Week 6 Lesson 2

TWELVE PRINCIPLES
OF MEMORY
Prepared by Vidhyah Nelson
 Kinds of Encoding for Transmitting
Information to LTM (Long-Term Memory)

 Linguisticencoding transmits verbal information. Linguistic

encoding is also known as acoustical or auditory coding.
 Visual encoding transmits visual information.
Visual encoding is also known as imaginal coding.
 Motor encoding transmits muscle memory information.
Motor encoding is also known as physical or kinesthetic
coding.
 Semantic encoding transmits emotional information,
experiences and episodic memory.
 WHAT DO WE REMEMBER THE MOST?

1. We remember something better when we visualize it

We remember things that appeal to our feelings, such as the times we are the
happiest, angriest
or saddest. (birth, death, fights, celebrations)
2. We can easily remember something humorous or illogical. The events will leave a
lasting
impression on (e.g. Mr. Bean, Friends, Brooklyn 99, SpongeBob Squarepants)
3. We remember something better when we associate it with the background
knowledge we have
4. Memory increases when all the 5 senses are stimulated- colours, sounds- music, a
certain smell
5. Repetition
6. Primacy and recency
The Twelve Principles of Memory
Essential Strategies for Using Selectivity
Learning Goal: To identify the information for further processing and to discard the
information that is not relevant or important to process into memory.
o Identify main ideas, concepts, or themes. Use your course syllabus, the
introduction in your textbook and your lecture notes to help you identify the
main ideas, concepts, or themes that receive frequent or repeated emphasis.
 Identify important details by using chapter features. Use lists of terminology,
definitions, marginal notes, boxed features, steps or formulas to use to solve
problems, chapter summaries, and chapter review questions to help your
identity important details.
 Use examples to grasp concepts, but do not focus on them as details to
memorize. Examples in textbooks and in lectures provide you with background
information, capture your attention, and clarify concepts, but often they are not
the details that you need to memorize or learn thoroughly.
 Create study tools that show main ideas and important details. In Chapter 5 and
upcoming chapters, you learned/ will learn about visual mappings, index cards,
forms of notetaking, and other study tools that use selectivity to identify main
ideas and important details.
Essential Strategies for Using Association
Learning Goal: To create a strong, vivid association between two or more items so one can
serve as a memory cue to recall the other.
 Create associations between new information and previously learned information. Ask
yourself: What do I already know about this? What schemas does belong in? What is familiar
and what is new?
 Make associations vivid and detailed. Identify the key parts f the information that you need
to learn and then create clear associations with those details.
 Visually link two items together into one image. Instead of separating two items into two
different images, form one picture that contains both images. To strengthen the image, add
colour, sounds, and/or action.
 Create and rehearse frequently paired associations and chains of associations. Associations
activate working memory and create ways to access long-term memory.
 Associate the information you learned with the setting in which you learned it. Ask yourself:
Did I learn this from the textbook, from a lab project, in class , or from a homework
assignment? Linking information to learning settings can be an effective association to use
later as a retrieval cue.
 Pay attention to your thought process and associations. Watch for ways associations are used
in your textbook and as you process new information.
Essential Strategies for Using Visualisation
Learning Goal: To create a strong visual image of important information that can
be recalled as needed from long-term memory.
o Create a strong visual impression of the information. As you encode and form a
visual image, include details such as size, shape, colour, brightness and texture.
o Attach additional meaning to the impression. Think about its purpose, its uses,
personal experiences related to the item, and similarities it has with other
objects.
 Practice or rehearse the information without looking at the physical form.
Visualising occurs in your mind, so practice “seeing” objects or sequences of
events in your imagination.
 Check your accuracy. Refer back to the physical object or printed passage.
Compare the information in your visualisation with the original information.
Check for accuracy and the completeness of the details.
 Rehearse frequently. Keep the visualisation active, accurate and accessible by
recalling the image frequently.
Essential Strategies for Using Elaboration (1 of 2)
Learning Goal: To work with, encode, and practice information in new ways
to increase comprehension and application of information.
o Encode and rehearse information in new ways. For example, if the
information initially was encoded visually, encode it linguistically: read the
information out loud, recite it, or talk about it with someone else. If the initial
encoding was visual from reading, use another form of visual coding to
elaborate: copy it, condense it, group it into related categories, convert it
to a picture, or create a visual study tool, such as a visual mapping.
o Use repetition but attach meaning and applications. For steps and
processes, such as in math problems, use repetition practice, but explain
each step to yourself, and think of applications for the steps and processes.
Rework the same problem several times, explain why each step is
important, mentally summarise the steps, and notice the key elements of
the problem so that you can recognise those same elements in new
problems.
Essential Strategies for Using Elaboration (2 of 2)
 Use elaborative questioning by asking why questions. Why does this
work this way? Why is this important? The responses show the use of
critical thinking and lead to deeper comprehension.
 Use elaborative questions by asking how questions. How can I use
this? How can this apply to other situations? How does this work? The
responses help you generalise the information, see cause-effect
relationships, recognise applications, and make stronger
connections to other schemes.
 Notice similarities and differences between chunks of information.
Pay attention to and work with the details.
 Weaving big ideas or concepts together with their related details.
Creating visual mappings is ideal for connecting different levels of
information.
The First Four Principles (SAVE)
Selectivity
The process of identifying separating main ideas and
important details from a larger body of information.
Basic cue words: picking and choosing

Association
The process of linking or connecting together two or
more items or chunks of information.
Basic cue words: linking ideas
The First Four Principles (SAVE) (Cont)
Visualization
The process of making pictures and sometimes
"movies" in your mind.
Basic cue words: seeing in your mind

Elaboration
The process of thinking about, pondering, or working
with information in new ways in order to increase
understanding, learning, and recall.
Basic cue words: working with information
The Twelve Principles of Memory
 Essential Strategies for Using Concentration

Learning Goal: To have a focused mind and undivided attention by

blocking out disruptive thoughts and distractions.
o Select a conducive learning environment hat has limited distractions.
o Ask yourself a question about what you are studying. As soon as you
ask a question and begin to respond, you stimulate or activate
working memory. Your answer gives you a purpose and focuses your
attention.
o Limit your activities to one task. Avoid disrupting your thought
patterns by trying to multitask or by attending to other kinds of stimuli.
o Use active learning strategies to stay engaged in the learning
process.
 Essential Strategies for Using Recitation (1 of 2)
Learning Goal: To explain information clearly and in an organised,
knowledgeable manner without looking at printed information.
o Use a Look-Away Technique to recite information immediately. After
you read a passage, examine a graph, or read your notes, immediately
look away and recite the information while it is fresh in your mind.
o Use reciting to rehearse and retrieve information learned at an earlier
time. Reciting information hours, or even days, after the initial learning
process provides you with practice locating and retrieving information
from memory.
o Explain information out loud to yourself or to someone else. Finding ways
to express and explain information in your own words improves
comprehension and provides practice putting ideas together
coherently.
Essential Strategies for Using Recitation (2 of 2)
 Create associations between visual and verbal information.
Reciting information that first appeared in printed form creates
an association and a retrieval cue for information encoded two
different ways.
 Use recitation to prepare for tests. In testing situations, it is
imperative that you can retrieve information quickly from long-
term memory. Ongoing use of recitation helps you locate and
practice retrieving information quickly.
 Use the feedback you get from reciting. Pay attention to your
ability to recite accurately. If you cannot express the
information, or you recite inaccurate or incomplete information,
return to the original material for further processing.
 Essential Strategies for Using Intention
Learning Goal: To put yourself in a learning mode that identifies purpose
(a goal) and a plan of action for achieving your learning goal.
o Identify a specific learning goal before you begin a learning activity.
Take the time to figure out and state clearly what you want to
accomplish. Know your purpose.
o Create a plan of action. After identifying your goal, choose a set of
activities that will produce the results that you desire. An organised plan
of action motivates you to fulfill your intention to perform a specific task.
o Determine if you are working with information that involves declarative
knowledge or procedural knowledge. Knowing the kind of information
you are working with will help you select learning activities that involve
working with the information in new ways, or working with the
information through repetition.
 Essential Strategies for Using Big and Little Pictures
Learning Goal: To identify the different levels of information in the
materials you are studying: themes, concepts, and main ideas as well as
the important supporting details, such as facts, definitions, functions,
causes, effects, or steps in a process.
o Convert textbook and lecture materials into diagrams, visual mappings,
or lists to show the different levels of information.
o Ask yourself questions that focus your attention on the level of the
information. Is this a main idea? Was this a chapter heading? Is this a
recurring theme? Is this a schema? Under what category does this detail
belong? What are other related details? What big picture do these
details support?
o Use textbook marking and notetaking techniques that clearly show
different level of information.
The Middle Four Principles of Memory
(CRIB)
Concentration
The process of focusing the mind on one task or item
at a time without interruptions to the thought process.
Basic cue word: focusing

Recitation
The process of explaining information clearly, out loud
in your own words, and in complete sentences.
Basic cue words: explaining out loud
The Middle Four Principles of Memory (CRIB) (Cont)

Intention
The process of identifying a purpose or a goal to act or
perform in a specific way.
Basic cue words: identifying a purpose or goal

Big and Little Pictures

The process of understanding that concepts and
details are different levels of information: the big
pictures are the schemas, concepts or the main ideas,
and the little pictures are the supporting details.
Basic cue words: concepts and details
The Twelve Principles of Memory
 Essential Strategies for Using Feedback (1 of 2)

Learning Goal: To check your accuracy of remembering facts or

processes and to correct any inaccuracies by modifying your approach
or using new strategies to learn.
o Recite often. Expressing information out loud, in compete sentences,
and using your own words without looking at printed material is one of
the most powerful forms of feedback.
o Use Look-Away Techniques. Read a short passage, pause, and look
away. As you look away, mentally rehearse and review, visualise an
image of the material, or recite information without looking. Look-Away
Techniques keep information active in your working memory and
provide time for the information to gel or integrate with other
information.
 Essential Strategies for Using Feedback (2 of 2)
o Write summaries without referring to printed materials. Writing summaries
gives you practice expressing main ideas and important details, listing items
that belong together, or writing steps of a process from memory. Always
check your accuracy by comparing your work to your textbook or your
notes.
o Rework math problems in the textbook and on homework assignments.
o Procedural knowledge needs to be practiced multiple times . Feedback
includes not only accurate answers, but also improved problem-solving
speed.
o Work with a partner to quiz each other. Create sets of study questions,
words to define, or problems to solve. Quiz a partner and have your partner
quiz you.
o Use self-quizzing strategies. Use flashcards for definitions, study questions, or
lists in a process for self-quizzing.
 The Feedback Model
YES.
Continue the
learning
process.
Feedback Comparison:
Learning Action: through Check if
Goal: Do self- your
Identify something quizzing: recalled
what you to start Try to recall information Results
want to processing the or steps
learn. the information match the
information or perform original
the items.
process. NO.
Identify and
correct your
error. Repeat
the feedback
process.
 Essential Strategies for Using Organisation
Learning Goal: To organise information into meaningful chunks, to work with
information in new ways to personalise and clarify it., and to create
associations that connect levels of information.
o Categorise information by making lists. To avoid working with isolated
details, group related details together under one category using the
subject, main idea, theme, or concept as the heading for your category.
o Organise the information chronologically, or by time sequence. Create
time lines for a series of events (such as in history or social science courses),
the development of a product (such as in math, science, or writing
courses).
o Present information in new ways. Use index cards, visual mappings,
hierarchies, formal outlines, Cornell notes, two-and three-column notes,
mnemonics, and other ways to reorganise and create a new
representation of the information.
 Essential Strategies for Using Time on Task
Learning Goal: To use time to your advantages by allocating sufficient time to the learning
process and spacing practices effectively.
o Do not rush the learning process. The learning process and its many cognitive functions take
time. When you read or study materials, take the time to pause, think about, and process
the information.
o Plan sufficient study time for each course. Use the 2.1 ration (two hours of studying for every
one hour in class) so you will have ample time to learn, practice, and review course
information.
o Use fifty-minute study blocks to study one subject. Work with only one subject for fifty
minutes to keep your working memory active and your mind focused. After a fifty-minute
period, take a short break to give your working memory time to process further and to free
up working memory space for new information. After your break, return to the same subject,
or move to a new subject.
o Use space practice. Spaced practice involves making multiple contacts with information
and spreading those contacts over several different time periods. To avoid the fading of
new information from memory, in early stages of learning, use spaced practice within the
first day or two to review the information. Later, when you have learned material more
solidly you can use longer time periods between review sessions.
 Essential Strategies for Using Ongoing Review
Learning Goal: To use time and effort on a regular basis to review previously learned
information.
o Include time each week to review previously learned information. At the beginning of a
study block, review information you studied the previous day. Also, allow some time each
week to review notes, textbook information, homework assignments, or study tools created
at earlier times.
o Conduct memory searches frequently. Practice locating and retrieving information quickly
from your long-term memory. Track your thought processes, practice associations, recall
where you learned specific information , and connect details to schemas when you review.
o Frequent repetition of steps and solutions for procedural knowledge. Rework math or science
problems to increase your accuracy and your problem-solving speed. Ongoing review leads
to performing the steps more automatically.
o Conduct a final review before you know you will need to use the information. Recently
studied information is freshest in working memory (recency effect). Do a final review right
before a test, a class discussion, a speech, or a performance task. This brings the information
back into working memory.
The Last Four Principles of Memory (FOTO)
Feedback
The process of verifying how accurately and thoroughly
you have or have not learned specific information.
Basic cue words: self-quizzing
Organization
The process of creating a meaningful, logical structure
or arrangement of ideas or information.
Basic cue words: structuring logically
Time on Task
The process of using sufficient time and effectively
spacing the contact time used to process information.
Basic cue words: using minutes and hours
Ongoing Review
The process of practicing previously learned information.
Basic cue words: repeated practice
 RECAP
The Twelve Principles of Memory (Mnemonic: SAVE CRIB FOTO)
1.Selectivity: Select what is important to learn.
2.Association: Associate or link together chunks of information.
3.Visualization: Picture in your mind the information you are learning.
4.Elaboration: Work with information and encode information in new ways.
5.Concentration: Stay focused and attend to specific stimuli.
6.Recitation: Repeat information verbally in your own words.
7.Intention: Create a learning goal with clearly defined desired outcomes.
8.Big and Little Pictures: Recognize different levels of information.
9.Feedback: Check the accuracy of your learning and use forms of self-quizzing.
10.Organization: Reorganize information in meaningful, logical ways.
11.Time on Task: Dedicate and schedule ample time to learn.
12.Ongoing Review: Practice retrieving information from long-term memory.
Characteristics of the Twelve Principles of Memory
Characteristics of the Twelve Principles of Memory
Characteristics of the Twelve Principles of Memory
Use the Mnemonic SAVE CRIB FOTO

What are the Twelve Principles of Memory?

S C F
A R O
V I T
O
E B
WORD OF THE DAY altruistic
caring about the needs and happiness of other people and being willing to do
things to help them, even if it brings no advantage to yourself

altruistic behaviour
altruistic action
altruistic reason

Altruism