4.

1 INTRODUCTION

The sound, structure and meaning system of language are referred to as grammar. Every language has
its grammar, and each language’s grammar is unique. People who speak the same language can
converse because they understand the grammatical structure naturally (the rules for expressing
meaning). It is the methodical study and characterisation of a language that assists us in comprehending
how words and their constituent components combine to make sentences. Some people believe that
proper English grammar is just important for instructors and has little practical use in everyday life. This
is not the case. Grammar is the cornerstone for interaction, regardless of the country or language.

Learners might benefit from grammar rules to help them establish the habit of thinking rationally and
clearly. While utilising a language they might become more accurate after gaining knowledge about
grammar. Effective communication is impossible without good grammar. When conveying your thoughts
and ideas, proper grammar prevents you from being misinterpreted. The development of fluency is
aided by the use of grammar. When a person understands grammar, it becomes much easier for them
to organise and articulate their thoughts. As a result, they will be more fluent in speaking, reading and
writing the language.

4.2 REMEDIAL GRAMMAR

Sentences and Nouns

When we compose a sentence, we name someone or something and then say something about them.

A phrase is a group of words that make sense but are not entirely coherent.

In English, the Subject-Verb-Object structure remains unchanged even when multiple sentences are
combined into a single sentence.

A clause is a collection of words that make up a phrase and include a subject and a predicate. The
independent clause determines the meaning of a subordinate clause. As a result, the dependent clause
is used to refer to the subordinate clause. An inverted tree diagram can be used to show the syntactic
structure of a sentence. It starts with a sentence (S), which forks into its immediate NP (Noun Phrase)
and VP (Verbal Phrase) (Verb Phrase).

In any language, questions are the most basic type of statement. A rule that captures the change in
word order in questions must be substantially distinct from a phrase-structure rule.
The ‘contraction’ is used for representing the phenomenon of one word which is reduced and connected
to another.

The classification of words according to the function they play in the creation of a sentence is referred to
as parts of speech.

The name of a person, place, animal, item, idea, sentiment or characteristic is a noun. Two-thirds of our
vocabulary is made up of nouns.

Adjectives, Articles and Pronouns

An adjective is a word that qualifies or attributes a noun such as red rose, sweet tooth or nasty attitude.

Interrogative adjectives, as their name implies, pose questions such “what,” “which” and “whose.”

Possessive adjectives denote possession such as my, your, their, our, his, her, their and its.

After emphasising adjectives such as own and highly, the stress is placed on the nouns.

Adjectives can be compared on three levels, i.e., positive, comparative and superlative.

Making nouns out of adjectives is simple in English. When there are no comparative or superlative forms
available, such as ‘prettier’ or ‘prettiest,’ a noun might be used to describe another noun.

Adjectives such as be, become, appear, stay and others can come before or after a noun or verb. Some
verbs also include adjectives following the object.

Instead of a single word, a set of words can sometimes be used as an adjective. As a result, an adjective
phrase is a group of words that together describe a noun.

A pronoun is a phrase that replaces a noun like he, she, they or it.

Verb and Tenses

A verb is an important part of a sentence’s predicate. A verb is a term that describes an activity or a
state of being.

A transitive verb must have an object to complete its meaning. An intransitive verb’s action does not
have to pass through any objects.

Auxiliary verbs are words that are not used on their own but help the primary verb. When the subject is
in the first or second person or is plural, the verb does not change.

The many kinds of tenses in grammar convey essentially distinct relationships of occurrences in time.
Tenses are divided into two categories: present tense and past tense. As previously stated, there is no
such thing as a separate future tense that corresponds to the present and past tense. Using terms that
express or imply an act that will occur in the future implies futurity. The present tense is further divided
into subparts that describe the progression of the event.

The usual or generic events that occur daily are referred to as simple present tense.

The present continuous tense is used to describe ongoing occurrences.

The present perfect continuous tense is used to represent an ongoing occurrence that has been ongoing
for some time.

The simple past tense is used to express a completed action in the past.

The past continuous tense refers to an occurrence happening in the past.

The past perfect tense is used to describe an event that occurred before a specific time in the past.

The past perfect continuous tense refers to events that take place before and up to a specific point in
time in the past.

To distinguish itself from the present + future time.

Present progressive always uses a future time adverbial.

When an action or event is likely to occur in the future, going is used to describe the future time.

When a verb’s form indicates that something is done to the person or thing signified by the subject, it is
said to be in the passive voice.

The voice of a verb denotes whether or not the subject’s object is doing or being done to.

When a verb is switched from active to passive voice, the object of the transitive verb in the active voice
becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice.

Only transitive verbs can be employed in the passive voice because the object of a verb in the active
voice becomes the subject of the passive form.

When the agent (i.e., the person or thing acted upon) is to be highlighted, the active voice is used, when
the person or thing acted upon is to be highlighted, the passive voice is used.

A person’s words might be narrated in one of two ways, viz., directly or indirectly.

Auxiliaries and Adverbs

Auxiliary verbs are those that are not employed by themselves. It aids a primary verb.
The three most prevalent auxiliary verbs in English are be, have and do.

Auxiliaries, like ‘be’ and ‘have’ are used to conjugate continuous, perfect and perfect continuous tenses.

The term “anomalous finites” refers to a collection of 24 finites.

Many adverbs of manner become adverbs when the –ly suffix is added to the adjective such as rushed
(hurriedly), sad (sadly) and happy (happily).

Several words finish with –ly that are solely used as adjectives. Unlikely, wonderful, lonely, ugly and
macho are examples of such adjectives.

Frequency adverbs, such as (often, sometimes, always), go before the main verb, not the auxiliary verb.
If the verb is part of to be; however, the adverb comes after the verb.

The adverb clause changes a verb in the main portion of a sentence in the same way as the adverb and
adverb phrase changes a verb.

Adverb clauses can be used to describe time, place, cause, circumstance, purpose, consequence
concession or comparison.

A time adverb phrase tells us when the action of the verb in the main sentence occurred, is occurring or
will occur.

The action of the verb in the main sentence took place or will take place in an adverb clause of place.

The condition put on the verb’s action in the main sentence is mentioned in an adverb clause of the
condition. The subordinating conjunctions, if, and, unless, are generally used to introduce it.

Prepositions, Conjunction and Interjections

A location, a direction, and a time are all defined by prepositions. A preposition is a word in a sentence
that connects nouns, phrases and pronouns to other words in the sentence.

Since and from are both used to indicate a point in time. Since is always preceded by a perfect tense
verb, whereas from can be used in any tense.

Due and due to are frequently interchanged. Due should be used as a qualifying adjective for a noun or
pronoun.

A phrase preposition is defined as a series of words or a phrase that has the force of a single preposition.
A phrase preposition comes to an end with a simple preposition. Conjunction is referred to a
word/phrase that connects two or more than two words. It is, in other words, a connecting word.

Adverbs that function as conjunctions are known as subordinating conjunctions.

An interjection is referred to as a word which is used for expressing emotions or mood. Generally, these
words are used to begin a sentence.
Types of Sentences

A sentence is the largest and most basic linguistic unit. It starts with a capital letter and concludes with a
full stop, question mark or exclamation mark.

In terms of structure, there are four types of sentences, namely sentences come in a variety of forms,
including simple, compound, complicated and compound-complex.

Simple sentences consist of a single independent clause that expresses a single thought. Subordinate
clauses are usually a part of complex sentences.

In a compound-complex sentence, the elements of both complex and compound sentences are blended.

A compound-complex sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses.

Analysis refers to the dissection of the components that make up a sentence. When we break down a
sentence to understand the relationship of its parts, it is known as an analysis of sentences.

A compound sentence consists of two or more main clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction. A
compound sentence may have one or more subordinate clauses.

The major clause, often known as the principal clause, is the initial stage in analysing a complex
statement. The next step is to locate the subordinate clause or clauses, which demonstrate how each
clause interacts with the main clause.

A sentence’s structure can be changed without modifying the sentence’s meaning.

Any sentence containing the adverb “too” can be changed; however, the sentence’s core meaning will
remain unchanged. The adverb ‘too’ is removed, and conjunction ‘so...that’ is added in its place.

An adjective’s or adverb’s degree of comparison in a sentence can be adjusted without changing the
phrase’s meaning.

Any sentence can be switched from active to passive voice, and vice versa. These sentences’ structure
will be altered without affecting their meaning.

It is not required to mention the action’s doer in the passive voice if it is obvious who is doing the
activity.

Negative interrogative phrases are formed by placing the term before the main verb, rather than after
the subject. If the short form, n’t, is used instead of not, the auxiliary is attached to the n’t and the
subject follows.

A simple statement can be transformed into a compound sentence by adding a coordinate clause to a
phrase or a word.
By replacing a finite verb with a particle and a preposition with a clause, compound sentences become
simple sentences.

Direct/Indirect Speech, Punctuation and Capitals

When directly or indirectly quoting someone in our daily lives, it is critical to know how to use language
properly. It is, nonetheless, a source of consternation for many people. As a result, the use of reported
speech has grown increasingly significant.

In our daily lives, we cite others in a variety of situations. When we do not use inverted commas, we
quote verbatim and put it in inverted commas, implying that it was stated exactly as it was said.

When we do not use inverted commas, we report or acknowledge it. In a direct speech, the speaker’s
actual words are repeated, whereas in an indirect speech, the speaker’s major idea is conveyed by
another person.

When statements and questions are mixed, each part must be opened with a suitable verb, such as tell,
say, explain, remark, and so on for statements and ask, enquire, wish to know, wonder, and so on for
questions.

The tense of the reporting sentence is not changed if it reveals a universal fact, regardless of the tense
of the reporting phrase. Punctuation is the use of spacing, punctuation marks, and other typographical
elements to promote comprehension and accurate reading of the written text, whether read silently or
aloud.

In English, we have small letters and capital letters, which are both utilised in writing, however, capital
letters are only used in certain situations. The use of a capital letter at the beginning of a word is known
as capitalisation in English grammar.

Prefix/Suffix and Synonyms/Antonyms

To make a new word, a prefix is added to the beginning of a root word. Prefixes are frequently
employed in English to create new words or to modify or extend the concept indicated by the root word.

To construct a new word, a suffix is added to the end of a root word. It can alter a word’s class and
meaning.

In English, infixes are exclusively used in plural terms such as geese, men, and so on. By varying the
vowels in the middle structure of these words, they change their inflection.

Synonyms are similar words or phrases with the same meaning, for as the words “bigger” and “larger.”
In a sentence, either one could be employed. Both of these statements have the same meaning.

There’s nothing quite alike a “real” synonym. This means that, while certain words can be swapped for
others, they will never have the same meaning.

Antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning; for instance, impure is the antonym for pure.
The negative meaning of a term is typically represented via antonyms. Simply described, it is a word or
phrase that has the exact opposite meaning as another.

Several terminologies appear to be interchangeable and generate confusion. Authors frequently become
confused by words that sound similar or almost identical yet have different meanings.

It is difficult to employ prepositions since not every word can be used with every preposition. Particular
verbs, adjectives, and nouns are followed by certain prepositions.

Paragraph and Letter Writing

A sentence is the most basic linguistic unit. It starts with a capital letter and concludes with a full stop,
question mark, or exclamation mark in English.

A paragraph can be defined as a collection of cohesive and ordered sentences that are all tied to a single
unique theme/topic by a layperson. A theme sentence will appear in every paragraph, regardless of
whether it involves a series of events, compares two happenings or things, describes a location,
discusses an individual or expresses an opinion.

Narrative paragraphs provide a chronological account of an event or occurrence. The event or incident
may be real or fabrication of your imagination.

The topic sentence is the first sentence in a paragraph that presents the paragraph’s primary idea.

Make sure that all of the facts in the supporting sentences are relevant, otherwise, the reader may lose
interest and concentration due to unwanted distractions.

The concluding sentence, which is usually a review of the paragraph, is the last sentence of the
paragraph. It should place a strong emphasis on the main point or topic sentence. The writer must be
certain that he knows exactly what he intends to write. Thoughts should be clear, as should how they
are presented.

A letter is a written record of a formal relationship that is both permanent and tactile. It is usually
written to answer a question, provide information, give instructions or convince the receiver to take a
specific action.

Heading, recipient’s name and address, opening salutation, subject line, the main body of the letter,
complimenting close, signature space, and enclosures are all vital aspects of a business letter. Fully
indented style, half indented style, fully blocked style and modified blocked style is the different forms
of layout in professional letter writing.

A smart business letter can reach out to the target, whether it is a customer, a prospect, a patron, or a
regulator. It can address the prospect and establish the sales pitch.

A poorly worded letter reflects negatively on the organisation. There may not be much room for
inspiration or innovation in some letters, so they must be plain and unambiguous.
The content of the letter, the environment of the communication, and the recipient’s relationship all
influence how many qualities or elements can be included.

Knowing as many fundamentals as possible while writing a variety of business letters aids in the
development of good letter writing skills.

Essay and Story Writing

Essays may investigate an argument, offer a comprehensive report or convey the writer’s ideas and
opinions on a matter of personal interest.

Analysing a single facet of a literary work or a certain subject is how critical essays are produced.

The underlying unity and consistency in dealing with a specific question, subject or message is the
primary quality of an essay.

You must pay attention to the sequence and organisation of facts and ideas when writing the essay.
There are secondary topics that flow from the main topic, and these must be presented in an ordered
manner rather than as distinct, unrelated information.

The main part of the essay should be devoted to a thorough investigation of the subject at hand. Half
the battle is won when you write an introduction that clearly describes the subject, piques the reader’s
curiosity, and makes him or her want to read more.

Following the preliminary preparations, the information must be organised logically and thematically.
You must pay close attention to your subject, language, and style while composing the main body of the
essay. The text is detracted from grammatical errors, improper spellings and poorly organised sentences
and paragraphs.

Use connectives and conjunctions, such as, ‘so’, ‘and’, ‘therefore’, ‘meantime’, ‘because’, to connect
paragraphs and points in your arguments.

You must include a bibliography at the end of the essay that lists all of the secondary sources you used.

Only quote if the quotation is pertinent to the primary topic or if you’re stating your opposition with a
specific quotation.

A good conclusion ties up all the loose ends of the arguments, leaves no room for doubt or uncertainty,
restates the essential points without reiterating the introduction, and wraps up the arguments in a
confident and conclusive tone.

Descriptive, expository, discursive, imaginative, and narrative essays are the various sorts of essays. To
produce an excellent essay, pay attention to the language, style, structure, persuasive power of the
topic, reader engagement and neat presentation.
In the case of outlines, one needs to understand the hints and then write the story accordingly. Outline
works as a summary of the story, a short description of what the story will be about, what will happen,
who will do what, etc., from beginning to end.

REMEDIAL GRAMMAR

We usually do not utilise the speaker’s precise words (direct speech) when reporting what they have
said, but rather reported (indirect) speech.

By quoting the exact words stated within inverted commas, direct speech or reporting speech is
achieved: for example, Alex said, ‘You can do it.’

Indirect speech or reported speech is when the speaker’s comments are reported without using precise
words: for example, Alex told him he could do it.

Points to Remember for Reported Speech

When using indirect speech, keep the following crucial points in mind:

Inverted commas must be replaced with appropriate conjunction when using indirect speech.

There should be no difference in the reporting verb’s tense.

In indirect communication, sentences containing questions or exclamations are replaced with assertive
sentences.

The tense of the verb in the reported speech is adjusted according to the defined rules in indirect
speech.

We usually do not utilise the speaker’s precise words (direct speech) when reporting what they have
said, but rather reported (indirect) speech. As a result, you’ll need to learn how to switch from direct to
reported speaking. Depending on whether you want to change a statement, a question or a request, the
format differs slightly.
A reporting verb,’ such as ‘say’ or ‘tell,’ is used. It’s simple if the verb is in the present tense.

Direct speech: She said, “I like pudding”.

Reported speech: She said (that) she liked pudding.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Voice is the part of a verb that indicates whether the subject performs an action or is the recipient of the
action. When the subject conducts the action, it is an active voice; when the subject receives the action,
it is a passive voice.

Examples

l Active: He hates me.

l Passive: I am hated by him.

The subject of the active voice example above is “he,” the verb is “likes,” and the object is “me.” The
subject of the passive voice sentence is “I,” the verb is “am liked” and the object is “him.”

Essentially, the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence. Both
sentences have the same components, but the structure differs. The person who undertakes the activity
is described in active sentences, whereas the person who acts is described in passive terms.

Structure of Active and Passive Voice

The active voice refers to a statement in which the subject is the one who acts. Its structure is as follows:
Subject + Verb+ Object
The passive voice expresses an action taken on the subject of the sentence. Its structure is as follows:
Object + verb +subject

Let us look at some Active and Passive Voice instances. Active (A) Passive(B)

Rita helps the old lady. The old lady was helped by Rita. The boy is feeding the ducks.
The ducks are being fed by the boy.

Voice and Tenses

l Present Tense

Active: I write a book.

Passive: A book is written by me.

Structure: Subject + auxiliary verb + past participle of the main verb+ by + object.

l Present Continuous

Active: I am eating a mango .

Passive: A mango is being eaten by me.

Structure: Subject + auxiliary verb + being + by + object

l Present Perfect

Active: I have lost the game.

Structure: Subject + has/have been + past participle + by + object

l Past Tense

Active: I invited you to the wedding.

Passive: You were invited by me to the wedding by me.

Structure: Subject + be+ past participle + by + object

Questions

Active: Did you show me the schedule?

Passive: Was I shown the schedule (by you)?

l Past Continuous

Active: I was playing online games.

Passive: The online games were being played by me.

Structure: Subject + auxiliary verb + being+ past participle + by + object

Active: You had completed the work.

Passive: The work had been completed by you.

Structure: Subject + had + been + past participle + by + object

l Future Tense

Active: He will win the match.

Passive: The match will be won by him.

Structure: Subject + will + be + past participle +by + object

l Future Continuous

Active: We will be watching the match.

Passive: The match is going to be watched by us.

Structure: Subject+ Will be+ being+ past participle+ by+ object

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

A. Essay Type Questions

1. Write short notes on:

ii. Essay writing

iii. Story writing

2. Explain active and passive voice with examples.

B.Hints for Essay Type Questions

1. A letter is a written record of a formal relationship that is both permanent and tactile. It is usually
written to answer a question, provide information, give instructions, or convince the receiver to take a
specific action.

t Essays may investigate an argument, offer a comprehensive report, or convey the writer’s ideas and
opinions on a matter of personal interest.

t One needs to understand the hints and then write the story accordingly. Outline works as a summary
of the story, a short description of what the story will be about, what will happen, who will do what,
etc., from beginning to end. Refer to Section Remedial Grammar

2. Voice is the part of a verb that indicates whether the subject performs the action or is the
recipient of the action. When the subject conducts the action, it is an active voice, when the subject
receives the action, it is a passive voice. Refer to Section Active and Passive Voice