lOMoARcPSD|54788309

Wl352e-v1-0-duplex

Bachelor of technology Mechanical engineer (National Institute of Technology

Kurukshetra)

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Experiment Instructions

WL 352 Free and Forced

Convection Unit

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WL 352 FREE AND FORCED CONVECTION UNIT

All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

Experiment Instructions
Dipl.-Ing.-Päd., Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Michael Schaller

This manual must be kept by the unit.

Before operating the unit:

- Read this manual.
- All participants must be instructed on
handling of the unit and, where appropriate,
on the necessary safety precautions.

Version 1.0 Subject to technical alterations

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WL 352 FREE AND FORCED CONVECTION UNIT

ii

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Intended use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Structure of safety instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Safety instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Device description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
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3.1 Device design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.2 Positioning and commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Measurement data collection program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3.1 Program installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3.2 Program operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4 Basic principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1 Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2 Heat transfer by radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3 Heat transfer by conduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4 Heat transfer by convection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.5 Heat transfer coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5.1 Theory of similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.5.2 Nusselt number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.5.3 Reynolds number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.5.3.1 Laminar flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.5.3.2 Turbulent flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.6 Free convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.7 Forced convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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5 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.1 Notes for instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2 Notes on conducting the experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3 Preparation of experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.4 GUNT measurement data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.4.1 Flat plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4.2 Fin heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4.3 Pipe bundle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.4.4 Fin heater and pipe bundle temperature distribution . . . . . . 33
5.5 Possible educational opening question / experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.6 Experiment 1: Evaluation of free convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.6.1 Experiment 1a: Evaluation of the flat plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.6.2 Experiment 1a experiment documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.6.3 Experiment 1b:
Comparison of different heating elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.6.4 Experiment 1b experiment documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6.5 Experiment 1c:
Varying the heater temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.6.6 Experiment 1c experiment documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.6.7 Experiment 1d:
Influence of the heating element's overflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.6.8 Experiment 1d experiment documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.7 Experiment 2: Flow velocity in forced convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.7.1 Experiment 2 experiment documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.7.2 Experiment 3: Heat distribution on the pipe bundle . . . . . . . 45
5.7.3 Experiment 3 experiment documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

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6 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.1 Worksheet 1: Layout and function of the trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.2 Worksheet 2: Basic questions on free convection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.3 Worksheet 3:
Basic questions on forced convection: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.4 Worksheet 4:
Basic questions on measurement practice and
the theory of similarity:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
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7.1 Worksheet 1: Layout and function of the trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

7.2 Worksheet 2: Basic questions on free convection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.3 Worksheet 3:
Basic questions on forced convection: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.4 Worksheet 4:
Basic questions on measurement practice and
the theory of similarity:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

8 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.1 Technical data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.2 List of formula symbols and units used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.3 Physical properties of air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.4 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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1 Introduction

The field of heat transfer in industry and technol-

ogy is a wide one. Machines that produce heat by
converting energy are used in many fields.
Whether this heat is dissipated as waste heat or
re-used is not important in heat transfer. What is
important here initially are the mechanisms that
allow this form of energy to be transported. Con-
vection is one of these mechanisms, alongside
heat radiation and heat conduction. Convection
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can be differentiated from heat conduction by the

flow of a fluid (gas, liquid). Thus the transport of
particles results in heat transfer. Here we can
differentiate between two types of convection.
Firstly there is free convection, which gains its
force by lift of the heated fluid (differences in den-
sity). Secondly there is forced convection, which
uses technical means to force a flow. The Basic
principles chapter goes into more details on the
precise distinction between the mechanisms.
Similarly, an insight is given into the calculation
basis.
With the G.U.N.T. WL 352 Free and Forced
Convection Unit you can conduct experiments to
demonstrate a practical connection to the funda-
mentals of convection. Depending on the range of
the subject matter you can cover levels from spe-
cialist technicians to students in the natural
sciences.

1 Introduction 1

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The experiments focus on heat transfer in the

variation of:
• Temperature difference
• Flow velocity
• Heat exchanger geometry
The students will therefore be able to learn about
dependencies of heat transfer in an experiment
and where necessary understand them with
appropriate formulae. To this end, data acquisi-
tion with a PC provides a user-friendly interface to
process recorded data further.
When reviewing the fundamentals and the sup-
porting experiments, we have taken care to
adhere to a didactically useful concept. Success-
ful learning can be reviewed using the additional
work sheets.

2 1 Introduction

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2 Safety

2.1 Intended use

The unit is to be used only for teaching purposes.

2.2 Structure of safety instructions

The signal words DANGER, WARNING or CAU-

TION indicate the likelihood of occurrence and
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potential severity of injuries.

An additional symbol explains the type of danger
or a command.

Signal word Explanation

DANGER Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, will lead to death

or serious injury.

WARNING Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may lead to death

or serious injury.

CAUTION Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may lead to light

or moderate injury.

NOTICE Indicates a situation which may lead to device damage or

provides information on operating the device.

Symbol Explanation

Electric voltage

Hot surface

2 Safety 3

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Symbol Explanation

Wear gloves

Notice

2.3 Safety instructions

WARNING
There is the possibility of electric shock when
reaching into the open control and display
unit.
• Disconnect the plug from the power supply
before opening.
• All work must be performed by trained
electricians only.
• Protect control and display unit against
moisture.

WARNING
There is the possibility of electric shock when
the heating elements' covers are open.
• Do not open the covers.

4 2 Safety

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WARNING
There is a risk of burning if you come into
contact with the housing and attachments.
Temperatures of around 120°C are reached.
• Do not touch housing during and after
operation without wearing hand protection.
• Always wear heat-insulating gloves.
• Allow heating surfaces and inserts to cool
before touching them.
• Leave the unit to cool before dismantling it.
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• Do not leave the heated unit unattended.

WARNING
There is a risk of burning if you touch the star
knob screws when installing/removing the
heating elements.
• Leave the unit to cool before dismantling it.
• Always wear heat-insulating gloves.

2 Safety 5

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WARNING
The heating inserts can burn.
• Leave heater inserts to cool before touching
them.
• Always wear heat-insulating gloves.
• Label the dismantled heater insert with a
warning sign using the same symbols as
shown here.
• Do not leave the heated heater insert
unattended.

NOTICE
Do not operate the fan in its lower range of
adjustment, because even though there is voltage
to the fan, the fan is stationary.

NOTICE
The fan and heating element connectors are fitted
with identical plugs. The respective connector is
marked on the reverse of the display and control
unit. These two connectors may not be mixed up.

NOTICE
The speed sensor is extremely sensitive at the
end of its probe and can easily be damaged.
• Avoid contact.

6 2 Safety

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NOTICE
When outputs are open (sensor or heating
elements not connected) the digital display on the
control and display unit will show incorrect values.
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2 Safety 7

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8 2 Safety

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3 Device description

3.1 Device design

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1 Air duct 6 Pt100 element for

outlet temperature T2
2 Measuring glands 7 Pipe bundle heater insert
3 Thermocouple, temperature T3 (fins & flat plate not shown)
4 Flow sensor 8 Control and display unit
5 Pt100 element for
inlet temperature T1

Fig. 3.1 Design of the WL 352 unit

3 Device description 9

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WL 352 FREE AND FORCED CONVECTION UNIT

• The air duct (1) with a flow cross-section of

120mm x 120mm and with a length of 1m is
used to guide the flowing air.

• It has measuring glands (2), which allow it to

detect the temperature at different points by
inserting a thermocouple (3). In addition, a
flow sensor (4) records the entry velocity of
the air and each Pt100 element (5, 6) records
the inlet and outlet temperatures.

• The heater inserts (7, fins and flat plate not

shown) are inserted into the duct. They are
attached with simple star knob screws. The
different heat exchanger surfaces (flat plate,
pipe bundle or fins) are each operated via four
heating resistors with a maximum total output
of approx. 170W. The applied voltage can be
regulated so as to adjust the heating output.
Bimetallic thermostats are used so that the
temperature does not exceed a value of
120°C; these interrupt the current supply at a
predefined limiting value. The current supply is
switched back on at 105°C.

• The control and display unit (8) contains the

power supply and control for the fan and the
heater inserts. Furthermore, the unit displays
the electrical output of the heating elements,
the flow velocity, the inlet and outlet tempera-
ture of the air and the temperature of the ther-
mocouple. A PC can be connected at the back
to capture measurement data.

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• A built-in adjustable speed fan conveys the air

in experiments dealing with forced convection.

3.2 Positioning and commissioning

The device is designed so that it can be placed on

a table. It is then possible for the observer to reach
all the measuring glands and see the heater insert
through a sight window. The control and display
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unit should be set up near to the air duct so that the

measuring points can be reached by the thermo-
couple. The connection and measurement lines
are up to 2m long. The connectors for the power
supply and the outlets for heating elements and
fan, as well as the thermocouple measurement
input are located on the rear of the unit.

The air duct must be installed on a solid, flat sur-

face. Furthermore, ensure that the air duct's entry
and exit are freely accessible so that the flow is
not adversely affected resulting in unexplained
measurements.

The following points should be considered when

setting up and commissioning:

• Position the trainer vertically.

• Keep the air duct inlet and outlet clear, so that

the air flow is not restricted.

• Connect fan and heating element to the display

and control unit via device cables with plug
and / or coupling.

3 Device description 11

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• Connect thermocouple to the display and con-

trol unit via a socket.

• Energy supply for the display and control unit

via mains plug.

3.3 Measurement data collection program

3.3.1 Program installation

Required for installation:

• A ready-to-use PC with USB port (for minimum
requirements see Chapter 8.1, Page 83).
• G.U.N.T. CD-ROM
All components required to install and operate
the program are included on the CD-ROM pro-
vided by GUNT.

Installation procedure

NOTICE
The trainer must not be connected to the PC's
USB port while the program is being installed. The
trainer may only be connected after the software
has been successfully installed.

• Start the PC.

• Insert GUNT CD-ROM.
• In the "Installer" folder, launch the "Setup.exe"
installation program.
• Follow the installation procedure on screen.

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• Installation will run automatically after starting

it. The following program components are
installed onto the PC:
– Program for PC-based data acquisition.
– Driver routines for the "LabJack®" USB con-
verter.
• Once the installation program has finished,
restart the PC.
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3.3.2 Program operation

• Select the program and start via:

Start / Programs / G.U.N.T. / WL 352.
• The first time you launch the software after
installing it you will be asked which language
you wish to operate the program in.
The language may be changed at any time in
the "Language" menu.
• For other functions various pull-down menus
are available.

Fig. 3.2 Language selection • For detailed instructions on use of the program
refer to its Help function. You can get to the
help function via the "?" pull-down menu and
selecting "Help".

3 Device description 13

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14 3 Device description

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4 Basic principles

This chapter lists some of the basic theoretical

principles that should make it easier to under-
stand and evaluate the subsequent experiments.
Having said this, only a limited area of heat trans-
fer is represented with respect to the trainer, since
a complete theoretical analysis is too large a
scope to cover.
Notes:
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For variables in the basic principles the index cor-

responds to the measuring point of the respective
unit of measurement.
A comparison of the variables used in software
and instructions is provided in Chapter 8.2,
Page 86.

4 Basic principles 15

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4.1 Heat

Heat is energy bound in matter. It is a measure of

motion at the atomic scale. What we refer to as
heat is a form of energy that is present within the
matter in the form of vibrational energy at the
atomic level.
In thermodynamics we use Q in formulae to indi-
cate the quantity of heat.
The temperature is directly related to the amount
of stored heat of a body:
QT
If there is a temperature difference between two
measuring points, then there is an exchange of
heat. Heat can be transferred through a variety of
different mechanisms.

4.2 Heat transfer by radiation

Heat radiation is a transport mechanism for heat

that doesn't require any materials for conduction
or transport, as is the case in heat conduction or
convection.
Heat radiation occurs everywhere where there is
a temperature difference between bodies. Simi-
larly, the bodies must be able to beam the radia-
tion along a direct path. This is provided in a vac-
uum and in gases, and also in the Earth's
Fig. 4.1 The sun transfers its heat atmosphere.
exclusively by radiation

16 4 Basic principles

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4.3 Heat transfer by conduction

Heat conduction is a heat transfer mechanism

within solid bodies.
The heat is transferred through the vibrations of
the particles of matter. Matter particles are bound
to their location within the solid body. The heat is
transferred through contact between the particles.
Metals, in which heat conduction is made possible
through additional free electrons have a special
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place here. These are contained within the mat-

ter, but bound without a fixed position. This allows
them to better absorb and emit the vibration. This
is the reason why metals are generally better heat
conductors than non-metals.
Heat conduction can also take place in fluids as
well as solid bodies. This requires a still fluid in
order to be differentiated from convection.

4.4 Heat transfer by convection

Convection is a heat transfer mechanism, during

which a fluid absorbs heat. When in contact with
a surface with a different temperature this occurs
by heat conduction. The fluid can also absorb
heat via radiation. This requires the radiation to be
absorbed. The fact that the fluid does not have a
fixed form compared to the solid body, the fluid
particles can move freely, which means they can
transport heat. Where such transport takes place,
it is called convection.

4 Basic principles 17

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Achieving a certain temperature difference in a

body requires a certain amount of energy:

Q = m  cp   T (4.1)

Here the mass m of the material to be heated up,

and the specific thermal capacity c pa are signifi-
cant. While the mass m describes the physical
quantity of material, the specific thermal capacity
c p indicates how much energy is stored per tem-
perature difference and mass.
This instruction manual uses the measured tem-
perature rise of the air mass flow rate to calculate
the convective capacity.
In steady operating mode, flow passes through
the trainer with a constant air mass flow rate. The
observation of the heat flow with the measured air
mass flow rate is:
· ·  c  T
Q = m p (4.2)
Fig. 4.2 Hot gases rise
· consists of:
The air mass flow rate m
· = wA· 
m (4.3)
m

Below you can find details on the variables of

Formula (4.2), Page 18 and Formula (4.3),
Page 18:
• The temperature difference is calculated from:

 T = T2 – T1 (4.4)

18 4 Basic principles

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While T1 roughly corresponds to the ambient

temperature T0, T2 is simplified in that the
measured value corresponds to the average
temperature at the unit outlet. This simplifica-
tion is important for the subsequent evaluation
of results.

• The flow velocity w and the temperature differ-

ence  T are average variables over the entire
flow cross-section. The flow cross-section A m·
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in the trainer is defined as constant at

0,0144m2. The cross-section is a result of the
air duct dimensions of 120mm x 120mm.

• The density of air  can be derived from the

general gas equation:

T 1,  1, m 0  = m p -
----- = ----------- (4.5)
v RT

The density of air to be used to calculate the

mass flow rate depends on the temperature at
the velocity measuring point. You can use rele-
T1 > T0
1 < 0 vant literature or the table in Chapter 8.3,
Page 87 to form average values for the corre-
sponding temperature.

• The universal gas constant R of the air

T 0,  0, m 0 depends on the relative humidity and tempera-
KJ
ture. The value of 287 --------------
- of dry air can be
kg  K
used here with only negligible error.
Fig. 4.3 Balloon with equal air mass • The specific thermal capacity of air c pa also
and different
temperatures depends on the air temperature. It increases
with the temperature. In the later experiments
KJ
the simplified value of 1,008 --------------
- can be
kg  K
assumed. The error lies in the region of single

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digit parts per thousand. You can use relevant

literature or the table in Chapter 8.3, Page 87
to form average values for the corresponding
temperature.

4.5 Heat transfer coefficient

Another method for calculating the transferred

heat is via the heat transfer coefficient  :
·
Q = A     T (4.6)
·
Q 1  1
Cooling The area A is the surface of the heat exchanger
and  T the temperature difference between the
surface temperature T4 of the heat exchanger and
the temperature of the fluid, in this case equal to
·
Q1  Q0 the ambient temperature which is nearly equal to
1  0 T1.
The heat transfer coefficient  can be determined
experimentally using Formula (4.2), Page 18 and
· Formula (4.6), Page 20:
Q 0  0
Insulating
m ·  c  T – T 
 = ------------------------------------------
p 2 1
- = f  Nu  (4.7)
Fig. 4.4 Large and small A   T4 – T1 
intentional heat transfer

For select technically relevant applications it is

possible to calculate the heat transfer coefficients
by means of the theory of similarity. This is done
through empirical formulae with ratios. A short
overview of the theory of similarity is given below.

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4.5.1 Theory of similarity

The method mentioned above for calculating the

heat transfer coefficient  is based on the theory
of similarity. This is used in many fields of physics
and is a particularly important foundation in heat
transfer. Physical similarity means that the model
is similar to its original in a certain property.

Example of scale: A model of the Cologne

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Cathedral looks similar to its original; it is similar

in appearance (geometric similarity). However, it
is different when we consider the interior or the
building materials.

We use ratios in order to demonstrate and study

similarities. These ratios are dimensionless, and
their similarity only describes the parameters
under consideration.
Fig. 4.5 Matryoshka dolls,
similarity in form

Example: The Mach number is a ratio which is

used in fast vehicles (e.g. aircraft) as a measure
of velocity. The Mach number is defined as the
ratio of current velocity to the velocity of sound.

Using the theory of similarity we can also perform

calculations on heat flows. This often has advan-
tages in technical handling, especially in con-
struction matters.

The following ratios are essential when consider-

ing and assessing convection. Here we only refer
to the mainly significant ratios. Calculating heat
transfer is also based on formulae determined

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empirically from ratios obtained from models.

Please refer to the relevant specialist literature for
a deeper understanding of the subject.

4.5.2 Nusselt number

The Nusselt number is a measure of the heat

transfer in convection. It is given by:
Air flow
Nu =   -l
-------- (4.8)

Nu1
Rough
cooling fins
It is the ratio of convective heat transfer to heat
conduction in motionless fluid. The Nusselt
number is thus the improvement of heat transfer
Smooth Nu1 > Nu0 in convection compared to the heat transfer,
surface,
insulated which 'only' takes place by the heat conduction of
the fluid.
Calm According to this definition, Nu is always greater
air Nu0
than one since each movement of fluid represents
an additional transfer of heat for conduction.
Fig. 4.6 Comparison of extreme
Nusselt cases The Greek letter  stands for the coefficient of
thermal conduction of air. This coefficient is
dependent on temperature. The individual values
can be found in the table in Chapter 8.3, Page 87.

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The length l is called the characteristic length.

This length represents the geometric similarity. In
a flat plate this is the overflowed length l, in a
(quantity = 1)

overflowed cylinder it is l = d  --- .
2
The Nusselt number depends on other ratios.
Empirical formulae have been created from
experiments which reflect the ratios in different
applications. It is only with the Nusselt number,
which is calculated by an empirical formula, that
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Fig. 4.7 Characteristic length we can later determine the heat transfer coeffi-
cient  using Formula (4.8), Page 22. The
Nusselt number has to be re-calculated accord-
ingly when the parameters are changed.

4.5.3 Reynolds number

The Reynolds number represents the ratio of the

inertia force to the viscosity force of a fluid:
w  -l
Re = --------- (4.9)

w: Flow velocity
l: Characteristic length, refer to:
Chapter 4.5.2, Page 22
: Kinematic viscosity, see table,
Chapter 8.3, Page 87
The Reynolds number represents a ratio for the
formation of the flow. We make a distinction
between laminar and turbulent flow.

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4.5.3.1 Laminar flow

Laminar flow means that the fluid particles have

only one velocity value in the direction of flow.
Fluid particles in the vicinity of the heating ele-
ment keep their distance from the surface as long
as the flow is parallel to it. The heat transport
occurs both by heat conduction and also by trans-
port with the fluid particles. Heat conduction takes
place in all directions. Transport with the particles
of matter only in accordance with the direction of
flow. Therefore a small transfer of heat takes
place perpendicular to the flow as in the flow
direction.
At low Reynolds numbers we assume laminar
flow. The amount of the Reynolds number
Fig. 4.8 Laminar pipe flow depends on the geometry. Other geometries
mean other Reynolds numbers and also other
Reynolds number variables for the laminar region.
This must be determined by experiments for each
problem case.
For pipes there is laminar flow at Re < 2300. In the
5
flat plate this is the case at Re < 10 .
We must make this distinction for areas of validity
when calculating the Nusselt number, but in the
subsequent calculation we only refer to one case
by way of example.

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4.5.3.2 Turbulent flow

Turbulent flow occurs when turbulence causes

other velocity components to be present in the
flow in addition to the main direction of flow. This
turbulence is irregular and random. For heat
transfer, this means better mixing, since the heat
is now also transported with the fluid particles,
across the main flow.
Above a certain Reynolds number we can
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assume that the flow changes from laminar to

turbulent. How big this Reynolds number is
depends on the geometry of the body being
flowed through.
With increasing flow velocity, after laminar flow
there follows a transition area, designated by the
Fig. 4.9 Turbulent pipe flow range of the critical Reynolds number. The turbu-
lent flow only develops fully at higher flow veloci-
ties. In the analytical calculations in industry and
technology there is usually a set of formulae
describing the areas of validity using ratios.

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4.6 Free convection

As already mentioned, convection describes the

transport of heat by moving fluid particles. In free
convection, this motion is caused by the density
differences resulting from warming.
The heater element gives off its heat to the air.
This occurs in the heating element by heat
conduction to the surface. The heated air flows
upwards through the resulting difference in den-
sity. Since the outflow proceeds faster than the
heat transfer, we can note an increased velocity
Fig. 4.10 Free convection and temperature, especially in the vicinity of the
warm surface.

4.7 Forced convection

In forced convection, the flow is made possible by

an outside technical device, such as a fan. This
results in an increased speed compared to free
convection. The quicker transport of the fluid
causes a higher temperature gradient from the
warm surface to the fluid and thus a better heat
transfer.
If the velocity is so high that the flow changes from
laminar to turbulent, the additional fluid movement
across the main direction (turbulence) provides
improved heat transfer - away from the surface.
This can also only happen locally (e.g. between
the fins on the fin heater), since the local
Reynolds number can vary over the cross-
section.

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5 Experiments

5.1 Notes for instructors

The experiments discussed in this chapter are

only a selection of experiments that can be carried
out. The subsequent exercises in Chapter 6,
Page 47 are mainly based on the experiments
described being carried out.
Environmental conditions and manufacturing tol-
erances of the device may cause deviations
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between your own measurements and the meas-

ured values shown here.
The time taken to reach steady state largely
depends on the mass to be heated and the heat
flow coming off. The better the heat is transferred
by convection, the longer the time needed until
the final state is reached. Therefore the heating
time is conditional on physical conditions.
Because of the relatively long time needed to
achieve a steady state the exercises in this chap-
ter are handled separately. Alternatively, it is pos-
sible to process and present individual experi-
ments in group work.
It is down to the instructor to judge how later exer-
cises are handled in theory and practice. A guide-
line is proposed in the structure of the exercises.

5.2 Notes on conducting the experiments

1. If you are intending to evaluate efficiency,

make sure that the device is not operated in
hysteresis mode (switching off the heat output
at maximum temperature). This leads to values

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being distorted, as there is no quasi-stationary

operation and the actual heat output remains
unknown!
2. Due to physical conditions the temperature
sensor requires a certain amount of time before
the temperature value of the flowing air is dis-
played correctly. In factory experiments, we
determined a measurement time T5% from
about 2.5min. For large temperature changes,
it is even more important to observe the meas-
uring time in order to keep absolute errors
small.
3. Analogous to no. 2:
It will take some time before the heating ele-
ment reaches steady operation. It is recom-
mended that the software provided is used to
regulate reaching the steady state over the
course of time. This can be assumed for a tem-
perature change in the heater of less than
0,5°C/min. If no computer is available we rec-
ommend not falling below the following times:

Heating element Air velocity in m/s Recommended hold time in min

Flat plate min 70

Flat plate max 45

Fin heater min 45

Fin heater max 20

Pipe bundle min 45

Pipe bundle max 15

Tab. 5.1 Recommended heating times for various heating elements in

minimum and maximum heat output

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5.3 Preparation of experiments

To obtain correct results, it is necessary to deter-

mine and save the heater temperature. The sur-
face temperature T4 is measured with the thermo-
couple. This happens with the heating element
installed and after a steady operation has been
reached. The temperature of the heating ele-
ments can be measured with the thermocouple
through measuring holes. The menu item "Edit -
Initialize Surface Temperature" is used to transfer
the temperature from the thermocouple.
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If the fin heater or the pipe bundle is used, an

average value can be formed from all measuring
Fig. 5.1 Recording T4 ports on the trainer. These can be entered in the
software manually as heating element surface
temperature. Alternatively, the middle measuring
port can be selected as a temperature reference.
Furthermore, the ambient temperature, air pres-
sure and relative humidity have to be entered
manually.
If a new measuring point is approached after a
measurement, this procedure has to be repeated
upon reaching the steady point.

5.4 GUNT measurement data

The following charts show measurements by

GUNT on the WL 352 trainer. The curves shown
are trend lines through point clouds (point clouds
not shown). The curves represent an orientation
of the expected values. Variations in conditions
(input power, physical properties) must be taken
into account.

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5.4.1 Flat plate

Alpha in W/m² K
Alpha in W/m2K
T2 - T1 in °C

Flow velocity in m/s

T4 - T1 in °C

Temperature difference in °C

Fig. 5.2 Flat plate at 55 watts

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5.4.2 Fin heater

Alpha in W/m² K
Alpha in W/m2K
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T2 - T1 in °C

Flow velocity in m/s

T4 - T1 in °C

Temperature difference in °C

Fig. 5.3 Fin heater at 180 watts

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5.4.3 Pipe bundle

Alpha in W/m² K
Alpha in W/m2K
T2 - T1 in °C

Flow velocity in m/s

T4 - T1 in °C

Temperature difference in °C

Fig. 5.4 Pipe bundle at 180 watts

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5.4.4 Fin heater and pipe bundle temperature distribution

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Fig. 5.5 Fin insert with temperature distribution in free convection, 160W

Fig. 5.6 Pipe bundle insert with temperature distribution in free convection, 145W

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5.5 Possible educational opening question / experiment

The 'flat plate' heating element is presented on a

table without the trainer and operated with the
control panel. The heated plate gives off heat to
the environment. First we will discuss which
mechanisms are used to emit heat. After an over-
view of the mechanisms our main focus will be
convection. Another learning objective is meas-
ures for increasing the heat discharge, for exam-
ple to dissipate process heat.
The other experiments are intended to strengthen
this understanding.

5.6 Experiment 1: Evaluation of free convection

Note for free convection:

If, following a period of downtime that allows a uni-
form temperature distribution in the room and the
device, the trainer indicates a temperature differ-
ence from T1 to T2, then there is temperature lay-
ering present in the room air in the experiment
space. This temperature difference must be sub-
tracted from the subsequent value of air heating,
because it means an increase in energy level,
which is already given by the space.

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5.6.1 Experiment 1a: Evaluation of the flat plate

At the start of the experiment, the 'flat plate' heat-

ing element is attached to the control and display
unit and installed in the trainer. The heating output
is adjusted so as to set a temperature between
Measuring point for T4 105...115°C on the surface of the flat plate. In fac-
tory experiments this was achieved at 55 watts.
The surface temperature T4 is measured by the
thermocouple in the centre of the plate as shown
in Fig. 5.7. For this purpose a hole is added in the
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front Plexiglas plate.

The values can be recorded on the computer or in
the respective sub-chapter using the experiment
documentation.
Fig. 5.7 Measuring point for T4 with the
'flat plate' heater insert The measurements can be documented via data
acquisition or using the following prepared
sheets.

Learning objectives:
– Familiarisation with the experimental unit.
– Record readings.
– Calculate convection characteristic values.
– Interpret convection characteristic values.

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5.6.2 Experiment 1a experiment documentation

Type of experiment: Evaluation of the flat plate

Type of convection: free convection
Heating element: flat plate
Measurements:
Measuring point - measured values Unit Value

Electrical power Pel

Flow velocity w

Inlet temperature T1

Outlet temperature T2

Flat plate heating element T4

Values for calculation Unit Value

Temperature difference T2 - T1

Temperature difference T4 - T1

Table value of air density 

Table value of spec. thermal capacity cp

·
Thermal energy Q

Heating element area A

Heat transfer coefficient 

Nusselt number Nu

Heating surface load q·

Tab. 5.2 Measurements

Notes:

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5.6.3 Experiment 1b:

Comparison of different heating elements

The trainer is operated as in the previous experi-

ment, however, the heating element is replaced
Measuring point for T4 by the fin heater or the pipe bundle.
As in experiment 1a, the maximum surface tem-
perature at the back wall of the heating element
should be between 105...115°C, in order to pro-
duce the power for continuous output. In factory
experiments, this was the case of at 160 watts for
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the fin heater and 145 watts for the pipe bundle.
The measurements can be documented via data
acquisition or using the following prepared
sheets.
Fig. 5.8 Measuring point for T4 with the
'fin heater' heater insert

To make things simpler, the surface temperature

of the heater can be measured through the side
Measuring point for T4 measuring points as shown in Fig. 5.8 and Fig.
5.9.

Learning objectives:
– To recognise how the heater surface affects
heat transfer

Fig. 5.9 Measuring point for T4 with the

'pipe bundle' heater insert

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5.6.4 Experiment 1b experiment documentation

Type of experiment: Evaluation of fin heater & pipe bundle

Type of convection: free convection
Heating element: fin heater / pipe bundle
Measurements:
Measuring point - measured values Unit Fin heater Pipe bundle
value value

Electrical power Pel approx. 160 approx. 145

Flow velocity w

Inlet temperature T1

Outlet temperature T2

Surface temperature T4

Values for calculation Unit Fin heater Pipe bundle

value value

Temperature difference T2 - T1

Temperature difference T4 - T1

Table value of air density 

Table value of spec. thermal capacity cp

·
Thermal energy Q

Heater surface A

Heat transfer coefficient 

Nusselt number Nu

Heating surface load q·

Tab. 5.3 Measurements

Notes:

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5.6.5 Experiment 1c:

Varying the heater temperature

In this experiment the fin model is used as a heat-

ing element. The efficiency of convection is much
better here than in the flat plate, thus the learning
objectives can be more clearly seen.
The following experiment has to be distinguished
from the pipe bundle.
Start-up takes place as in the previous experi-
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ments.
The measurements can be documented via data
acquisition or using the following prepared
sheets.

Learning objectives:
– To recognise the relationship between surface
temperature to heat transfer

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5.6.6 Experiment 1c experiment documentation

Type of experiment: Evaluation of the fin heater

Type of convection: free convection
Heating element: fin heater

Measurements:
Measuring point - measured values Unit Value Value Value Value

Electrical power Pel approx. 75 approx. 100 approx. 125 approx. 150

Flow velocity w

Inlet temperature T1

Outlet temperature T2

Surface temperature T4

Values for calculation Unit Value Value Value Value

Temperature difference T2 - T1

Temperature difference T4 - T1

Table value of air density 

Table value of spec. thermal capacity cp

·
Thermal energy Q

Heater surface A

Heat transfer coefficient 

Nusselt number Nu

Heating surface load q·

Tab. 5.4 Measurements

Notes:

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5.6.7 Experiment 1d:

Influence of the heating element's overflow

This experiment is designed as a follow-up to

experiment 1c.
The pipe bundle is used as a heating element.
Start-up takes place as in the previous experi-
ments.
The measurements can be documented via data
acquisition or using the following prepared
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sheets.

Learning objectives:
– To recognise what affect flow mixing has.

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5.6.8 Experiment 1d experiment documentation

Type of experiment: Evaluation of the pipe bundle

Type of convection: free convection
Heating element: pipe bundle

Measurements:
Measuring point - measured values Unit Value Value Value Value

Electrical power Pel approx. 75 approx. 100 approx. 125 approx. 150

Flow velocity w

Inlet temperature T1

Outlet temperature T2

Surface temperature T4

Values for calculation Unit Value Value Value Value

Temperature difference T2 - T1

Temperature difference T4 - T1

Table value of air density 

Table value of spec. thermal capacity cp

·
Thermal energy Q

Heater surface A

Heat transfer coefficient 

Nusselt number Nu

Heating surface load q·

Tab. 5.5 Measurements

Notes:

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5.7 Experiment 2: Flow velocity in forced convection

This experiment is intended to demonstrate what

effect flow velocity has on the trainer system.
The fundamentals of the influence of flow velocity
on convection can be found in the "Basic princi-
ples" chapter.
Start-up takes place as in the previous experi-
ments.
The measurements can be documented via data
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acquisition or using the following prepared

sheets.

Learning objectives:
– To identify the influence of velocity on the
heater insert
– To identify the influence of velocity on heat
transfer

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5.7.1 Experiment 2 experiment documentation

Type of experiment: Influence of flow velocity

Type of convection: forced convection
Heating element: fin heater

Measurements:
Measuring point - measured values Unit Value Value Value Value Value Value

Electrical power Pel

Flow velocity w approx. 0,5 approx. 1,0 approx. 1,5 approx. 2,0 approx. 2,5 approx. 3,0

Inlet temperature T1

Outlet temperature T2

Surface temperature T4

Values for calculation Unit Value Value Value Value Value Value

Temperature difference T2 - T1

Temperature difference T4 - T1

Table value of air density 

Table value of spec. thermal capacity cp

·
Thermal energy Q

Heater surface A

Heat transfer coefficient 

Nusselt number Nu

Heating surface load q·

Tab. 5.6 Measurements

Notes:

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5.7.2 Experiment 3: Heat distribution on the pipe bundle

This experiment looks at the qualitative evaluation

of the influence of heat transfer in the pipe bundle.

Learning objective:
– To identify the temperature gradient in the pipe
bundle
– To identify the relationship to convection
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5.7.3 Experiment 3 experiment documentation

Type of experiment: Temperature distribution on the pipe bundle

Type of convection: free convection / forced convection
Heating element: pipe bundle

Measurements:
Measuring point - measured values Unit Value

Electrical power Pel

Flow velocity w

Inlet temperature T1

Outlet temperature T2

Tab. 5.7 Measurements

Notes:

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6 Tasks

Tasks / exercises Topic

Worksheet 1 Layout and function of the trainer

Worksheet 2 Basic questions on free convection

Worksheet 3 Basic questions on forced convection

Basic questions on measurement practice and the theory of

Worksheet 4
similarity
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6.1 Worksheet 1: Layout and function of the trainer

Page 1
Learning objectives:
• To be able to explain the mechanism of
convection and differentiate from other types of
heat transfer
• To discover the possibilities of the trainer
• Practical familiarisation with the trainer
• To develop proficiency for conducting
measurements
• To identify and describe differences in the
heating elements
– in geometry
– in operation
• To be able to state influences on the thermal
energy transferred
• To understand and be able to explain the
influence of the temperature gradient in the
calculation

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Worksheet 1, Page 2

1. What type of heat transfer is present in each example?

a) Heat transfer from cooking pot on hob:
How is the heat transferred?
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

Where is this type of heat transfer present on the device?

b) Heat transfer from Sun to Earth:

How is the heat transferred?

Where is this type of heat transfer present on the device?

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Worksheet 1, Page 3

c) Heat transfer from filament to air in a hair dryer:

How is the heat transferred?

Where is this type of heat transfer present on the device?

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Worksheet 1, Page 4
Exercise: Name the numbered items on the WL 352 trainer. What function
does each element have?
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No. Description Function

Tab. 6.1 Description of the trainer

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6.2 Worksheet 2: Basic questions on free convection

Page 1

Learning objectives:
• Familiarisation with the trainer in operation with
free convection
• Reference to everyday heating equipment
should be created
• The physical function should be identified

Exercises:
Answer the following questions on the WL 352
trainer

1. Compare (several possibilities):

What technical devices also transfer heat to air?

2. Which components in you comparison do the named components of the

WL 352 trainer correspond to?
Heating element:
Power cable:
Air duct:

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Worksheet 2, Page 2:

3. a) Describe the heat transfer in conduction:

a) Describe the heat transfer in convection:

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c) How are solids different to gases/liquids in heat transfer?

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Worksheet 2, Page 3:

on experiment 1a, free convection:

4. What happens during free convection? Describe the processes involved in
free convection.
• What physical variables of the air does the heater insert change when the
air flows through the air duct?

• What property change in the air is the reason for flowing through the air
duct?

on experiment 1b, flat plate - fin heater comparison:

5. Explain the improvement of heat transfer when comparing the flat plate to
the fin heater and/or the pipe bundle.

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Worksheet 2, Page 4:

on experiment 1c, variation of T4:

6. The surface temperature T4 is increased.
• Where can the higher heater temperature be noticed in the air?
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

• How does this become apparent in the uplift?

on experiment 1d, fin heater - pipe bundle comparison:

7. Although the pipe bundle has a smaller surface area, the calculated values
for heat transfer show comparable or better values for heat transfer. What
effect can explain this?

6 Tasks 55

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6.3 Worksheet 3:
Basic questions on forced convection:

Page 1:
Learning objectives:
• Distinction between forced and free convection
• To develop an understanding of the variable
parameters
• To be able to describe how flow velocity affects
the transferred thermal energy

Exercise:
Answer the following questions on the WL 352
trainer

1. How are forced and free convection different?

2. What technical devices operate on the principle of

forced convection?

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Worksheet 3, Page 2:

on experiment 2:
3. How can the transferred thermal output be calculated: (Formula)
Using mass flow:
Using the surface area:

4. In forced convection and where the heater and inflow temperatures are
equal, the outflow temperatures are smaller than in free convection.
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

Nevertheless, in comparison there are higher heat transfer coefficients.

How can this be explained?

Analogous to experiment 1d:

5. How can the heat transfer coefficient be increased further using the flow
and the heater insert?

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Worksheet 3, Page 3:

on experiment 3: Temperature distribution on the pipe bundle

6. The pipes protrude vertically into the flow. During operation, we can
measure a lower temperature at the end of the pipe compared to the
beginning of the heater plate. How can we explain this decrease in
temperature in the pipe direction?

7. In the direction of flow the air passes through the series of pipe bundles.
During operation we can measure a lower temperature at the lower row of
pipes (near T1) compared to the upper row of pipes (near T2). How can
we explain this difference in temperature in the direction of flow?

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6.4 Worksheet 4:
Basic questions on measurement practice and
the theory of similarity:

Page 1:

Learning objectives:
• To be able to describe physical similarity
• To be able to explain the importance of the
Nusselt ratio's statement
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

• To be able to critically evaluate measurements

and the values calculated from them

Exercise:
Answer the following questions on the theory of
heat transfer WL 352

1. When do we talk about physical similarity?

2. Explain the statement of the Nusselt number for heat transfer.

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Worksheet 4, Page 2

on the experiments:
3. What ratio characterises the flow?

4. What statements can we use it to make?

5. How can ratios for heat transfer be used?

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Worksheet 4, Page 3:

Considering the measuring points

6. In a comparison of the temperature measuring points it is evident that the
handheld temperature sensor (thermocouple) is slightly different to the
other two measurement points (Pt100). What could the explanation be?
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

7. When measuring surface temperatures with the handheld temperature

sensor it is evident is that this is much quicker than measuring the air
flowing out. How can this be explained?

8. The measurement point T2 is located roughly in the centre of the air duct.
What error has to be taken into consideration when the air is only heated
up on one side of the duct wall due to the use of the 'flat plate' heater
insert?

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Worksheet 4, Page 4

9. The flow sensor protrudes into the flow of the air duct. Measurement is
done at the end of the probe. What assumption is made in the calculation?

10.What conclusion must be drawn from the knowledge of measurement

uncertainties for resulting findings?

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Worksheet 4, Page 5

Considering efficiency:
11.Calculate the efficiency of your selected
·
Q- . The factor  indicates how
measurement using the formula:  = -------
P el
much of the heat output used is transferred to the fluid (here: air).

Experiment: _______________________ _
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

Heating element: ____________ ____________

Electrical power Pel: ________________________
Flow velocity w: __________________ ______
Inlet temperature T1: ________________________
Outlet temperature T2: ________________________
Calculation:

12.The electric power applied is fully converted into heat. When calculating
the efficiency only one of the three heat transfer mechanisms is
considered. What does this mean for the efficiency?

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7 Solutions

Tasks / exercises Topic

Worksheet 1 Layout and function of the trainer

Worksheet 2 Basic questions on free convection

Worksheet 3 Basic questions on forced convection

Basic questions on measurement practice and the theory of

Worksheet 4
similarity
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7 Solutions 65

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7.1 Worksheet 1: Layout and function of the trainer

Page 1
Learning objectives:
• To be able to explain the mechanism of
convection and differentiate from other types of
heat transfer
• To discover the possibilities of the trainer
• Practical familiarisation with the trainer
• To develop proficiency for conducting
measurements
• To identify and describe differences in the
heating elements
– in geometry
– in operation
• To be able to state influences on the thermal
energy transferred
• To understand and be able to explain the
influence of the temperature gradient in the
calculation

66 7 Solutions

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Worksheet 1, Page 2

1. What type of heat transfer is present in each example?

a) Heat transfer from cooking pot on hob:
How is the heat transferred?
Heat conduction. Transfer of heat through a substance.
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

Where is this type of heat transfer present on the device?

The heating element conducts heat to the heater housing via the
attachment. Heat is also transferred to the air duct by conduction through
contact points with the air duct.

b) Heat transfer from Sun to Earth:

How is the heat transferred?
Heat radiation. Heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation.

Where is this type of heat transfer present on the device?

All bodies emit thermal radiation at their surface. The heating
element emits radiation to the surrounding air duct. The influence of
heat transferred by radiation is negligible.

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Worksheet 1, Page 3

c) Heat transfer from filament to air in a hair dryer:

How is the heat transferred?
Convection Conduction from a surface to the fluid, then
further heat transfer through the fluid particles themselves.

Where is this type of heat transfer present on the device?

Heating elements transfer their heat output to the air flowing by.

68 7 Solutions

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Worksheet 1, Page 4
Exercise: Name the numbered items on the WL 352 trainer. What function
does each element have?
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

No. Description Function

1 air duct Guiding the air flow

2 Measuring glands Opening to pass the thermocouple through
3 Thermocouple Measuring air and surface temperatures T3

4 Flow sensor Measuring the flow velocity

5 Temperature Measuring the inlet temperature T1
sensor
6 Temperature Measuring the outlet temperature T2
sensor
7 Heater insert Transferring heat to air
8 Control and Controlling the trainer and
display unit displaying measured values
Tab. 7.1 Description of the trainer

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7.2 Worksheet 2: Basic questions on free convection

Page 1

Learning objectives:
• Familiarisation with the trainer in operation with
free convection
• Reference to everyday heating equipment
should be created
• The physical function should be identified

Exercises:
Answer the following questions on the WL 352
trainer

1. Compare (several possibilities):

What technical devices also transfer heat to air?
Building heating / car radiator / hair dryer, etc

2. Which components in you comparison do the named components of the

WL 352 trainer correspond to?
Heating element: Radiator / radiator frame / heating coil
Power cable: Water supply / water supply / power cable
Air duct: room to be heated / not applicable /
case for guiding air

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Worksheet 2, Page 2:

3. a) Describe the heat transfer in conduction:

In heat conduction the heat is passed on due to individual matter
particles coming into contact with each other.

a) Describe the heat transfer in convection:

All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

In convection there is also motion of the heat-transporting particles.

As a result, heat is absorbed by a gas or a liquid and carried along.

c) How are solids different to gases/liquids in heat transfer?

Only heat conduction can take place in solids, because the particles
are bound and unable to move. In liquids or gases heat transport by the
movement of the material is also possible. The transfer directly to a
surface in a fluid occurs by heat conduction.

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Worksheet 2, Page 3:

on experiment 1a, free convection:

4. What happens during free convection? Describe the processes involved in
free convection.
• What physical variables of the air does the heater insert change when the
air flows through the air duct?
The temperature difference causes heat to be transferred to the air. The air
warms up, temperature increases.

• What property change in the air is the reason for flowing through the air
duct?
Warming up causes the air to expand. The density decreases compared to
the
ambient air. This results in lift forces, which cause the heated air
to flow through the air duct.

on experiment 1b, flat plate - fin heater comparison:

5. Explain the improvement of heat transfer when comparing the flat plate to
the fin heater and/or the pipe bundle.
Compared to the flat plate, the fin heater has a larger surface
area. Convection can only take place where heat is transferred
to a fluid. This can only happen at the surface of a fluid.
The larger surface area means greater implementation of heat
output is possible.

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Worksheet 2, Page 4:

on experiment 1c, variation of T4:

6. The surface temperature T4 is increased.
• Where can the higher heater temperature be noticed in the air?
If the heating element temperature increases, the temperature difference
to the ambient air also increases to the same extent. The higher
temperature difference results in a higher equalisation effort; more
heat is transferred to the air. The heat transport is improved.
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

• How does this become apparent in the uplift?

The better heat transfer from the warmer heating element causes
to heat up more quickly. This creates a greater uplift force, resulting in an
increase in flow velocity. The heat transport is improved.

on experiment 1d, fin heater - pipe bundle comparison:

7. Although the pipe bundle has a smaller surface area, the calculated values
for heat transfer show comparable or better values for heat transfer. What
effect can explain this?
The geometry of the pipe bundle forces the flowing air to mix together. This
is not the case in the fin heater. The mixing of the air ensures better transfer
of the heat across the main flow and a better transfer away from the
pipe wall.

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7.3 Worksheet 3:
Basic questions on forced convection:

Page 1:
Learning objectives:
• Distinction between forced and free convection
• To develop an understanding of the variable
parameters
• To be able to describe how flow velocity affects
the transferred thermal energy

Exercise:
Answer the following questions on the WL 352
trainer

1. How are forced and free convection different?

In forced convection the movement of the fluid is produced by a
technical device, e.g. a fan. This means that the mass flow rate of
the heat-absorbing medium is higher in free convection.

2. What technical devices operate on the principle of

forced convection?
Hair dryers, any type of cooler with fan (e.g. automotive, CPU cooler),
condensers in process engineering

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Worksheet 3, Page 2:

on experiment 2:
3. How can the transferred thermal output be calculated: (Formula)
Using mass flow: Q· = m ·  c  T
· pa
Using the surface area: Q =   A   T

4. In forced convection and where the heater and inflow temperatures are
equal, the outflow temperatures are smaller than in free convection.
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

Nevertheless, in comparison there are higher heat transfer coefficients.

How can this be explained?
The amount of heat increases with increasing temperature difference and
increasing mass: Q = m  c p   T
a
In the case of forced convection the recorded temperature decreases,
the dwell time of the fluid particles on the heater surface is lower, yet
there is a much greater mass flow, which more than compensates
for this effect.

Analogous to experiment 1d:

5. How can the heat transfer coefficient be increased further using the flow
and the heater insert?
The flow-through geometry allows you to influence the flow. Heat
transfer can be increased by deliberate mixing.

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Worksheet 3, Page 3:

on experiment 3: Temperature distribution on the pipe bundle

6. The pipes protrude vertically into the flow. During operation, we can
measure a lower temperature at the end of the pipe compared to the
beginning of the heater plate. How can we explain this decrease in
temperature in the pipe direction?
The heat flows in the heating element by conduction. The heat is transferred
from the heater plate to the pipes and further passed on into the ends of the
pipes. Heat is continuously given off by the pipe surface. Thus, not all heat
is conducted to the end of the pipe, which leads to the temperature
difference described.

7. In the direction of flow the air passes through the series of pipe bundles.
During operation we can measure a lower temperature at the lower row of
pipes (near T1) compared to the upper row of pipes (near T2). How can
we explain this difference in temperature in the direction of flow?
While the lower pipes emit their heat to cooler air, the upper pipes only have
the already heated air available to them. The smaller temperature difference
cancels out the cooling, so that we can measure a temperature difference in
the direction of flow at the pipes.

76 7 Solutions

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7.4 Worksheet 4:
Basic questions on measurement practice and
the theory of similarity:

Page 1:

Learning objectives:
• To be able to describe physical similarity
• To be able to explain the importance of the
Nusselt ratio's statement
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

• To be able to critically evaluate measurements

and the values calculated from them

Exercise:
Answer the following questions on the theory of
heat transfer WL 352

1. When do we talk about physical similarity?

Physical similarity exists when certain properties of one scale
can be transferred to another scale.
This requires a ratio to be defined (despite the different scale):

2. Explain the statement of the Nusselt number for heat transfer.

The Nusselt number states by what factor heat transfer is better
through convection compared to pure thermal conductivity of the
fluid.

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Worksheet 4, Page 2

on the experiments:
3. What ratio characterises the flow?
The Reynolds number is the ratio used to compare flows.

4. What statements can we use it to make?

If the flow formation in a model at a certain Reynolds number is known,
then the results (laminar, turbulent flow, turbulence) can be transferred to
other scales of the same Reynolds number.

5. How can ratios for heat transfer be used?

Unknown, new devices can be designed safely, whereby
findings from model-based experiments on small models
can be extrapolated up.

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Worksheet 4, Page 3:

Considering the measuring points

6. In a comparison of the temperature measuring points it is evident that the
handheld temperature sensor (thermocouple) is slightly different to the
other two measurement points (Pt100). What could the explanation be?
The measurement principles of the two different temperature measurement
points are different. As a result, small variances have to be expected.
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

7. When measuring surface temperatures with the handheld temperature

sensor it is evident is that this is much quicker than measuring the air
flowing out. How can this be explained?
The handheld temperature sensor indicates the temperature at the point.
This temperature must be adjusted to the temperature of the point
being measured. In good heat transfer (heat conduction to the
metallic surface) this works more quickly than a worse one (convection
of air).

8. The measurement point T2 is located roughly in the centre of the air duct.
What error has to be taken into consideration when the air is only heated
up on one side of the duct wall due to the use of the 'flat plate' heater
insert?
The temperature sensor measures one point in the temperature profile.
This point does not correspond to the mean value. In reality there is a
temperature distribution in the cross-section being flowed through.

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Worksheet 4, Page 4

9. The flow sensor protrudes into the flow of the air duct. Measurement is
done at the end of the probe. What assumption is made in the calculation?
As with measurement point T2, there is also a distribution over the entire
flow cross-section here. It is assumed that the flow velocity is constant over
the entire cross-section and that the average velocity is equal to the velocity
at this point.

10.What conclusion must be drawn from the knowledge of measurement

uncertainties for resulting findings?
Measurement uncertainties are propagated through the calculations. The
resulting findings also contain this uncertainty.

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Worksheet 4, Page 5

Considering efficiency:
11.Calculate the efficiency of your selected
·
Q- . The factor  indicates how
measurement using the formula:  = -------
P el
much of the heat output used is transferred to the fluid (here: air).

Examples from factory experiment:

Experiment: 2
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

Heating element: Fin heater

Electrical power Pel: 180 W
Flow velocity w: 0,9 m/s
Inlet temperature T1: 25,4°C
Outlet temperature T2: 35,8°C
Calculation:
· ·  c   T – T  =   w   0 ,12m  2  c   T – T 
Q = m p 2 1 p 2 1
· kg m 2 J
Q = 1 ,15 ------3-  0 ,9 -----   0 ,12m   1008 ---------------   35 ,8C – 25 ,4C 
m s kg  K
·
Q = 156 ,2W
·
Q- = 156
 = ------- ,2W
--------------------- = 0 ,87
P el 180W

12.The electric power applied is fully converted into heat. When calculating
the efficiency only one of the three heat transfer mechanisms is
considered. What does this mean for the efficiency?
The efficiency only takes account of the heat which is transferred by
convection in the inside of the duct. Heat transfer to other places
reduces this convection efficiency.

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82 7 Solutions

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8 Appendix

8.1 Technical data

Dimensions
Length x Width x Height 700 x 350 x 1200 mm
Weight 44 kg

Connection values
Electric power supply: 230V / 50 Hz
Alternatives optional, see rating plate
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

Air duct
Flow cross-section: 120 x 120 mm2
Height: 1 m
m-
Maximum air velocity: 3,0 ----
s3
Maximum air volume flow: m
160 -------
h
m
Flow sensor 0...10 ----
s-
Measurement medium temperature range: -20...85 °C
Ambient temperature range: 0...60 °C

Handheld temperature sensor display

Thermocouple: Type K
Display range: 0...199 °C
Display tolerance: ± 4°C

Pt100 Sensor
Measuring range: 0...100 °C
Display tolerance: ± 2°C

Maximum heater output: 170 W

Temperature limit: 120 °C

8 Appendix 83

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Heat exchanger surfaces

Flat plate:
2
A = 0 ,118m  0 ,118m = 0 ,014m

Pipe bundle equal to plate with 17 rods ( d = 0 ,015m ;l = 0 ,105m ),

layout:

Fig. 8.1 Layout of the rods in pipe bundle

2 2
A = 0 ,014m + 17     0 ,015m  0 ,105m  = 0 ,098m

Fins:

Fig. 8.2 Fin heater fins attachment

2
A = 0 ,118m  0 ,1m + 18    0 ,083m – 0 ,012m   0 ,1m  = 0 ,14m

84 8 Appendix

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Measurement data acquisition

USB communication
Program environment: LAB-VIEW Runtime
System requirements:
PC with Pentium IV, 1GHz processor
Minimum 1024MB RAM
Minimum 1GB free hard disk space
1 x USB port
Graphic card resolution min. 1024 x 768 pixels, True Color
Windows XP / Windows Vista / Windows 7
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8.2 List of formula symbols and units used

Instruction Software Description Unit

manual
A m· Area flowed through m²
A Heat exchanger area m²
cp Specific thermal capacity J/kg K
d Diameter m
l Length m
m Mass kg
·
m dm/dt Mass flow kg/s
p Pressure Pa
Pel P1 Input power W
Q Thermal energy J
·
Q dQ/dt Heat flow W
R Specific gas constant J/kg K
T Temperature °C
T0 T0 Ambient temperature °C
T1 T1 Inlet temperature of air in the air duct °C
T2 T2 Outlet temperature of air from the air duct °C
T3 T3 Handheld measuring device temperature °C
T4 T4 Heater surface temperature °C
v Specific volume m³/kg
w w Flow velocity m/s

Re Re Reynolds number 1
Nu Nu Nusselt number 1

 alpha Heat transfer coefficient W/m² K

 eta Efficiency 1
 Thermal conductivity W/m K
 Pi 1
 Density kg/m³
 Kinematic viscosity m²/s
- PHI Relative humidity %

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8.3 Physical properties of air

kg kJ W  in  in a in
T in °C  in -------3 cp in ---------------  in -------------- kg 2 2 Pr
m Kg K Km –6
10  ------------- –6m
10  -------
–6 m
10  -------
m s s s
-20 1,3765 1,004 0,02301 16,15 11,73 16,6 0,71

0 1,2754 1,004 0,02454 17,10 13,41 19,1 0,70

20 1,1881 1,007 0,02603 17,98 15,13 21,8 0,70

40 1,1120 1,008 0,02749 18,81 16,92 24,5 0,69

60 1,0452 1,009 0,02894 19,73 18,88 27,4 0,69

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80 0,9859 1,010 0,03038 20,73 21,02 30,5 0,69

100 0,9329 1,012 0,03181 21,60 23,15 33,7 0,69

120 0,8854 1,014 0,03323 22,43 25,33 37,0 0,68

140 0,8425 1,017 0,03466 23,19 27,53 40,5 0,68

160 0,8036 1,020 0,03607 24,01 29,88 44,0 0,68

180 0,7681 1,023 0,03749 24,91 32,43 47,7 0,68

200 0,7356 1,026 0,03891 25,70 34,94 51,6 0,68

250 0,6653 1,035 0,04243 27,40 41,18 61,6 0,67

300 0,6072 1,046 0,04591 29,20 48,09 72,3 0,67

400 0,5170 1,069 0,05257 32,55 62,95 95,1 0,66

500 0,4502 1,093 0,05848 35,50 78,86 119 0,66

600 0,3986 1,116 0,0635 38,30 96,08 143 0,67

700 0,3577 1,137 0,0678 40,87 114,3 166 0,69

800 0,3243 1,155 0,0713 43,32 133,6 190 0,70

900 0,2967 1,171 0,0743 45,65 153,9 214 0,72

1000 0,2743 1,185 0,0768 47,88 175,1 237 0,74

Tab. 8.1 Physical properties of dry air at 1 bar

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8.4 Index

A
Air duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Air mass flow rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Amount of heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

B
Basic principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

C
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 08/2011

Coefficient of thermal conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Control and display unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

D
Digital display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

E
Energy balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

F
Flow cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

H
Health and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Heater inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

P
Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

T
Thermal capacity, specific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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