearrange the above equation in one of the standard forms of Laplace

transforms.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

Applying Inverse Laplace Transform on both the sides,

The unit impulse response is shown in the following figure.

The unit impulse response, c(t) is an exponential decaying signal for positive values of ‘t’ and
it is zero for negative values of ‘t’.

Step Response of First Order System

Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system.

So, r(t)=u(t)

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

The transient term in the unit step response is -

The steady state term in the unit step response is –

The following figure shows the unit step response

The value of the unit step response, c(t) is zero at t = 0 and for all negative values of t. It is
gradually increasing from zero value and finally reaches to one in steady state. So, the steady
state value depends on the magnitude of the input.

Ramp Response of First Order System

Consider the unit ramp signal as an input to the first order system.

So, r(t)=t u(t)

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

The figure below is the unit ramp response:

The unit ramp response, c(t) follows the unit ramp input signal for all positive values of t.
But, there is a deviation of T units from the input signal.

Parabolic Response of First Order System

Consider the unit parabolic signal as an input to the first order system.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

The unit parabolic response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.

The transient term in the unit parabolic response is

The steady state term in the unit parabolic response is

From these responses, we can conclude that the first order control systems are not stable
with the ramp and parabolic inputs because these responses go on increasing even at infinite
amount of time. The first order control systems are stable with impulse and step inputs
because these responses have bounded output. But, the impulse response doesn’t have
steady state term. So, the step signal is widely used in the time domain for analyzing the
control systems from their responses.

In this chapter, let us discuss the time response of second order system. Consider the
following block diagram of closed loop control system. Here, an open loop transfer
function, ωn2 / s(s+2δωn) is connected with a unity negative feedback.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

Since it is over damped, the unit step response of the second order system when δ > 1 will
never reach step input in the steady state.

Impulse Response of Second Orde r System

The impulse response of the second order system can be obtained by using any one of these
two methods.

 Follow the procedure involved while deriving step response by considering the value
of R(s) as 1 instead of 1/s.
 Do the differentiation of the step response.

The following table shows the impulse response of the second order system for 4 cases of
the damping ratio.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero instant.
It is denoted by tdtd.
Consider the step response of the second order system for t ≥ 0, when ‘δ’ lies between zero
and one.

Rise Time
It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value. This is
applicable for the under-damped systems. For the over-damped systems, consider the
duration from 10% to 90% of the final value. Rise time is denoted by tr.

At t = t1 = 0, c(t) = 0.

We know that the final value of the step response is one. Therefore, at t=t2, the value of step
response is one. Substitute, these values in the following equation.

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

From above equation, we can conclude that the rise time tr and the damped
frequency ωd are inversely proportional to each other.
Peak Time
It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first time. It is
denoted by tp. At t=tp the first derivate of the response is zero.
We know the step response of second order system for under-damped case is

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

From the above equation, we can conclude that the peak time tp and the damped
frequency ωd are inversely proportional to each other.
Peak Overshoot
Peak overshoot Mp is defined as the deviation of the response at peak time from the final
value of response. It is also called the maximum overshoot.

Mathematically, we can write it as

Mp=c(tp) − c(∞)

Where,c(tp) is the peak value of the response, c(∞) is the final (steady state) value of the
response.

At t=tp, the response c(t) is -

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

From the above equation, we can conclude that the percentage of peak overshoot %Mp will
decrease if the damping ratio δ increases.
Settling time
It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay within the specified
tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are 2% and 5%. The
settling time is denoted by ts.
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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF EEE

UNIT - III
STABILITY ANALYSIS IN S-DOMAIN

Stability is an important concept. In this chapter, let us discuss the stability of system and
types of systems based on stability.

What is Stability?
A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.
A stable system produces a bounded output for a given bounded input.

The following figure shows the response of a stable system.

This is the response of first order control system for unit step input. This response has the
values between 0 and 1. So, it is bounded output. We know that the unit step signal has the
value of one for all positive values of t including zero. So, it is bounded input. Therefore, the
first order control system is stable since both the input and the output are bounded.

Types of Systems based on Stability

We can classify the systems based on stability as follows.

 Absolutely stable system

 Conditionally stable system
 Marginally stable system
Absolutely Stable System
If the system is stable for all the range of system component values, then it is known as
the absolutely stable system. The open loop control system is absolutely stable if all the
poles of the open loop transfer function present in left half of ‘s’ plane. Similarly, the closed
loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer function
present in the left half of the ‘s’ plane.
CONTROL SYSTEMS