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FMC and TFM Technology:

Cutting Out the Noise

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FMC and TFM Technology:
Cutting Out the Noise
 Table of Contents

1 Conventional UT and PAUT Refresher

4 Ultrasound—Types of Waves
5 Ultrasound—Angle of Reflection and Refraction
6 Ultrasound Theory
7 Overview of Phased Array Ultrasound

2 Basics of FMC Data Collection

8 History of Full Matrix Capture in NDT
9 FMC—An Acquisition Strategy for Productive TFM
9 TFM—Construction of a Highly Resolved Image

3 Probes
10 AIM Simulation Tool
11 PA Probes—Size of the Elements
12 PA Probes—Probe Frequency

4 Essential Variables and Scan Plan

13 TFM Wave Sets
15 Modeling and Scan Plan
17 TFM Zone Resolution and Amplitude Fidelity
19 Multiple Groups

5 TFM Signal Characteristics

20 TFM Signal Advantages

6 Evaluation
21 Data Representations
21 A-Scan Data View
22 End Data View
23 Side Data View
23 Top Data View
24 Flaw Characterization

7 Phase Coherence Imaging

Data Representations
25

8 Plane Wave Imaging

26 Conclusion

2
 Introduction
The nondestructive testing (NDT) industry is experiencing an important technological advancement, as total
focusing method (TFM) capable inspection devices are making their entry into the market. The TFM approach
represents a significant step forward for phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) technology.
However, some PAUT practitioners may still be confused about TFM and its relation to full matrix capture
(FMC), as well as the differences between conventional PAUT and TFM/FMC processing.
Within these pages, you’ll find information to provide you with a basic understanding of TFM imaging. The
scope of this ebook assumes that you are familiar with the PAUT technique. For conciseness and clarity,
aspects related to ultrasound propagation modes are only briefly addressed. More information can be found
in other ebooks from our series.

Figure 1 – OmniScan™ X3 flaw detector featuring TFM technology.

3
Part 1

Conventional UT and PAUT

 This chapter presents the fundamentals of conventional ultrasound and phased array ultrasonic testing
(PAUT) and serves as a review of the basic principles and terminology before diving into the topic of FMC
and TFM.
Ultrasound—Types of Waves
The high-frequency vibrations that are the basis of ultrasonic NDT commonly occur as either longitudinal
waves (particle motion parallel to the wave direction) or shear waves (particle motion perpendicular to
the wave direction).

Figure 2 – Comparison between longitudinal wave and shear wave propagation mechanisms.

All commonly used NDT transducers generate longitudinal waves. Thickness gauging and straight beam
flaw detection normally use longitudinal waves, which are the easiest to create and propagate well
through typical engineering materials. Shear waves are used in most angle beam inspections of welds
and similar structures. Angle beam assemblies use refractive mode conversion to turn the longitudinal
waves generated by the transducer into shear waves, which have a shorter wavelength than comparable
longitudinal waves and are thus more sensitive to small reflectors. Some immersion tests also utilize
shear waves generated by mode conversion. Other propagation modes exist, such as surface waves and
plate waves, as well as contact transducers that generate shear waves directly, but these are employed
only in specialized tests.

5
 Ultrasound—The Art of Compromise
Devices used for TFM inspection are capable of producing ultrasound in the range of 1 MHz to 17 MHz.

Higher frequency ultrasound enables better detection of smaller flaws and measurement of thinner test pieces, but the sound
energy does not travel as far as at lower frequencies.
Lower frequency ultrasound provides better penetration of thick test pieces, especially in materials such as cast metals that
transmit sound less efficiently, but they will be less sensitive to small reflectors and may not be able to measure thin sections.

For more details, download our Phased Array Technology ebook here:
https://www.olympus-ims.com/en/downloads/detail/?0[downloads]
[id]=276829479

Ultrasound—Angle of Reflection and Refraction

Sound energy at ultrasonic frequencies is highly directional and the sound beams used for flaw detection are well defined. In
situations where sound reflects off a boundary, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
A sound beam that hits a surface at perpendicular incidence will reflect straight back. A sound beam of a given wave type that hits
a surface at an angle will reflect forward at the same angle if the outgoing wave polarization (longitudinal or shear) is the same.
Acoustic propagation from one material to another
bends in accordance with Snell’s Law of refraction.
Again, a beam that is traveling straight will continue
in a straight direction, but a beam that strikes a
boundary at an angle will bend according to
the formula:

sinθ1= v1
sinθ2= v2

Where: θ1 = incident angle in first material v1 = sound velocity in first material

θ2 = refracted angle in the second material v2 = sound velocity in second material

6
 Ultrasound Theory
Beam Divergence
Beam divergence is measured from the angle on one side of
the beam to the center of the beam as illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4 – Illustration of beam divergence.

Near Field
The near field is the region directly in front of the transducer
where the echo amplitude varies widely due to constructive
and destructive interferences from the vibrating active element.
The end of the near field is the natural focus of the transducer
and the point where the sound field reaches an amplitude
maximum. At the end of the near field, the sound field pressure
begins a gradual drop to zero. For circular transducers, the near
field length is proportional to the element diameter square
and the frequency, and inversely proportional to the material
sound velocity.

Figure 5 – The amplitude varies rapidly in the near field before acting predictably in
the far field.

Wavelength
Ultrasonic waves propagate in a repetitive oscillation called
a sine wave. The distance between two consecutive positive
or negative peaks is the wavelength. The velocity and the
wavelength of the wave will depend on the material that is it
travelling through and on the propagation mode
(longitudinal or shear). Illustrated in Figure 6 is an example
of a typical ultrasound wave form and the distance between
two consecutive peaks of the same polarity is called the
period and it is expressed in time units.

Figure 6 – Illustration of the period of a signal.

The relationship between Frequency, Period, and Wavelength

can be explained by these two equations:
f=1 and λ=vf
T

Where: f = Frequency
T = Period of time
λ = Wavelength
v = Material sound velocity

7
 Overview of Phased Array Ultrasound
The distinguishing feature of phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) is the computer-controlled excitation (amplitude and
delay) of individual elements in a multielement probe. The excitation of multiple piezocomposite elements can generate a
focused ultrasonic beam, and software can be used to dynamically modify beam parameters such as angle, focal distance, and
focal spot size.
In Figures 7, 8, and 9, you will find examples of delays applied to a multielement probe to control each element’s wavefront

and to
create an angle different from the natural perpendicularity to the probe and a focused ultrasonic beam.

Figure 7 – Illustration of beam forming. Figure 8 – Illustration of beam steering.

Figure 9 – Illustration of beam focusing.

8
Part 2

Basics of FMC Data Collection

 This chapter presents the full matrix capture (FMC) data collection process.
History of Full Matrix Capture in NDT
Full matrix capture (FMC) technology was borrowed from the medical field in the late 1970s. At that time,
multiple NDT research groups and manufacturers were just beginning to exploit and promote the value of
a way to visualize data known today as the total focusing method (TFM).

Figure 9 – Early 1980s imager and results using 2 MHz array on steel side-drilled holes: (a) 8-bit acquisition and processing system;
(b) reconstruction of side-drilled images. Images courtesy of EMI Central Research Laboratories, later Scipher.

10
 FMC—An Acquisition Strategy for Productive TFM
Full matrix capture (FMC) is an acquisition process that obtains all the A-scans (amplitude time series)
between all individual pairs of transmitter and receiver probe elements. These elementary A-scans are
stored in the FMC data set. To achieve the best focusing result, all of the elements constituting the full
aperture of a probe should be used to generate the FMC data set through synthetic beamforming. In this
case, the number of acquisitions required to build the FMC data set is equal to the square of the number
of probe elements. The FMC data set contains all the sound propagation information between each
element of the probe, including reflections at interfaces and scattering by flaws. Any type of PAUT
acquisition can be reconstructed from the FMC data set using adequately chosen delays, including a
sectorial scan, dynamic depth focusing (DDF), total focusing method (TFM), etc.
Using the FMC acquisition process, the number of acquisitions required to generate an image may be

roughly
the same as PAUT, but processing the individual FMC data sets requires significant storage capacity,
transfer
bandwidth, and computational power. Depending on the electronics of the device used, obtaining the

TFM—Construction
TFM/ of a Highly Resolved Image
FMC results can be slower than conventional PAUT.
The total focusing method (TFM) is the systematic application of the basic focusing principle of phased
array in a defined region of interest (ROI) in an inspected part. The ROI is segmented into a grid of
positions, or pixels, and focusing through phased array beamforming is applied to every pixel in that
grid. To date, TFM is the most efficient method to generate this ROI image that is focused everywhere
and at every depth.
https://www.olympus-ims.com/en/fmc-tfm-basic-principles/

The principal advantage of TFM is that each point in the reconstruction zone (or ROI) is focused
compared
to an image produced with PAUT, which is only focused in the focal area of the beam.
In conventional PAUT, physical beamforming is applied during transmission, whereas synthetic

beamforming
is applied only in reception.
Physical beamforming is the superposition of acoustic waves by delaying in time the transmission pulses
to steer the beam, thereby focusing it at the focal point in the inspected part.
Synthetic beamforming is the electronic superposition of the amplitude time series produced by all
transducer elements. The beam steering and focusing are performed using electronic time delays and
algebraic summation in the acquisition device’s software.

In TFM, synthetic beamforming is applied both in transmission and reception by synthesizing all the
combinations of elementary transmission and reception data (A-scans) acquired through FMC. Since the
synthetic beamforming process can be arbitrarily defined through the choice of electronic delays, we can
choose that the beamforming be focused both in transmission and reception at all positions in a region of
interest—hence, the name total focusing method.

Note that the FMC data set can provide basic data to any synthetic beamforming, including both PAUT

and TFM.

Because of the large amount of FMC data that must be processed to produce a TFM image, the total
focusing
method may imply lower productivity than PAUT with the same aperture.
Although the TFM image is highly focused over the entire region of interest, it remains affected by the

same
11
acoustic
and limitations that affect PAUT. Amplitude fluctuations and distortions are observed in both PAUT
TFM, but the results for a set of identical scatterers in an inspected part are more consistent for the total
focusing method.
Part 3

Probes
 Introduced with phased array, electronic focusing enables multiple wavefronts to converge in a small
area called the focal point based on the electronic delays found in the focal law. Such convergence is
only possible inside the near field of the phased array probe, a zone which is normally avoided in the
scan plan with conventional UT because the variations of sound pressure have not stabilized yet.
Outside this range, the inspection is considered unfocused and the beam amplitude and resolution will
degrade with the sound path just like the conventional UT. With TFM, the same focusing and near field
limits apply.
AIM Simulation Tool
The Acoustic Influence Map (AIM) is a semianalytical model that predicts and maps the amplitude
sensitivity for TFM inspection and generates a model that considers probe frequency, element directivity,
transmission and reflection coefficients, geometric beam spread, material attenuation, and the
directionality of the flaw. The goal of this simulation is to enable inspectors to create a scan plan that
maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the TFM image and increases the probability of detection
(POD) for a given flaw.
The Sensitivity Index reading is displayed on top of all AIM maps to facilitate the comparison of each

wave
set’s efficacy. The Sensitivity Index value is in arbitrary units that are proportional to the predicted
voltage
amplitude at reception. Illustrated in Figure 10 is an example of the AIM simulation for a TT-TT wave set.

Figure 10 – OmniScan X3 flaw detector’s AIM simulation.

13
 PA Probes—Size of the Elements
Probe frequency, element size, and number of elements in the probe are some of the factors that have
an impact on the setup and the quality of the inspection.
The following screenshots are AIM simulations where the probe frequency (5 MHz) as well as other

settings
are
is the same, but the element sizes (pitch) are different. In this example, when the size of the elements
increased on the active axis, the Sensitivity Index also increases.

Figure 11 – 5L64-A32 probe model: 32 × 10 mm total active aperture, 0.5 mm pitch, 10 mm elevation, T-T pulse-echo wave set, Sensitivity Index: 20.14.

Figure 12 – 5L64-A12 probe model: 38.4 × 10 mm total active aperture, 0.60 mm pitch, 10 mm elevation, T-T pulse-echo wave set, Sensitivity Index: 30.21.

Figure 13 – 5L64-NW1 probe model: 64 × 7 mm total active aperture, 1.00 mm pitch, 7 mm elevation, T-T pulse-echo wave set, Sensitivity Index: 42.54.

14
 PA Probes—Probe Frequency
Probe frequency also has an impact on the AIM simulation, and ultimately the TFM inspection: the higher
the probe frequency, the further away the transition from near field to far field. Note in the examples
below that the Sensitivity Index value is higher with the higher frequency probe, and that the AIM
coloring is more consistent throughout the full skip, meaning less variation in amplitude and therefore
indication size with the sound path’s progression.

Figure 14 – 5L64-A32 probe model: 5 MHz frequency, 32 × 10 mm total active aperture, 0.5 mm pitch, 10 mm elevation, TT-TT wave set, Sensitivity
Index: 18.68.

Figure 15 – 10L64-A32 probe model: 10 MHz frequency, 32 × 10 mm total active aperture, 0.5 mm pitch, 10 mm elevation, TT-TT wave set, Sensitivity
Index: 27.38.

15
Part 4
Essential Variables and
Scan Plan
 TFM Wave Sets
TFM reconstruction using FMC elementary A-scans is based mainly on the time of flight calculated
according to the inspection mode (pulse echo or self tandem) and the selected wave type: longitudinal,
transverse, or a combination of both as shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16 – OmniScan X3 flaw detector’s pulse-echo and self-tandem wave sets.

Pulse-echo mode (T-T, L-L, TT-TT) is like standard PAUT: an imprecise part thickness input could affect
the accuracy of the estimated position of detected indications. When using the phased array (PA)
technique to detect lack of side wall fusion (LOSWF), the best results are provided by the ultrasound
waves that are transmitted perpendicular to the flaw. The same logic applies to TFM and in this case, the
pulse-echo mode provides the best results.

Figure 17 – Detection of LOSWF using PAUT and the TFM TT-TT wave set.

The phased array pulse-echo technique works to detect and to characterize crack or crack-like
indications: one strong signal on the corner trap and we can locate the tip of the indication. This method
is still valid with TFM. Figure 18 shows an example using the TT-TT wave set: if we look at the two signals
side by side, TFM provides better resolution, but the flaw signature is very similar.

17
 Figure 18 – Detection of ID crack using PAUT and TFM TT-TT wave set.
Self-tandem mode (TT-T, TT-L, LL-L, LT-L, TT-TTT, etc.) yields additional wave sets compared with
standard PAUT. Instead of using the same elements to pulse and to receive, self-tandem mode uses a
set of elements to pulse and a different set of elements to receive.
The advantage of using a self-tandem wave set is that the flaws that usually require more experience to
interpret
analysis and characterize are represented closer to what they actually look like in the part, easing the
However, the results are highly sensitive to incorrect values input in your setup for the part geometry,
such
as thickness, and material sound velocity.
Figure 19 compares PAUT with TFM using the same ID crack but with a self-tandem TT-T wave set

instead
of a pulse-echo wave set. Note that instead of two separated signals, i.e., the corner trap and tip, we now
have a continuous vertical signal.

Figure 19 – Detection of ID crack using PAUT and TFM TT-T wave set.
Selecting the optimal wave set is crucial to proper detection and characterization of the flaw. Selecting
the correct wave set and inputting the correct material thickness and velocity can mean the difference
between accurate and inaccurate assessment or, at worst, completely missing an indication as shown in
Figure 20.

Figure 20 – LOSWF detected with TT-TT wave set and missed with TT-T.

18
 Modeling and Scan Plan
If you have experience creating phased array setups, creating a TFM setup will seem familiar. The main steps
involved in creating a PA inspection setup are as follows:

1. Part and/or weld definition

2. Probe selection
3. Wave mode selection: shear or longitudinal
4. Scan type selection: sectorial, linear, or compound
5. Scan parameters: focal laws, angular range and resolution, index offset, focus, etc.

Figure 21 – Example of a PAUT scan plan.

The steps to create a TFM scan plan are similar to PA; however, different essential variables are added:

1. Part and/or weld definition

2. Probe selection
3. Zone setting
4. Wave set selection: T-T, TT-T, TT-TT, L-L, LL-L, etc.
5. Flaw definition: planar or spherical, expected angle
6. AIM and Sensitivity Index evaluation
7. Amplitude fidelity verification

Figure 22 – Example of a TFM TT-T scan plan.

19
 Why is modeling so crucial?

• Proper wave sets are critical for detection.

• Many wave sets are available (9+).
• The type of flaw influences the wave set selection.
• The orientation of flaws also has an impact on the wave set selection.
• The position (depth) of the flaw in the part impacts the wave set you choose.
• Part geometry (curvature) will change the results.
• Confirmation of proper probes, frequencies, etc.

An effective modeling tool eliminates the need for an extensive and expensive library of demonstration
coupons. The wave set simulation and sensitivity calculation enable you to validate the scan plan,
saving the time normally required to confirm the detection performance for all the potential indication
types.
The example in Figure 23 superimposes the AIM scan plan on the TFM signal to demonstrate the

usefulness
of modeling.

Figure 23 – TFM modeling and TFM signal comparison.

20
 TFM Zone Resolution and Amplitude Fidelity
In TFM inspection, the region of interest (ROI) determines the area of inspection, similar to the angle
range and UT depth axis with PAUT. The boundaries of this zone determine the area of the inspection,
and the zone’s grid resolution is a key factor in the quality of the TFM imaging. Changing the grid
resolution affects the signal: if the resolution is too coarse, it could result in amplitude variations,
deformed signal, or even missed indications.
The example in Figure 24 illustrates the difference between a TFM zone with a fine grid resolution and a
resolution
on that is too coarse. For this comparison, the same probe was positioned at the same location
a demonstration block.

Figure 24 – TFM zone resolution comparison.

Amplitude fidelity (AF) is the measurement in decibels (dB) of the maximum amplitude variation of an
indication caused by the TFM grid resolution. The following parameters that have influence on the AF value:

• Probe frequency and bandwidth

• Material velocity
• Grid resolution
• TFM envelope

21
 Figure 25 illustrates how the TFM resolution affects the amplitude fidelity measurement: a finer grid
means little amplitude divergence within the grid while a coarser grid leaves more room for the
amplitude to vary as the indication is moved on the horizontal, vertical, or propagation axis.

Figure 25 – Amplitude fidelity measurement when moving an indication in a fine grid vs a coarse grid.

ASME Code compliance for weld inspection as per the Mandatory Appendix XI Full Matrix Capture (FMC) and
Nonmandatory Appendix F Examination of Welds Using Full Matrix Capture (FMC) – ASME BPVC Sec. V, Article
4. 2021 states that the “Amplitude fidelity shall be preserved to 2 dB or less”.
If the amplitude fidelity is above 2 dB, the zone resolution shall be increased until the requirement is met.
If the maximum resolution is reached on the instrument, it means that all the available pixels are used and
the zone dimensions should be smaller to achieve the 2dB requirement.

22
 Multiple Groups
As explained previously, different types of indications and flaws require different wave sets and inspection
strategies to maximize the detection, characterization, and reporting capacities. The OmniScan X3 flaw
detector can display up to four TFM groups at the same time. This means that multiple wave sets or different
zone (grid) locations can be generated in one acquisition, thereby increasing the POD.
For ASME code-compliance, four groups can assist you in selecting the proper wave set for the inspection
and in imaging in one acquisition the through-wall slot.
If you are a longtime PAUT user, you may appreciate that multigroup TFM enables you to use T-T mode
in conjunction with self-tandem modes, so you have one image that is similar to what pulse-echo PAUT
would generate.

In Figure 26, there are images from multigroup TFM inspections on two different indications to illustrate the
different signals and what information can be pulled from various wave sets.

Figure 26 – Multigroup TFM setup: detection of LOSWF (left) and a root crack (right) using four different wave sets.

23
Part 5

TFM Signal Characteristics

 TFM Signal Advantages
TFM inspection generally offers a better resolution capacity than PAUT as it is engineered to be focused
everywhere. PAUT can achieve the same resolution capacity but only at a given point using electronic focusing
(depth, sound path, etc.).
To illustrate this, below in Figure 27 is a comparison between PAUT and TFM. On the left with PAUT, the side-
drilled holes (SDHs) are detected simultaneously but with different amplitude levels and a different shape.
Note that deeper SDHs may require more gain to reach the 80% amplitude reference level because, as you
can see, they are less rounded and more stretched in the example below. On the right with TFM, all the SDHs
have similar amplitude levels and shape regardless of their depths.

Figure 27 - Comparison of SDHs acquired over a 45 mm depth range with PAUT (left) and TFM (right).

Generally speaking, TFM can produce cleaner looking images, which is the driving force behind this
technology. However, it is not only this increased resolution that helps ease data analysis, being able
to produce images that are truer to the indication’s actual geometry is also one of TFM’s notable
advantages for data interpretation.
Another aspect where TFM excels is the reduction of geometrical echoes. Its focused everywhere image
contributes to reducing the size of all echoes.

25
Part 6

Evaluation
 Data Representations
As mentioned previously, the driving force behind TFM is its ability to produce images that usually
appear cleaner and more defined than PAUT. This section describes four of the main views used in TFM
inspections for data analysis.

A-Scan Data View

A total focusing method (TFM) A-scan differs from the A-scan of conventional UT or PAUT in that the TFM
A-scan is not the elementary signal used to create the other views. As explained previously, full matrix
capture (FMC) is an acquisition process that obtains all the A-scans (amplitude time series) between all
individual pairs of transmitter and receiver probe elements. The user selects a reconstruction path called
a wave set. The instrument then selects the right combinations of delays and sums in the elementary A-
scans to provide the focus at a given point in the grid. So, each TFM data point is a combination of
multiple elementary FMC A-scans, meaning there is no unique A-scan associated to one TFM point.
Instead, the TFM A-scan is constructed based on the End View. When the user selects a section on the
TFM End View, it is converted into the traditional amplitude vs time (depth) A-scan representation.

Figure 28 – The TFM A-scan is based on a section of the End View data.

27
 End Data View
The TFM End View is the representation of the TFM zone, so it has a start and end on the depth axis and
a start and end on the index axis. The wave set selection does not have an impact on the TFM End View,
unlike the phased array S-scan view, which is adapted depending on whether a sectorial or linear scan is
selected.
The End View is a depth accurate representation, meaning the user does not have to interpret the

multiple
skips of the signal. Instead, the signal is seamlessly folded to result in a representation from the point of
view of the part instead of the usual signal point of view.

Figure 29 is an example of a TFM End View of a curved part.

Figure 29 – Example of a TFM End View of a curved part.

28
 Side Data View
The Side View is a volumetric representation of the data collection from the side point of view. The depth
accurate representation returns the maximum amplitude data for each depth position while the
horizontal axis represents the scan position. Figure 30 illustrates an example of the Side View for a weld
inspection using the TT-TT wave set.

Figure 30 – Example of the TFM Side View.

Top Data View

The Top View is a volumetric representation of the data collection from the top point of view. The
maximum amplitude data for each scan and index position is presented in a 2D map of the part. Figure
31 illustrates an example of the Top View for a weld inspection using the TT-TT wave set.

Figure 31 – Example of the TFM Top View.

29
 Flaw Characterization
Fundamentally, TFM is still ultrasound propagating in a material and returning towards the emission
source to be measured.
With pulse-echo wave sets, the signature of the different flaw types remains similar to phased array in

the
sense that sharp defects will produce high amplitude echoes while smaller rounded indications such as
porosities will have a lower signal amplitude.

The addition of self-tandem wave sets can help with the characterization of flaws such as surface
connected cracks.
As in phased array, the operator can also rely on the indication location on the weld to determine the

type
of flaw. Respecting the scan plan helps to ensure correct indication positioning.
Reflectivity, or angle of incidence, is key for defect detection. Although TFM offers different wave set

options
for the reconstruction of the FMC signal, you need to select the proper option for the type of flaw that is
targeted by the inspection. So, modeling is crucial when creating the scan plan.

In Figure 32, we can see the similar sizing of the same LOSWF when detected with PAUT and with TFM

using
the TT-TT wave set.

Figure 32 – Sizing of the same LOSWF when detected with PAUT (left) and with TFM using the TT-TT wave set (right).

30
Part 7

Phase Coherence Imaging

 The Basics
In the field of ultrasonic nondestructive testing (NDT), the total focusing method (TFM) is now a widely
known and accepted nondestructive testing (NDT) imaging technique. Moreover, the method is now
commercially available on several portable devices, including OmniScan™ X3 series flaw detectors, and
TFM is growing in popularity within the NDT community.
However, although TFM enables easier image interpretation than conventional phased array (PA)

inspection,
the use of a single element in transmission during acquisition can result in images with a low signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR). This low SNR is due to poor acoustic penetration, typically in thick parts or in highly
attenuative material.
To overcome this issue, a different implementation of the conventional TFM algorithm using only the

phase-
related
which information
• Only the of the
instantaneous acquired
phase signals
of the signal is proposed.
is considered, andItmaterial
is based on the vector
attenuation coherence
does not factorof(VCF),
affect the phase
is used as ansoimage
the signal, itself
PCI could beremoving
particularlythe amplitude
helpful information
in resolving from
the challenges the acquired
of thick signals. This
or highly attenuative method,
material
inspection applications.
also
generally known
• Since the as phase
amplitude coherence
of the signal imaging (PCI),
is not considered, presents
the need certain calibration
for amplitude advantages, including the following:
is eliminated.
• Improved sensitivity to diffracting geometries and consistency of defect representation among the
different scan views.
• Provides a reliable non-amplitude-based method for crack-like defect sizing.

PCI Processing
An amplitude-free variation of TFM, phase coherence imaging (PCI) conserves and uses only the phase
information from the FMC data. For each wave set selected, a TFM-like image is created by retaining
and processing the phase of the many elementary A-scans in the FMC dataset. This differs from
conventional amplitude TFM, which uses the sum of the signal amplitudes of the FMC.
To illustrate this difference, Figure 33 shows an example of an A-scan’s signal and noise, and Figure 34
provides a visual comparison of the amplitude versus phase data of an A-scan.
Take note of the following features in these illustrations:

• The amplitude decreases over time.

• The phase:
- Is randomly distributed in background noise areas
or non-coherent areas.
- Changes in a quasi-linear way in areas with
indications or coherent areas.
Figure 33 – Raw A-scan type signal (indications) and noise.

32
 Figure 34 – Comparison of the amplitude data and phase information of the A-scan in Figure 33. The phase data has the advantage of not
diminishing in intensity over time (or distance). The zoomed in section of the phase data shows a coherent portion, or indication.

Figure 35 illustrates the summation process that makes it possible to discriminate between noise (non-
coherence) and indications (coherence) using the phase information of the FMC-acquired elementary A-scans.
To illustrate this difference, Figure 33 shows an example of an A-scan’s signal and noise, and Figure 34
provides a visual comparison of the amplitude versus phase data of an A-scan.

Figure 35 – Phase summation of the FMC elementary A-scans: At t0, the signals are aligned in that they have the same value, so their sum is
greater than at t1. At t1, since the values of the signal vary from one A-scan to the other, the sum is lower than that at t0. Indications in the
PCI image result from areas that have high coherence (similar values in the elementary A-scans) and background noise is the areas with high
chaotic-like incoherence (dissimilar values in the elementary A-scans).

If you’re interested in diving even deeper into PCI theory, consult our white paper “Phase Coherence Imaging
for Flaw Detection.”

33
 Phase Coherence Imaging Advantages
Impossible to saturate the signal.

• No gain adjustment is needed since this technique is amplitude free.

• No need to preadjust the gain to a reference reflector.

PCI can improve the consistency between scans and operators because there are fewer parameters to adjust
(gain) and calibrations to perform (sensitivity and TCG) material.

Figure 36 – Saturation of the Phased Array signal when detecting an H2S blister.

Figure 37 – Unsaturated Phase Coherence Imaging when detecting an H2S blister

34
 Fewer groups are required for the same part coverage.
• Small reflectors have highly coherent responses, so fewer probe positions are needed for equivalent coverage.

Figure 38 – Root crack detected with Phase Coherence Imaging T-T waveset.

Tip diffractions are obvious and can be used for accurate

flaw sizing.
• Tip diffraction signals have a stronger signal relative to reflections.

Figure 39 - 5L64-A32 probe with SA32-N55S wedge for the detection of a 10 mm notch.

Figure 40 - Detection of a 10 mm notch with PCI and T-T waveset highlighting the clarity of the 2 tip signals.

35
 Better imaging close to large reflectors, such as the back wall.

Figure 41 - Saturated backwall signal with TFM may result in missing critical information.

Figure 42 - Phase Coherence Imaging does not saturate the backwall signal so no information is missed.

36
Part 8

Plane Wave Imaging

 The Basics
Plane wave imaging (PWI) is a data acquisition process like full matrix capture (FMC) but with some key
differences. The pulse/receive sequence is designed to obtain less waveform data from a single PA
probe than FMC while optimizing the signal resolution.
Data is collected by pulsing multielement apertures and receiving on all elements (process is repeated

until
each
array user-defined beam is collected). Think of the transmission sequence as the equivalent of a phased
sectorial scan. Multiple wavefronts at different angles can be pulsed to increase resolution and
sensitivity
to reflectors of various orientation.
The animation below shows the transmit and receive sequence of PWI.

Figure 43 – Simulation of wavefronts transmission and elementary reception.

Unlike FMC where only one element is pulsed at a time, PWI uses wavefronts created by multiple-
element apertures meaning that the user must define a range of usable angles.
Similar to phased array, since the acoustic beam by the array is the sum of each element’s beam, the
maximum steering capabilities of the array is dependent on many factors including size of aperture, size
and number of elements, and the material properties.

To assist the user in selecting the correct angles, the OmniScan X3 AIM modeling tool simulates the

PWI-TFM
signal response just like it does for FMC-TFM.

Figure 44 - Simulation of a Plane Wave Imaging 40° to 70° with 5° step (7 beams).

38
 Like FMC, plane wave imaging (PWI) collects elementary A-scans information that must be processed
using methods such as the total focusing method (TFM) or phase coherence imaging (PCI) to see live
imaging during the inspection.
In the figures below, see examples of PWI data processed using TFM and PCI.

Figure 45 – PWI-TFM data of weld LORP. Figure 46 – PWI-PCI data of HTHA damage.

PWI has the potential of higher PRF and scanning speeds compared to FMC because fewer pulses are
emitted during the transmitter sequence, hence less elementary A-Scans needs to be processed.
As a result of the above, data file size is reduced.

Because PWI uses wavefronts created by pulsing multiple-element apertures instead of pulsing
individual
elements, the signal is less attenuated and PWI performs better on longer sound paths or more
attenuative materials.

On the other hand, PWI features a larger dead zone than FMC, comparable to PAUT. Sound propagation

is
Plane Wave Imaging Advantages
less omnidirectional than FMC and it is also more complex to setup.
• Faster inspection speed than FMC.
• More Energy transmitted to the material.
• Works well in coarse or noisy materials.

Plane Wave Imaging Limitations

• Larger dead zone than FMC, it is comparable to PAUT.
• Sound propagation is less omnidirectional than FMC.
• More complex to setup: angle start, stop and step that shall be defined based on beam profile and SNR
acceptable criteria.

39
Conclusion
When comparing TFM to PAUT, both can generate an excellent image. TFM, however, can be set to
display an image that is closer to the actual part geometry.
TFM is engineered to be focused everywhere but when using PAUT in focused mode, combined with an
appropriate,
to good-quality probe and wedge, the results are as good as TFM. However, this only applies
the area where the beam is focused.

Both TFM and PAUT can provide an equivalent or better detection performance than the other,

depending
on the ability
• The application:
of TFM to focus everywhere can help resolve smaller indications, such as inclusions and porosities.
• However, TFM’s sensitivity drops significantly in areas outside its main acoustic influence zone.
• Operating a TFM inspection without proper preparation can lead to poor or lack of detection, just like PAUT.

Is TFM better than PAUT? The answer to that question: it depends. Whether the total focusing method is
better than phased array is a matter of application and preference.
Where does PCI fit? This technology is more sensitive to narrow and point-like reflectors and enables accurate
sizing of notch-like defects using semi-empirical considerations that could be easily misled by a calibration
process or attenuation in the material. Since it is not based on amplitude, material attenuation will not affect
the signal. However, some materials may not generate enough random noise to distinguish between what
is coherent and what is not, which may lead to a poor signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

Alternatively, PWI sits between FMC and PAUT when it comes to productivity and signal resolution. PWI creates
smaller files and can be driven at higher inspection speeds than FMC. However, tests have shown that the
signal quality degrades when less data is collected, or when fewer wavefronts are created to collect the data.

We hope this eBook contributes to improving your understanding of the total focusing method, phased
coherence imaging, and plane wave imaging. For a more in-depth look at phased array technology and
applications, refer to our other documentation on the subject:

• Advances in Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing Applications

• Phased Array Testing: Basic Theory for Industrial Applications
• ntroduction to Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology Applications

Keep our best practice recommendations in mind and remember that several factors influence the
optimal instrument settings, so do not hesitate to consult your local Evident representative for
assistance. Visit our website at www.olympus-ims.com, and go to the Contact Us page to find the service
center contact information for your area.

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