DARWIN & EVOLUTION Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Darwin came to two conclusions during his five year voyage on the HMS Beagle across the
Chapter 15 Mader 10th ed.; Chapters 12 & 13 Hoefnagels 4th ed. Southern Hemisphere:
 Earth’s geological changes are a result of slow processes and must therefore be very old =
Learning outcomes enough time for species to undergo descent with modification
After reviewing this chapter you should be able to:  Present day species, through geographical isolation and adaptation to the respective unique
 Understand what descent from a common ancestor and adaptation to the environment implies. environments, evolved from a common ancestor = speciation
 Name some of the observations Darwin and others made to support the hypothesis of common
Natural Selection
descent and the theory of evolution, in other words, evidence seen in behaviour, anatomy,
fossils, etc. o Organisms have inheritable Traits
 Understand the mechanism of natural selection as a way of adaptation to a changing environment. o Organism Compete for Resources
o Organisms Differ in Reproductive Success
History of Evolutionary Thought o Organisms Become Adapted

The history of evolutionary thought explains the ideas of early scientists about the origin and
diversity of life. Prior to the 1800s people had different world views about the origin and diversity Evidence for Evolution
of life. Most people at that time had deep-seated religious beliefs that all life was fixed and did not
change over time. Therefore, modern organisms that arose were unique and the world was believed  Fossil Evidence- Transitional fossil between bird and dinosaur (Archoeoperyx)
to be young.
 Biogeographical Evidence- different mix of plants and animals separated by continents, sea and islands
(eg. Galapogas finches)
*Define the concept of evolution: Changes occurring from 1 generation to the next as they adapt to the changing
environment.  Anatomical Evidence- Homologous structures (functions differ)

Mid-Eighteenth-Century Contributions  Biochemical Evidence- all living organisms have DNA, RNA or ATP

The science of taxonomy dominated this period, with contributions from various scientists. To this Because the genetic code is universal, all living things share a common ancestor. This is because there
day we still use some of their systems. are only 20 amino acids of the same DNA triplet code.

*Define the term taxonomy: identifying, naming and classifying organisms.

Test yourself:
 Carolus Linnaeus- arranged species in order of increasing complexity
 Erasmus Darwin-believed animals changed during development 1. Explain, with the use of an example, the mechanism of natural selection.
-presence of vestigial structures (reduced or nonfunctional organs)
The mechanism explains that certain traits are selected for by environmental pressures leading to
Late-Eighteenth/Early Nineteenth Century adaptation. For example, industrial melanism.

 Baron Georges Cuvier

2. How does either transitional fossil/biogeography/anatomical/biochemical evidence support
o Catastrophism- new mix of fossils in the stratum the concept of common descent? Explain with the use of an example.
o Paleontology- study of fossils
Anatomical evidence- some species have homologous structures which are structures of similar make
up but have different functions. An example includes embryo development. Vestigial structures are
 Jean-Baptiste de Lamark- Believed complex organisms derived from simpler ones also evidence of common decent. They are structures that are reduced or nonfunctional, specifically
organs. And example includes the appendix in humans.

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 HOW POPULATIONS EVOLVE Causes of Microevolution

1) Mutations
Chapter 16 Mader 10th ed.; Chapter 12 Hoefnagels 4th ed. *Define the term mutation: Permanent genetic changes

Learning outcomes  Mutations are the “raw material for evolutionary change”
 Mutations bring about genetic diversity
 Explain the Hardy-Weinberg principle.  Rate of mutations – slow
 Explain what can cause changes in a population’s gene pool and how this knowledge can be  Mutations are random
used to conserve a species.
 Explain the difference between microevolution and macroevolution with examples. 2) Nonrandom mating
 Explain what speciation and adaptive radiation means and what conditions cause it.  Nonrandom mating occurs when genotypes or phenotypes mate
 Assortative mating – selectively mate with those that have same phenotype for a characteristic
Population Genetics
3) Gene Flow
In this chapter we will deal with diversity and evolution within the population scale, occurring
 Gene flow refers to when animals move from one population to another
within members of a particular species, occupying a specific area. If you take a look at your fellow
 Brings rare/ new alleles
classmates, you will most definitely see examples of population diversity amongst the human
species i.e. phenotypic and therefore genotypic differences. It is important for you to have a basic
4) Genetic Drift
understanding of genetics (LFS 151) in order to understand the processes that drive evolution and
therefore diversity (as diversity is a product of evolution).  Changes in allele frequencies due to chance
 Not necessarily result in adaptation to the environment
*Compare the terms phenotype and genotype:
Phenotype- physical appearance
Genotype- genetic makeup *Define the term bottleneck:
Some individuals from a species near extinction due to overhunting, overharvesting, habitat loss, natural
*Define the term allele: One of two or more versions of a DNA sequence. disaster survive passing the “bottleneck” and enters the next generation. E.g. Cheetahs that become infertile
due to interbreeding.
*Define the concept population genetics: Studies the diversity of populations in terms of allele differences.
*Define the term founder effect:

When a population starts from a few individuals it allows rare alleles to occur at a higher frequency. These
Microevolution alleles are dictated by chance.
*Define the term microevolution: Evolutionary changes within a population
Natural Selection
 Natural selection occurs when a trait, more suited to the surrounding environment, is favoured
The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that an equilibrium of gene pool frequencies will remain in within a population.
effect in each succeeding generation of a sexually reproducing population, as long as five
conditions are met, name those five conditions: o Stabilizing selection- intermediate phenotype is favoured e.g. human birth (3-4kg)
1) no genetic drift
2)no gene flow o Directional selection- the extreme phenotype is favoured e.g. male guppies’ bright
3)random mating colors
4)no mutations o Disruptive Selection- 2 or more extreme phenotypes are favoured e.g. dark and light snail shells
5)no natural selection

 Why is the Hardy-Weinberg principle significant in terms of explaining evolution? Sexual Selection
Because the opposite of the HWP are the causes of microevolution.  Adaptive changes within sexes that lead to greater ability to secure a mate
 Increases fitness i.e. increases ability to reproduce and pass on genes to fertile offspring

*Define the term dimorphism: When a species’ male and female have very differing morphological features.
Either in shape or size or colour.

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Test yourself: SPECIATION AND MACROEVOLUTION
1) Industrial melanism refers to the alternation of pigmentation between light to dark-colour
within a population of peppered moths, Biston betularia, in Great Britain. Using this Chapter 17 Mader 10th ed.; Chapter 14 Hoefnagels 4th ed.
example explains how microevolution and natural selection act on this population of
moths. Learning Outcomes

Before the Industrial Revolution, there was less pollution in the air and light-coloured peppered moths  Explain the mechanisms that keep species reproductively isolated from one another
could blend in with the surrounding trees easier due to its pale bark. Once the revolution came  Explain the modes of speciation.
about, the trees darkened in colour due to soot, and this made it harder for light-coloured peppered  Explain the principles of macroevolution
moths to camouflage. Black peppered moths then were easier to blend with the trees and survived
predations compared to the white peppered moths. Macroevolution

In this chapter we are going to look at macroevolution, the evolutionary change that occurs at the
level of species.

Separation of Species -

Define the following terms:

 Species: Group of similarly constructed organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile
offspring.

 Speciation: result of evolutionary changes in a gene pool

Explain the Biological species concept:

Defines species as groups of populations that have the potential to interbreed and are reproductively isolated
from other groups.
Advantage: designates species when trait difference is hard to find.
Disadvantage: Does not apply to asexual reproductive organisms.

Explain the evolutionary species concept:

Defines that every species has its own evolutionary history, of which at least part is in the fossil record.
Advantage: Accommodates asexual and sexual reproductive organisms
Disadvantage: Does not account for all evolutionary history.

Modes of Speciation
 Allopatric speciation- The formation of a new species due to genetic drift, natural selection and
geographical isolation. (E.g. Salamanders have no gene flow from West to East due to geographical
isolation)
• Adaptive radiation- CA gives rise to a variety of species each adapted to an environment.

 Sympatric speciation- The formation of a new species without geographical isolation. (E.g. Corn
borer moths respond to different pheromones)

 Parapatric speciation- The formation of a new species from neighboring habitats but without a
specific extrinsic barrier.

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 ORIGIN & HISTORY OF LIFE
Reproductive isolating mechanisms

Species are inhibited from reproducing through the following mechanisms: Chapter 18 Mader 10th ed.; Chapter 15 Hoefnagels 4th ed.

 Pre-zygotic (before formation of a zygote): Learning outcomes

 Habitat isolation- occurs when 2 species are occupy different habitats (eg. Finches on the Glapogas  Understand the basic concepts and history of the origin of life
Islands)  Understand some evidence used for the formation of hypotheses about the origin of life.
 Understand the use of the Geological timescale, based on fossil records, with regard to the
 Temporal isolation- Occurs when 2 species have different mating seasons in the year (eg. Frongs in
sequence of species appearance in time, invasion of land and mass extinction events.
the same pond may have mating seasons in Summer and some in Autumn
 Explain how mass extinctions, continental drift and other factors could have played a role in
 Behavioral isolation- Occurs when 2 species have different courtship displays (eg. Birds only the distribution of species on earth.
respond to species to species mating calls)
In this chapter we will deal with the origin and history of life. Questions to ponder on: How did the
 Mechanical isolation- Occurs when 2 species are physically different, stopping copulation or earth form? What was early earth like? How did chemical evolution produce the first cells on earth?
pollination from occurring (eg. Some dog breeds cannot mate due to size differences) Fossil records tell us a story about the history of life, by digging up and tracing past life forms.

 Gamete isolation- Occurs when 2 species gametes cannot fuse (eg. Red and purple sea urchins) Part I- Origin of Life

 Post-zygotic Describe early earth: The early atmosphere had H2O in the form of vapour due to it being hot, with little O2.
The earth cooled down and the vapour condensed making it rain for millions of year forming oceans. Earth is
 Hybrid inviability- Zygote forms but does not survive (eg. A donkey and a horse giving birth to a the perfect distance from the sun. Any further and the water would freeze, and closer to the sun would cause
mule) the water to evaporate.

 Hybrid infertility- Hybrid offspring cannot produce offspring (eg. A donkey and a horse giving birth Monomers evolve and alternative hypotheses: Monomers are small molecules that forms a subunit of a
to a mule) polymer. Formed through abiotic synthesis from inorganic molecules in the presence of strong energy sources
such as meteorites, lightning or solar radiation.
 Hybrid breakdown- Where the F1 geneation is fertile but their offspring, F2 generation, is not.
Polymers evolve and alternative hypothesis: Monomers joined to form polymers by enzymes (proteins).
Polymers include protein which are macromolecules.

Test yourself Evolution of protocell: Hypothesized precursors of the 1st true living cells.
TRUE CELL= PROTOCELL+ DNA
1. Give the advantages and disadvantages of the evolutionary and biological species concept.
Concept ESC BSC
Advantage Accommodates asexual and sexual designates species when trait differences Part II- History of Life
reproductive organisms are hard to find.
Disadvantage Does not account for all evolutionary Does not apply to asexual reproductive Define the following terms:
history. organisms. Paleontology: Study of fossils

Sedimentation: Through which fossils are formed, which are layering of rock and sand due to weathering.
2. Explain allopatric speciation using Ensatina salamander as an example.
Stratum: Layers within the sedimentation layers
Allopatric speciation occurs when a population is geographically divided, leading to genetic
divergence and the formation of new species. In the case of Ensatina salamanders, geographical
isolation has prevented gene flow between western and eastern populations, resulting in distinct
species adapted to their respective environments.
Explain Relative dating of fossils: Fossils in the same strata has the same age and hence. The lower the
strata the older the fossil
3. Explain adaptive radiation using Galapagos finches as an example.
Absolute dating of fossils: Radioactive dating by isotopes
Adaptive radiation involves the diversification of a common ancestor into various species, each
adapted to different environments. The Galápagos finches exemplify this, as a common ancestor
gave rise to multiple species, each with unique beak shapes and sizes suited to specific food sources
on the islands.
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 Geological Timescale
The Mesozoic Era:
 3 periods
List the major events in each time/era: Animal life Plant life
Mammals appear Non flowering seed plants dominate
The Precambrian Time: Dinosaurs appear
 1st cell as well as prokaryotes
 Endosymbiotic synthesis- states that a nucleated cell engulfed free living prokaryotes and this gave form 1) Triassic period:
to organelles.
2) Jurassic period:
 Evidence:
Animal life Plant life
o Mitochondria and chloroplasts have the same size similar to bacteria
Birds appear Flowering plants appear
o Organelles possess own DNA
o Organelles divides by binary fission
o Membranes differ 3) Cretaceous period:
Animal life Plant life
 Cnidarians
Placental mammals appear

The Paleozoic Era:

The Cenozoic Era:
 6 Major periods
1) Cambrian period
 2 periods
a. Arthropods with exoskeleton 1) Tertiary period:
b. Why? Inside of the body was soft and vulnerable and the exoskeleton provdes protection from environment Animal life Plant life
and predators. Hominids appear
Animal life Plant life
Chordates Marine algae flourished 2) Quaternary period:
Animal life Plant life
2) Ordovician period: Humans appear
Animal life Plant life
Jawless fish appear (1st vertebrates) Non vascular plants appear
Part III - Factors that influence evolution
3) Silurian period:  Continental drift:
Animal life Plant life  Plate tectonics:
Jawed fish appear Seedless, vascular plants appear  Mass extinctions: meteor, excess O2, bolides
 Domestication:
4) Devonian period:
Animal life Plant life
Insects appear Seed plants appear Test yourself
Amphibians appear
1. List and describe the various hypotheses concerning chemical evolution that produced
5) Carboniferous period:
Animal life Plant life polymers.
Reptiles appear Ferns, horsetails, clubmosses
Insect radiation  Abiotic Synthesis Hypothesis: Monomers, the building blocks of polymers, formed from
inorganic molecules in the presence of strong energy sources such as meteorites, lightning, or
6) Permian period: solar radiation.
Animal life Plant life  Alternative Hypothesis: Monomers joined to form polymers by enzymes (proteins).
Amphibians decline Gymnosperms diversify
2. Explain how the fossil record develops and is dated.
Fossils form through sedimentation, where organisms are buried by layers of rock and sand due to
weathering. Over time, these layers harden, preserving the remains. The fossil record is dated
using:
 Relative Dating: Determining the age of fossils based on their position within sedimentary layers (strata),
with lower layers typically being older.

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 SYSTEMATICS AND PHYLOGENY
 Absolute Dating: Using radioactive isotopes to determine the exact age of fossils.

Chapter 19 Mader 10th ed.; Chapter 14 Hoefnagels 4th ed.

3. When did prokaryotes arise and what are stromatolites?
Prokaryotes, the first cells, appeared during the Precambrian time. Stromatolites are layered Learning outcomes
sedimentary formations created by the activity of prokaryotes, specifically cyanobacteria, providing
some of the earliest evidence of life on Earth.  Understand what is meant by taxonomy, phylogeny, systematics, the binomial system of
classification and species concepts
4. When and how did eukaryotes arise?  Explain how one can trace the phylogeny of organisms using cladistic systematics.
Eukaryotes arose during the Precambrian era through endosymbiotic synthesis, where a nucleated  List the major categories of species classification in terms of taxa.
cell engulfed free-living prokaryotes, leading to the formation of organelles such as mitochondria  Explain what a biological species is.
and chloroplasts.  Understand the five-kingdom system of classification of Whittaker and use it to compare
organisms from different kingdoms.
 Explain the origin of the three-domain system of classification proposed by Woese.
5. What sequence of events in Precambrian era led to heterotrophic protists and
*Define the term systematics: Aims to understand the evolutionary relationships amongst organisms through
photosynthetic protists? fossil record, comparative anatomy and development, as well as molecular data.

 Formation of the first cells (prokaryotes).

*Define the term taxonomy: Identifying, naming and classifying organisms
 Development of photosynthetic prokaryotes, leading to oxygen production.

 Endosymbiotic events resulting in eukaryotic cells with organelles. Binomial System

 Diversification into heterotrophic and photosynthetic protists. Name given to an organism is divided into two parts:
e.g. Homo sapiens

6. What is continental drift and how is it related to plate tectonics?

Genus Species
Continental drift refers to the movement of Earth's continents over time. This movement is driven
by plate tectonics, the theory that Earth's lithosphere is divided into plates that move over the
semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them. Abbreviate the genus epithet when rewritten for the first time e.g. Protea cynaroides becomes P.
cynaroides.
Linnaean Classification Categories

From the most exclusive (smallest) group to the most inclusive group:

Species
Genus
Family
Order
Class
Phylum
Kingdom
Domain

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 VIRUSES, BACTERIA & ARCHAEA
Phylogenetic trees
Chapter 20 Mader 10th ed.; Chapter 16 & 17 Hoefnagels 4th ed.
*Define the term primitive character: Character present in all members of a group and the CA
*Define the term phylogenetic tree: Character present in some members of a group and absent in the CA Learning outcomes:

 Distinguish between viruses, viroids and prions.

Cladistics  Explain what is meant by “the parasitic nature of viruses”.
 Explain with the use of diagrams, the life cycles of a bacteriophage and animal virus.
Systematics  Name some viral infections that are common to mankind.
Phenetic systematics
 Distinguish between the different prokaryotic organisms
Traditional systematics  Explain the statements made in the Endosymbiotic hypothesis/Endosymbiotic theory.
 Name the means of prokaryote reproduction that allows for genetic variation to occur.
 List the major characteristics of bacteria
 Name some common bacterial infections.
The Three-Domain System  Name differences and similarities between bacteria and archaea.

Elaborate on the points below to explain the history of the domain system: Viruses

1. Two kingdoms: Biologists recognized two kingdoms based on mobility, Animalia and Plantae. Define the following terms:
Viroids: Naked strands of RNA
2. Three kingdoms: Protista was the 3rd kingdom to be added as they were unicellular and microscopic.
Prions: Normal prion proteins change shape
3. Five kingdoms: Whittaker expanded it to 5 kingdoms by adding Fungi and Monera. This c Causes TSE’s fatal brain disease, and mad cow disease
classification was based on the type of cell (prokaryotic/ eukaryotic), complexity (unicellular/
multicellular), or nutrition (photosynthetic/ heterotrophic).
Virus Structure:
4. Three domains: Carl Woese noted that Bacteria and Archaea are different. Monera split into  Capsid- outer layer composed of protein subunits
Domain Bacteria and Archaea. The three domains are now Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya. o Some envelopes, others naked
 Inner core
Bacteria and Archaea similarities: o Nucleic acid (DNA/ RNA)
 Both reproduce asexually o Proteins (Enzymes)
 Unicellular
 Prokaryotes
Draw any type of virus. Name the virus and label the parts.
Bacteria and Archaea differences:
 Differences in rRNA base sequence
 Plasma membrane chemistry
 Cell wall chemistry

Eukarya: Describe the nature of a virus:

 Unicellular or multicellular  Non-cellular
 Membrane bounded nucleus  Non-living
 Various organelles  Causes polio, rabies, aids, mumps, chickenpox
 Sexually reproductive  Categorized by:
 Life cycles o type of nucleic acid
 4 kingdoms: Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia o Size and shape
o Presence of envelope
Archaea are closely related to Eukarya than bacteria:  Cannot reproduce outside living cell
 They share the same ribosomal protein  Host specific
 Similar tRNA and they initiate transcriptase the same.
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