Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques

(3rd ed.)

— Chapter 4 —

1
 Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line
Analytical Processing

 Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

 Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
 Data Warehouse Design and Usage
 Data Warehouse Implementation
 Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented
Induction
 Summary

3
 What is a Data Warehouse?
 Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously.
 A decision support database that is maintained separately from
the organization’s operational database
 Support information processing by providing a solid platform of
consolidated, historical data for analysis.
 “A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant,
and nonvolatile collection of data in support of management’s
decision-making process.”—W. H. Inmon
 Data warehousing:
 The process of constructing and using data warehouses

4
 Data Warehouse—Subject-Oriented

 Organized around major subjects, such as customer,

product, sales
 Focusing on the modeling and analysis of data for
decision makers, not on daily operations or transaction
processing
 Provide a simple and concise view around particular
subject issues by excluding data that are not useful in
the decision support process

5
 Data Warehouse—Integrated

 Constructed by integrating multiple, heterogeneous data

sources
 relational databases, flat files, on-line transaction

records
 Data cleaning and data integration techniques are
applied.
 Ensure consistency in naming conventions, encoding

structures, attribute measures, etc. among different

data sources
 E.g., Hotel price: currency, tax, breakfast covered, etc.
 When data is moved to the warehouse, it is
converted.

6
 Data Warehouse—Time Variant

 The time horizon for the data warehouse is significantly

longer than that of operational systems
 Operational database: current value data
 Data warehouse data: provide information from a
historical perspective (e.g., past 5-10 years)
 Every key structure in the data warehouse
 Contains an element of time, explicitly or implicitly
 But the key of operational data may or may not
contain “time element”

7
 Data Warehouse—Nonvolatile

 A physically separate store of data transformed from the

operational environment
 Operational update of data does not occur in the data
warehouse environment
 Does not require transaction processing, recovery,
and concurrency control mechanisms
 Requires only two operations in data accessing:
 initial loading of data and access of data

8
 OLTP vs. OLAP
OLTP OLAP
users clerk, IT professional knowledge worker
function day to day operations decision support
DB design application-oriented subject-oriented
data current, up-to-date historical,
detailed, flat relational summarized, multidimensional
isolated integrated, consolidated
usage repetitive ad-hoc
access read/write lots of scans
index/hash on prim. key
unit of work short, simple transaction complex query
# records accessed tens millions
#users thousands hundreds
DB size 100MB-GB 100GB-TB
metric transaction throughput query throughput, response

9
 Why a Separate Data Warehouse?
 High performance for both systems
 DBMS— tuned for OLTP: access methods, indexing, concurrency
control, recovery
 Warehouse—tuned for OLAP: complex OLAP queries,
multidimensional view, consolidation
 Different functions and different data:
 missing data: Decision support requires historical data which
operational DBs do not typically maintain
 data consolidation: DS requires consolidation (aggregation,
summarization) of data from heterogeneous sources
 data quality: different sources typically use inconsistent data
representations, codes and formats which have to be reconciled
 Note: There are more and more systems which perform OLAP
analysis directly on relational databases
10
Data Warehouse: A Multi-Tiered Architecture

Monitor
& OLAP Server
Other Metadata
sources Integrator

Analysis
Operational Extract Query
DBs Transform Data Serve Reports
Load
Refresh
Warehouse Data mining

Data Marts

Data Sources Data Storage OLAP Engine Front-End Tools

11
 Three Data Warehouse Models
 Enterprise warehouse
 collects all of the information about subjects spanning

the entire organization

 Data Mart
 a subset of corporate-wide data that is of value to a

specific groups of users. Its scope is confined to

specific, selected groups, such as marketing data mart
 Independent vs. dependent (directly from warehouse) data mart
 Virtual warehouse
 A set of views over operational databases

 Only some of the possible summary views may be

materialized
12
Extraction, Transformation, and Loading (ETL)
 Data extraction
 get data from multiple, heterogeneous, and external
sources
 Data cleaning
 detect errors in the data and rectify them when possible

 Data transformation
 convert data from legacy or host format to warehouse
format
 Load
 sort, summarize, consolidate, compute views, check
integrity, and build indicies and partitions
 Refresh
 propagate the updates from the data sources to the
warehouse
13
 Metadata Repository
 Meta data is the data defining warehouse objects. It stores:
 Description of the structure of the data warehouse
 schema, view, dimensions, hierarchies, derived data defn, data
mart locations and contents
 Operational meta-data
 data lineage (history of migrated data and transformation path),
currency of data (active, archived, or purged), monitoring
information (warehouse usage statistics, error reports, audit trails)
 The algorithms used for summarization
 The mapping from operational environment to the data warehouse
 Data related to system performance
 warehouse schema, view and derived data definitions

 Business data
 business terms and definitions, ownership of data, charging policies
14
 Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line
Analytical Processing

 Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

 Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
 Data Warehouse Design and Usage
 Data Warehouse Implementation
 Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented
Induction
 Summary

15
 From Tables and Spreadsheets to
Data Cubes
 A data warehouse is based on a multidimensional data model
which views data in the form of a data cube
 A data cube, such as sales, allows data to be modeled and viewed in
multiple dimensions
 Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand, type), or
time(day, week, month, quarter, year)
 Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold) and keys
to each of the related dimension tables
 In data warehousing literature, an n-D base cube is called a base
cuboid. The top most 0-D cuboid, which holds the highest-level of
summarization, is called the apex cuboid. The lattice of cuboids
forms a data cube.
16
 Cube: A Lattice of Cuboids

all
0-D (apex) cuboid

time item location supplier

1-D cuboids

time,location item,location location,supplier

time,item 2-D cuboids
time,supplier item,supplier

time,location,supplier
3-D cuboids
time,item,location
time,item,supplier item,location,supplier

4-D (base) cuboid

time, item, location, supplier

17
 Conceptual Modeling of Data Warehouses

 Modeling data warehouses: dimensions & measures

 Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a
set of dimension tables
 Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema
where some dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a
set of smaller dimension tables, forming a shape
similar to snowflake
 Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share
dimension tables, viewed as a collection of stars,
therefore called galaxy schema or fact constellation

18
 Example of Star Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name
month brand
quarter time_key type
year supplier_type
item_key
branch_key
branch location
location_key
branch_key location_key
branch_name units_sold street
branch_type city
dollars_sold state_or_province
country
avg_sales
Measures

19
 Example of Snowflake Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key supplier
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name supplier_key
month brand supplier_type
quarter time_key type
year item_key supplier_key

branch_key
branch location
location_key
location_key
branch_key
units_sold street
branch_name
city_key
branch_type
dollars_sold city
city_key
avg_sales city
state_or_province
Measures country

20
 Example of Fact Constellation
time
time_key item Shipping Fact Table
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name time_key
month brand
quarter time_key type item_key
year supplier_type shipper_key
item_key
branch_key from_location

branch location_key location to_location

branch_key location_key dollars_cost
branch_name
units_sold
street
branch_type dollars_sold city units_shipped
province_or_state
avg_sales country shipper
Measures shipper_key
shipper_name
location_key
shipper_type 21
 A Concept Hierarchy:
Dimension (location)

all all

region Europe ... North_America

country Germany ... Spain Canada ... Mexico

city Frankfurt ... Vancouver ... Toronto

office L. Chan ... M. Wind

22
 Data Cube Measures: Three Categories

 Distributive: if the result derived by applying the function

to n aggregate values is the same as that derived by
applying the function on all the data without partitioning
 E.g., count(), sum(), min(), max()
 Algebraic: if it can be computed by an algebraic function
with M arguments (where M is a bounded integer), each of
which is obtained by applying a distributive aggregate
function
 E.g., avg(), min_N(), standard_deviation()
 Holistic: if there is no constant bound on the storage size
needed to describe a subaggregate.
 E.g., median(), mode(), rank()
23
View of Warehouses and Hierarchies

Specification of hierarchies
 Schema hierarchy
day < {month <
quarter; week} < year
 Set_grouping hierarchy
{1..10} < inexpensive

24
 Multidimensional Data

 Sales volume as a function of product, month,

and region
Dimensions: Product, Location, Time
Hierarchical summarization paths

Industry Region Year

Category Country Quarter

Product

Product City Month Week

Office Day

Month
25
 A Sample Data Cube

Total annual sales

Date of TVs in U.S.A.
1Qtr 2Qtr 3Qtr 4Qtr sum
TV
PC U.S.A
VCR

Country
sum
Canada

Mexico

sum

26
 Cuboids Corresponding to the Cube

all
0-D (apex) cuboid
product date country
1-D cuboids

product,date product,country date, country

2-D cuboids

3-D (base) cuboid

product, date, country

27
 Typical OLAP Operations
 Roll up (drill-up): summarize data
 by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension reduction
 Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up
 from higher level summary to lower level summary or
detailed data, or introducing new dimensions
 Slice and dice: project and select
 Pivot (rotate):
 reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series of 2D planes
 Other operations
 drill across: involving (across) more than one fact table
 drill through: through the bottom level of the cube to its
back-end relational tables (using SQL)

28
Fig. 3.10 Typical OLAP
Operations

29
 A Star-Net Query Model
Customer Orders
Shipping Method
Customer
CONTRACTS
AIR-EXPRESS

ORDER
TRUCK
PRODUCT LINE
Time Product
ANNUALY QTRLY DAILY PRODUCT ITEM PRODUCT GROUP
CITY
SALES PERSON
COUNTRY
DISTRICT

REGION
DIVISION
Location Each circle is
called a footprint Promotion Organization
30
Browsing a Data Cube

 Visualization
 OLAP capabilities
 Interactive manipulation
31
 Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line
Analytical Processing

 Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

 Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
 Data Warehouse Design and Usage
 Data Warehouse Implementation
 Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented
Induction
 Summary

32
 Design of Data Warehouse: A Business
Analysis Framework
 Four views regarding the design of a data warehouse
 Top-down view
 allows selection of the relevant information necessary for the
data warehouse
 Data source view
 exposes the information being captured, stored, and
managed by operational systems
 Data warehouse view
 consists of fact tables and dimension tables
 Business query view
 sees the perspectives of data in the warehouse from the view
of end-user
33
 Data Warehouse Design Process
 Top-down, bottom-up approaches or a combination of both
 Top-down: Starts with overall design and planning (mature)
 Bottom-up: Starts with experiments and prototypes (rapid)
 From software engineering point of view
 Waterfall: structured and systematic analysis at each step before
proceeding to the next
 Spiral: rapid generation of increasingly functional systems, short
turn around time, quick turn around
 Typical data warehouse design process
 Choose a business process to model, e.g., orders, invoices, etc.
 Choose the grain (atomic level of data) of the business process
 Choose the dimensions that will apply to each fact table record
 Choose the measure that will populate each fact table record
34
 Data Warehouse Development:
A Recommended Approach
Multi-Tier Data
Warehouse
Distributed
Data Marts

Enterprise
Data Data
Data
Mart Mart
Warehouse

Model refinement Model refinement

Define a high-level corporate data model

35
 Data Warehouse Usage
 Three kinds of data warehouse applications
 Information processing
 supports querying, basic statistical analysis, and reporting
using crosstabs, tables, charts and graphs
 Analytical processing
 multidimensional analysis of data warehouse data
 supports basic OLAP operations, slice-dice, drilling, pivoting
 Data mining
 knowledge discovery from hidden patterns
 supports associations, constructing analytical models,
performing classification and prediction, and presenting the
mining results using visualization tools

36
From On-Line Analytical Processing (OLAP)
to On Line Analytical Mining (OLAM)
 Why online analytical mining?
 High quality of data in data warehouses

 DW contains integrated, consistent, cleaned data

 Available information processing structure surrounding

data warehouses
 ODBC, OLEDB, Web accessing, service facilities,

reporting and OLAP tools

 OLAP-based exploratory data analysis

 Mining with drilling, dicing, pivoting, etc.

 On-line selection of data mining functions

 Integration and swapping of multiple mining

functions, algorithms, and tasks

37
 Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line
Analytical Processing

 Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

 Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
 Data Warehouse Design and Usage
 Data Warehouse Implementation
 Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented
Induction
 Summary

38
 Efficient Data Cube Computation
 Data cube can be viewed as a lattice of cuboids
 The bottom-most cuboid is the base cuboid
 The top-most cuboid (apex) contains only one cell
 How many cuboids in an n-dimensional cube with L
levels? n
T   ( Li 1)
i 1
 Materialization of data cube
 Materialize every (cuboid) (full materialization),
none (no materialization), or some (partial
materialization)
 Selection of which cuboids to materialize
 Based on size, sharing, access frequency, etc.
39
 The “Compute Cube” Operator
 Cube definition and computation in DMQL
define cube sales [item, city, year]: sum (sales_in_dollars)
compute cube sales
 Transform it into a SQL-like language (with a new operator cube
by, introduced by Gray et al.’96) ()
SELECT item, city, year, SUM (amount)
FROM SALES (city) (item) (year)

CUBE BY item, city, year

 Need compute the following Group-Bys
(city, item) (city, year) (item, year)
(date, product, customer),
(date,product),(date, customer), (product, customer),
(date), (product), (customer) (city, item, year)
()
40
 Indexing OLAP Data: Bitmap Index
 Index on a particular column
 Each value in the column has a bit vector: bit-op is fast
 The length of the bit vector: # of records in the base table
 The i-th bit is set if the i-th row of the base table has the value for
the indexed column
 not suitable for high cardinality domains
 A recent bit compression technique, Word-Aligned Hybrid (WAH),
makes it work for high cardinality domain as well [Wu, et al. TODS’06]
Base table Index on Region Index on Type
Cust Region Type RecIDAsia Europe America RecID Retail Dealer
C1 Asia Retail 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
C2 Europe Dealer 2 0 1 0 2 0 1
C3 Asia Dealer 3 1 0 0 3 0 1
C4 America Retail 4 0 0 1 4 1 0
C5 Europe Dealer 5 0 1 0 5 0 1
41
 Indexing OLAP Data: Join Indices

 Join index: JI(R-id, S-id) where R (R-id, …)  S

(S-id, …)
 Traditional indices map the values to a list of
record ids
 It materializes relational join in JI file and

speeds up relational join

 In data warehouses, join index relates the values
of the dimensions of a start schema to rows in
the fact table.
 E.g. fact table: Sales and two dimensions city

and product
 A join index on city maintains for each

distinct city a list of R-IDs of the tuples

recording the Sales in the city
 Join indices can span multiple dimensions

42
 Efficient Processing OLAP Queries
 Determine which operations should be performed on the available cuboids
 Transform drill, roll, etc. into corresponding SQL and/or OLAP operations,
e.g., dice = selection + projection
 Determine which materialized cuboid(s) should be selected for OLAP op.
 Let the query to be processed be on {brand, province_or_state} with the
condition “year = 2004”, and there are 4 materialized cuboids available:
1) {year, item_name, city}
2) {year, brand, country}
3) {year, brand, province_or_state}
4) {item_name, province_or_state} where year = 2004
Which should be selected to process the query?
 Explore indexing structures and compressed vs. dense array structs in MOLAP
43
 OLAP Server Architectures

 Relational OLAP (ROLAP)

 Use relational or extended-relational DBMS to store and manage
warehouse data and OLAP middle ware
 Include optimization of DBMS backend, implementation of
aggregation navigation logic, and additional tools and services
 Greater scalability
 Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP)
 Sparse array-based multidimensional storage engine
 Fast indexing to pre-computed summarized data
 Hybrid OLAP (HOLAP) (e.g., Microsoft SQLServer)
 Flexibility, e.g., low level: relational, high-level: array
 Specialized SQL servers (e.g., Redbricks)
 Specialized support for SQL queries over star/snowflake schemas
44
 Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line
Analytical Processing

 Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

 Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
 Data Warehouse Design and Usage
 Data Warehouse Implementation
 Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented
Induction
 Summary

45
 Attribute-Oriented Induction

 Proposed in 1989 (KDD ‘89 workshop)

 Not confined to categorical data nor particular measures
 How it is done?
 Collect the task-relevant data (initial relation) using a
relational database query
 Perform generalization by attribute removal or
attribute generalization
 Apply aggregation by merging identical, generalized
tuples and accumulating their respective counts
 Interaction with users for knowledge presentation

46
Attribute-Oriented Induction: An Example
Example: Describe general characteristics of graduate
students in the University database
 Step 1. Fetch relevant set of data using an SQL
statement, e.g.,
Select * (i.e., name, gender, major, birth_place,
birth_date, residence, phone#, gpa)
from student
where student_status in {“Msc”, “MBA”, “PhD” }
 Step 2. Perform attribute-oriented induction
 Step 3. Present results in generalized relation, cross-tab,
or rule forms

47
 Class Characterization: An Example

Name Gender Major Birth-Place Birth_date Residence Phone # GPA

Initial Jim M CS Vancouver,BC, 8-12-76 3511 Main St., 687-4598 3.67

Woodman Canada Richmond
Relation Scott M CS Montreal, Que, 28-7-75 345 1st Ave., 253-9106 3.70
Lachance Canada Richmond
Laura Lee F Physics Seattle, WA, USA 25-8-70 125 Austin Ave., 420-5232 3.83
… … … … … Burnaby … …
…
Removed Retained Sci,Eng, Country Age range City Removed Excl,
Bus VG,..
Gender Major Birth_region Age_range Residence GPA Count
Prime M Science Canada 20-25 Richmond Very-good 16
Generalized F Science Foreign 25-30 Burnaby Excellent 22
Relation … … … … … … …

Birth_Region
Canada Foreign Total
Gender
M 16 14 30
F 10 22 32
Total 26 36 62

48
Basic Principles of Attribute-Oriented Induction

 Data focusing: task-relevant data, including dimensions,

and the result is the initial relation
 Attribute-removal: remove attribute A if there is a large set
of distinct values for A but (1) there is no generalization
operator on A, or (2) A’s higher level concepts are
expressed in terms of other attributes
 Attribute-generalization: If there is a large set of distinct
values for A, and there exists a set of generalization
operators on A, then select an operator and generalize A
 Attribute-threshold control: typical 2-8, specified/default
 Generalized relation threshold control: control the final
relation/rule size
49
 Attribute-Oriented Induction: Basic
Algorithm
 InitialRel: Query processing of task-relevant data, deriving
the initial relation.
 PreGen: Based on the analysis of the number of distinct
values in each attribute, determine generalization plan for
each attribute: removal? or how high to generalize?
 PrimeGen: Based on the PreGen plan, perform
generalization to the right level to derive a “prime
generalized relation”, accumulating the counts.
 Presentation: User interaction: (1) adjust levels by drilling,
(2) pivoting, (3) mapping into rules, cross tabs,
visualization presentations.

50
 Presentation of Generalized Results
 Generalized relation:
 Relations where some or all attributes are generalized, with counts
or other aggregation values accumulated.
 Cross tabulation:
 Mapping results into cross tabulation form (similar to contingency
tables).
 Visualization techniques:
 Pie charts, bar charts, curves, cubes, and other visual forms.
 Quantitative characteristic rules:
 Mapping generalized result into characteristic rules with quantitative
information associated with it, e.g.,
grad ( x)  male( x) 
birth _ region( x) "Canada"[t :53%] birth _ region( x) " foreign"[t : 47%].
51
 Mining Class Comparisons

 Comparison: Comparing two or more classes

 Method:
 Partition the set of relevant data into the target class and the
contrasting class(es)
 Generalize both classes to the same high level concepts
 Compare tuples with the same high level descriptions
 Present for every tuple its description and two measures
 support - distribution within single class
 comparison - distribution between classes
 Highlight the tuples with strong discriminant features
 Relevance Analysis:
 Find attributes (features) which best distinguish different classes

52
Concept Description vs. Cube-Based OLAP
 Similarity:
 Data generalization
 Presentation of data summarization at multiple levels of
abstraction
 Interactive drilling, pivoting, slicing and dicing
 Differences:
 OLAP has systematic preprocessing, query independent,

and can drill down to rather low level

 AOI has automated desired level allocation, and may

perform dimension relevance analysis/ranking when

there are many relevant dimensions
 AOI works on the data which are not in relational forms

53
 Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line
Analytical Processing

 Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

 Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
 Data Warehouse Design and Usage
 Data Warehouse Implementation
 Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented
Induction
 Summary

54
 Summary
 Data warehousing: A multi-dimensional model of a data warehouse
 A data cube consists of dimensions & measures
 Star schema, snowflake schema, fact constellations
 OLAP operations: drilling, rolling, slicing, dicing and pivoting
 Data Warehouse Architecture, Design, and Usage
 Multi-tiered architecture
 Business analysis design framework
 Information processing, analytical processing, data mining, OLAM (Online
Analytical Mining)
 Implementation: Efficient computation of data cubes
 Partial vs. full vs. no materialization
 Indexing OALP data: Bitmap index and join index
 OLAP query processing
 OLAP servers: ROLAP, MOLAP, HOLAP
 Data generalization: Attribute-oriented induction
55
 References (I)
 S. Agarwal, R. Agrawal, P. M. Deshpande, A. Gupta, J. F. Naughton, R. Ramakrishnan,
and S. Sarawagi. On the computation of multidimensional aggregates. VLDB’96
 D. Agrawal, A. E. Abbadi, A. Singh, and T. Yurek. Efficient view maintenance in data
warehouses. SIGMOD’97
 R. Agrawal, A. Gupta, and S. Sarawagi. Modeling multidimensional databases. ICDE’97
 S. Chaudhuri and U. Dayal. An overview of data warehousing and OLAP technology.
ACM SIGMOD Record, 26:65-74, 1997
 E. F. Codd, S. B. Codd, and C. T. Salley. Beyond decision support. Computer World, 27,
July 1993.
 J. Gray, et al. Data cube: A relational aggregation operator generalizing group-by,
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27:97-107, 1998.
 V. Harinarayan, A. Rajaraman, and J. D. Ullman. Implementing data cubes efficiently.
SIGMOD’96

56
 References (II)
 C. Imhoff, N. Galemmo, and J. G. Geiger. Mastering Data Warehouse Design:
Relational and Dimensional Techniques. John Wiley, 2003
 W. H. Inmon. Building the Data Warehouse. John Wiley, 1996
 R. Kimball and M. Ross. The Data Warehouse Toolkit: The Complete Guide to
Dimensional Modeling. 2ed. John Wiley, 2002
 P. O'Neil and D. Quass. Improved query performance with variant indexes.
SIGMOD'97
 Microsoft. OLEDB for OLAP programmer's reference version 1.0. In
http://www.microsoft.com/data/oledb/olap, 1998
 A. Shoshani. OLAP and statistical databases: Similarities and differences.
PODS’00.
 S. Sarawagi and M. Stonebraker. Efficient organization of large
multidimensional arrays. ICDE'94
 P. Valduriez. Join indices. ACM Trans. Database Systems, 12:218-246, 1987.
 J. Widom. Research problems in data warehousing. CIKM’95.
 K. Wu, E. Otoo, and A. Shoshani, Optimal Bitmap Indices with Efficient
Compression, ACM Trans. on Database Systems (TODS), 31(1), 2006, pp. 1-38.
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 Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line
Analytical Processing
 Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts
 (a) What Is a Data Warehouse?
 (b) Data Warehouse: A Multi-Tiered Architecture
 (c) Three Data Warehouse Models: Enterprise Warehouse, Data Mart, ad Virtual Warehouse
 (d) Extraction, Transformation and Loading
 (e) Metadata Repository
 Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
 (a) Cube: A Lattice of Cuboids
 (b) Conceptual Modeling of Data Warehouses
 (c) Stars, Snowflakes, and Fact Constellations: Schemas for Multidimensional Databases
 (d) Dimensions: The Role of Concept Hierarchy
 (e) Measures: Their Categorization and Computation
 (f) Cube Definitions in Database systems
 (g) Typical OLAP Operations
 (h) A Starnet Query Model for Querying Multidimensional Databases
 Data Warehouse Design and Usage
 (a) Design of Data Warehouses: A Business Analysis Framework
 (b) Data Warehouses Design Processes
 (c) Data Warehouse Usage
 (d) From On-Line Analytical Processing to On-Line Analytical Mining
 Data Warehouse Implementation
 (a) Efficient Data Cube Computation: Cube Operation, Materialization of Data Cubes, and Iceberg Cubes
 (b) Indexing OLAP Data: Bitmap Index and Join Index
 (c) Efficient Processing of OLAP Queries
 (d) OLAP Server Architectures: ROLAP vs. MOLAP vs. HOLAP
 Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented Induction
 (a) Attribute-Oriented Induction for Data Characterization
 (b) Efficient Implementation of Attribute-Oriented Induction
 (c) Attribute-Oriented Induction for Class Comparisons
 (d) Attribute-Oriented Induction vs. Cube-Based OLAP
 Summary

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 Compression of Bitmap Indices
 Bitmap indexes must be compressed to reduce I/O costs
and minimize CPU usage—majority of the bits are 0’s
 Two compression schemes:
 Byte-aligned Bitmap Code (BBC)
 Word-Aligned Hybrid (WAH) code
 Time and space required to operate on compressed
bitmap is proportional to the total size of the bitmap
 Optimal on attributes of low cardinality as well as those of
high cardinality.
 WAH out performs BBC by about a factor of two
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