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UNIT:3
Error Detection and Correction [14 Marks]
3.1 Framing:
 The data link layer needs to pack bits into frames, so that each frame is distinguishable from
another.

 Our postal system practices a type of framing. The simple act of inserting a letter into an
envelope separates one piece of information from another; the envelope serves as the delimiter.

 Framing in the data link layer separates a message from one source to a destination, or from
other messages to other destinations, by adding a sender address and a destination address.

 The destination address defines where the packet is to go; the sender address helps the
recipient acknowledge the receipt.

Types of Framing:

1. Fixed sized framing

2.variable size framing

1. Fixed sized framing

Fixed size framing is simple and efficient as all frames are of the same size.

Fixed size framing also makes it easier to manage network resources, as it ensures that each
frame take up the same amount of bandwidth.

In fixed-size framing, there is no need for defining the boundaries of the frames; the size itself
can be used as a delimiter. An example of this type of framing is the ATM wide-area network,
which uses frames of fixed size called cells.

2.variable size framing

In variable-size framing the dividing data into frame can have a different in size. In variable-
size framing, we need a way to define the end of the frame and the beginning of the next.
Example of variable size framing is Local Area Network(LAN)

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There are two approaches were used for this purpose

a)a character-oriented approach

b)bit-oriented approach.

a)Character-Oriented Protocols:  In a character-oriented protocol, data to be carried are 8-bit

characters from a coding system such as ASCII.  The header, which normally carries the source
and destination addresses and other control information  The trailer, which carries error
detection or error correction redundant bits, are also multiples of 8 bits.  To separate one frame
from the next, an 8-bit (1-byte) flag is added at the beginning and the end of a frame. The flag,
composed of protocol-dependent special characters, signals the start or end of a frame. Figure
shows the format of a frame in a character-oriented protocol.

 Character-oriented framing was popular when only text was exchanged by the data link
layers.
 The flag could be selected to be any character not used for text communication.
 Now, however, we send other types of information such as graphs, audio, and video. Any
pattern used for the flag could also be part of the information.
 If this happens, the receiver, when it encounters this pattern in the middle of the data,
thinks it has reached the end of the frame.
 To fix this problem, a bytestuffing strategy was added to character-oriented framing.
Byte stuffing (or character stuffing):  In this sender's data link layer insert a special
escape byte (ESC) just before each ''accidental'' flag byte in the data.  The data link layer
on the receiving end removes the escape byte before the data are given to the network
layer.  This technique is called byte stuffing or character stuffing.  Thus, a framing flag
byte can be distinguished from one in the data by the absence or presence of an escape
byte before it.  Of course, the next question is: What happens if an escape byte occurs in
the middle of the data?  The answer is that it, too, is stuffed with an escape byte.  Thus,
any single escape byte is part of an escape sequence, whereas a doubled one indicates that
a single escape occurred naturally in the data.

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3.2 Error:
Error is condition when the receiver’s information does not match the sender’s

Types of Error:

If the signal is carrying binary data there can be two types of errors: Single-Bit errors and burst
errors. This is shown in fig 3.2.In a single-bit error a bit value of 0 changes to 1 or vice versa. In
a burst error, multiple bits of a binary value are changed

Fig 3.2 Types of transmission Error

As we mentioned in a single-bit errors, a single bit of the data unit changes. Thus effectively,
either a 0 bit changes to 1, or a 1 bit changes to 0. Single-bit errors are more likely in the case of
parallel transmission because it is possible that one of the eight wires carrying the bits has
become noise resulting into corruption of a single bit for each byte. This can happen in the case
of a parallel transmission between the CPU and memory inside a computer. In case of serial
transmission the duration of noise is usually longer than that of a single bit. Hence the chances of
corrupting only a single bit are less. In contrast a burst changes at least two bits during data
transmission because of errors. Note that burst errors can change any two or more bits in a
transmission. These bits need not necessarily be adjacent bits. Burst errors are more likely in
serial transmission, because the duration of noise is longer, which causes multiple bits to be
corrupted

Redundancy bits:

Redundancy bits involve transmission of extra bits along with the data the data bits. These extra
bits actually do not contain any data or information. It is also called redundant bit or parity bits.

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3.3 Error Detection: ----

There are a number of techniques used for transmission error detection and correction. We shall
examine the most common techniques used for this purpose.

1. Parity Check

2. Checksum

3.Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

3.3.1 Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC) or Parity Check:---

The Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC), also known as parity check, is quite simple. It is the
least expensive technique as well as in this method, the sender appends a single additional bit,
called the parity bit, to the message before transmission it. There are two schemes in this odd
parity and even parity. In the odd parity scheme, given some bits, an additional parity bit is
added in such a way that the number of 1s in the bit inclusive of the parity bit is odd. In the even
parity scheme, the parity bit is added such that the number of 1s inclusive of the parity bit is
even.

For example consider a message string 1100011 that needs to be transmitted. Let us assume the
even parity scheme. The following will now happen.

1) The sender examines this message string and notes that the number of bits containing a value
1 in this message string is 4. Therefore it adds an extra 0 to the end of this message. This extra
bit is called parity bit. This is done by the hardware itself, which is why it is very fast.
2) The sender sends the original bits 1100011 and the additional parity bit 0 together to the
receiver.
3) The receiver separates the parity bit from the original bits and it also examines the original
bits.Its sees the original bits as 1100011, and notes that the number of 1s in the message is four
i.e. even.
4) The receiver now computes the parity bit again and compares this computed parity bit with the
0 parity bit received from the sender, it notes that are equal and accepts the bit string as correct.
This is also done by the hardware itself. The process shown in the fig 3.3 In contrast, if the
original message was 1010100 the number of 1s in the message would have been three (old), and
therefore, the parity bit would contain a 1. There is one problem with this scheme. This scheme
can only catch a single bit error. If two bits reverse, this scheme will fail. For instance, if the first
two bits in the bit stream shown in fig 3.3 change, we will get a stream 0000011, yielding a
parity bit of 0 again, fooling us!

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Clearly, parity checking can detect single bit errors. However if multiple bits of a message are
changed due to an error (burst), parity checking would not work. Better schemes are required to
trap burst errors.

3.3.2 Checksum Error Detection method:

Checksum is the error detection method is more reliable than Vertical Redundancy Check
(VRC), and Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). Checksum error detection is a method used to
identify errors in transmitted data. The process involves dividing the data into equally sized
segments and using a 1’s complement to calculate the sum of these segments. The calculated
sum is then sent along with the data to the receiver. At the receiver’s end, the same process is
repeated and if all zeroes are obtained in the sum, it means that the data is correct.

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How Checksum Works?

Sender Side:

1.Data divided into K section, each of n bits(m)

2. All sections are added together to get the sum
3.Sum is complemented and becomes the checksum
4.The checksum is sent with the data.
Receiver Side:

1. Data divided into k section, each of n bits(m)

2. All section are added together to get the sum
3. Sum added with checksum
4. The is complemented(1’s Complemented)
5. If the result is zero, the data is accepted otherwise rejected.

Example

Suppose the sender wants to send below data to receiver

11001100, 10101010, 11110000 and 11000011.
K=4,m=8 bits

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Sender send data plus checksum to receiver:

Data Checksum

11001100 10101010 11110000 11000011 11010011

Example 2:

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3.3.3 CRC [Cyclic Redundancy Check ]

 Unlike the checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary division.
 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are appended to
the end of the data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a
second, predetermined binary number.
 At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this step
there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore accepted.
 CRC uses Generator polynomial which is available on both sender and receiver side .
 CRC is technique involves binary division of the data bits being sent. The divisor is
generated using polynomials.
 The sender performs a binary division operation on the bits being sent and calculates the
remainder. Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder at the end of the
actual bits.
 Actual data bits plus the remainder is called a codeword. The sender transmit data bits as
codeword.
 Receiver performs division operation on codewords using same CRC divisior. If the
remainder contains all zero the data bits are accepted, otherwise it is considered as there
some data corrupted and is therefore rejected.

We have given dataword of length n and divisor of length k.

Step 1: Append (k-1) zero’s to the original message
Step 2: Perform modulo 2 division
Step 3: Remainder of division = CRC
Step 4: Code word = Dataword+ CRC

Example:
Sender Side

Data word:100100
Key:1101 or generator polynomial:x3+x2+1  1x3+ax2+0x+1 => 1101

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Receiver Side:
Receiver performs division operation on codewords using same CRC divisior. If the
remainder contains all zero the data bits are accepted, otherwise it is considered as there
some data corrupted and is therefore rejected.

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3.4 Error Correction Methods:

3.4.1 Automatic Repeat Request(ARQ)

"ARQ" in computer networks stands for "Automatic Repeat Request," which is an error
correction method that ensures reliable data transmission by allowing the receiver to request the
retransmission of a data packet if it detects an error, essentially asking the sender to resend the
corrupted data until it is received correctly; this is achieved through the use of
acknowledgements (ACKs) and negative acknowledgements (NACKs) to signal the status of
received packets to the sender.

Types of ARQ protocols:

1.Stop and Wait ARQ?

The Stop and Wait ARQ protocol sends a data frame and then waits for an acknowledgment
(ACK) from the receiver. The ACK indicates that the receiver successfully received the data
frame. After receiving the ACK from the receiver, the sender delivers the next data frame. So
there is a stop before the next data frame is transferred, hence it is known as the Stop and Wait
ARQ protocol.
Timeout refers to the duration for which the sender waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from
the receiver after transmitting a data packet. If the sender does not receive an ACK within this
timeout period, it assumes that the frame was lost or corrupted and retransmits the frame.

Rules for sender and receiver:

At Sender
 Rule 1: Send one data packet at a time.
 Rule 2: Send the next packet only after receiving acknowledgment for the previous.
At Receiver
 Rule 1: Send acknowledgement after receiving and consuming a data packet.
 Rule 2: After consuming packet acknowledgement need to be sent

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Problems Associated with Stop and Wait

1. Lost Data
Assume the sender transmits the data packet and it is lost. The receiver has been waiting for
the data for a long time. Because the data is not received by the receiver, it does not transmit
an acknowledgment. The sender does not receive an acknowledgment, it will not send the next
packet. This problem is caused by a loss of data.

2. Lost Acknowledgement
Assume the sender sends the data, which is also received by the receiver. The receiver sends an
acknowledgment after receiving the packet. In this situation, the acknowledgment is lost in the
network. The sender does not send the next data packet because it does not receive
acknowledgement, under the stop and wait protocol, the next packet cannot be transmitted until
the preceding packet’s acknowledgment is received.

2.Go-Back-N ARQ: The sender can send multiple packets within a window before waiting for
acknowledgements, and if an error occurs, all unacknowledged packets within the window are
retransmitted.
The Go-Back-N (GBN) protocol is a sliding window protocol used in networking for reliable data
transmission. It is part of the Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) protocols, which ensure that data is
correctly received and that any lost or corrupted packets are retransmitted.
Example:
Consider the diagram given below. We have sender window size of 4. Now the sender has sent the
packets 0, 1, 2 and 3. After acknowledging the packets 0 and 1, receiver is now expecting packet 2

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and sender window has also slided to further transmit the packets 4 and 5. Now suppose the packet
2 is lost in the network, Receiver will discard all the packets which sender has transmitted after
packet 2 as it is expecting sequence number of 2.
On the sender side for every packet send there is a time out timer which will expire for packet
number 2. Now from the last transmitted packet 5 sender will go back to the packet number 2 in the
current window and transmit all the packets till packet number 5. That’s why it is called Go Back
N. Go back means sender has to go back N places from the last transmitted packet in the
unacknowledged window and not from the point where the packet is lost.

3. Selective Repeat ARQ:

 The sender can send multiple packets within a window, and only the specific packets
with errors are retransmitted upon receiving a NACK.
 It is also known as Sliding Window Protocol and used for error detection and control in
the data link layer.
 In the selective repeat, the sender sends several frames specified by a window size even
without the need to wait for individual acknowledgement from the receiver as in Go-
Back-N ARQ. In selective repeat protocol, the retransmitted frame is received out of
sequence.
 In Selective Repeat ARQ only the lost or error frames are retransmitted, whereas correct
frames are received and buffered.
 The receiver while keeping track of sequence numbers buffers the frames in memory and
sends NACK for only frames which are missing or damaged. The sender will
send/retransmit a packet for which NACK is received.

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Example:

Explanation

Step 1 − Frame 0 sends from sender to receiver and set timer.

Step 2 − Without waiting for acknowledgement from the receiver another frame, Frame1 is sent
by sender by setting the timer for it.

Step 3 − In the same way frame2 is also sent to the receiver by setting the timer without waiting
for previous acknowledgement.

Step 4 − Whenever sender receives the ACK0 from receiver, within the frame 0 timer then it is
closed and sent to the next frame, frame 3.

Step 5 − whenever the sender receives the ACK1 from the receiver, within the frame 1 timer
then it is closed and sent to the next frame, frame 4.

Step 6 − If the sender doesn’t receive the ACK2 from the receiver within the time slot, it
declares timeout for frame 2 and resends the frame 2 again, because it thought the frame2 may be
lost or damaged.

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3.4.1 Hamming code Method:

Hamming code detects and corrects the error. This technique developed by Richards Hamming
in the 1950s.

Redundant bits are used for detecting and correcting errors.

Steps at Sender side:

To calculate number of redundant bits following formula is used:

2r≥ m+r+1

Where ,m=data bits

r=redundant bit/parity bit

Parity bits are calculated by using even parity or odd parity.

Hamming code algorithm

1. Write the bit positions starting from 1(binary form)

2. All the bit positions that are a power of 2 marked as a parity bits( 1,2,4,8)

3. All the other bit positions are marked as data bits.

4. Parity bits are calculated;

r8 R4 r2 r1 r1=1,3,5,7,9……
23 22 21 20 r2=2,3,6,7,10,11….
1 0 0 0 1 r4=4-7,12-15,20-23…….
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1 Like wise
4 0 1 0 0 r8=8-15,24-31,40-47,…..
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
10 1 0 1 0
11 1 0 1 1

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a) r1=covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the
least significant position (1,3,5,7,…..)
b) r2=covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the
second position from the least significant position (2,3,6,7,10,11…..)
c) r4=covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the
third position from the least significant position (4-7, 12-15, 20-23…….)
d) r8= covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the
fourth position from the least significant position (8-15, 24-31, 40-47,…..)

5. We check for even parity

set a parity bit 1 if the total number of 1’s in the positions it checks is odd.

set parity bit 0 if the total number of 1’s in the position it check is even.

Receiver Side:
1.Take codeword and Write the bit positions starting from 1(binary form)

2.calculate parity bit by using even parity or odd parity(depending upon which method used by
sender)

But if you find it contradictory, just put parity bit=1 or else parity bit=0

If all parity bits are 0 means no error, But if any one of the parity bit is 1 then, arrange all parity
bit one by one like r4,r2,r1 which is in binary form then convert it into decimal number. This
decimal number means bit position where error is present.

Example of Hamming Code

Suppose the data to be transmitted is 1011 from sender to receiver

Determining The Position of Redundant Bits

A redundancy bits are placed at positions that correspond to the power of 2. As in the above
example:
 The number of data bits = 4
 The number of redundant bits = 3
 The total number of bits = 4+3=7
 The redundant bits are placed at positions corresponding to power of 2 that is 1, 2, 4.

1 0 1 1
D7 D6 D5 r4 D3 r2 r1

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Determining The Parity Bits According to Even Parity

 r1 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the least significant position. R1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11

r1,3,5,7= r1,1,1,1

To find the redundant bit r1, we check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in all the
bit positions corresponding to r1 is an odd number. So, the value of r1 (parity bit’s value) = 1.

r1=1

 r2 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the second position from the least significant bit. r2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11

r2,3,6,7=r2,1,0,1

To find the redundant bit r2, we check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in all
the bit positions corresponding to r2 is even the value of r2(parity bit’s value)=0

r2=0

 r4 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the third position from the least significant bit. r4: bits 4, 5, 6, 7

r4,5,6,7=r4,1,0,1

To find the redundant bit r4, we check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in all
the bit positions corresponding to R4 is even so the value of r4(parity bit’s value) = 0

r4=0
Thus, the data transferred is:
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
D7 D6 D5 r4 D3 r2 r1

Error Detection and Correction

Suppose in the above example the 6th bit is changed from 0 to 1 during data transmission.
So, received data is

1 1 1 0 1 0 1
D7 D6 D5 r4 D3 r2 r1

For all the parity bits we will check the number of 1’s in their respective bit positions.
 For r1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11.

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r1,3,5,7= 1,1,1,1

 We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions are 4 and that’s even so we get a 0
for this.
r1=0

 For R2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11 .

r2,3,6,7=0,1,1,1

We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions are 3 and that’s odd so we get a 1
for this.
r2=1

 For R4: bits 4, 5, 6, 7 .

r4,5,6,7=0,1,1,1

We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions are 3 and that’s odd so we get a 1
for this.
r4=1

r4 r2 r1=(110)2 =(6)10

 The bits give the binary number 110 whose decimal representation is 6. Thus, bit 6
contains an error. To correct the error the 6th bit is changed from 1 to 0.

Correct Data is:

1 0 1 0 1 0 1
D7 D6 D5 r4 D3 r2 r1

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Example 2:
Suppose the data to be transmitted is 1011001 from sender to receiver.

Determining The Position of Redundant Bits

A redundancy bits are placed at positions that correspond to the power of 2. As in the above
example:
 The number of data bits = 7
 The number of redundant bits = 4
 The total number of bits = 7+4=11
 The redundant bits are placed at positions corresponding to power of 2 that is 1, 2, 4, and 8

The bits will be placed as follows:

Determining The Parity Bits According to Even Parity

 R1 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the least significant position. R1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11
R1,3,5,7,9,11=r1,1,0,1,1,1

To find the redundant bit R1, we check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in
all the bit positions corresponding to R1 is an even number. So, the value of R1 (parity
bit’s value) = 0.
R1=0

 R2 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the second position from the least significant bit. R2: bits
2,3,6,7,10,11
R2 ,3,6,7,10,11=r2,1,0,1,0,1

To find the redundant bit R2, we check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in
all the bit positions corresponding to R2 is odd the value of R2(parity bit’s value)=1
R2=1

 R4 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the third position from the least significant bit. R4: bits 4,
5, 6, 7
R4,5, 6,7=R4,0,0,1

To find the redundant bit R4, we check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in
all the bit positions corresponding to R4 is odd so the value of R4(parity bit’s value) =
1

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R4=1
 R8 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the fourth position from the least significant bit. R8: bit
8,9,10,11
R8,9,10,11=R8,1,0,1

To find the redundant bit R8, we check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in
all the bit positions corresponding to R8 is an even number the value of R8(parity bit’s
value)=0.
R8=0

Thus, the data transferred is:

Error Detection and Correction

Suppose in the above example the 6th bit is changed from 0 to 1 during data transmission,

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
D11 D10 R9 D8 D7 D6 D5 R4 D3 R2 R1

For all the parity bits we will check the number of 1’s in their respective bit positions.
 For R1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11.
R1,3,5,7,9,11=r1,1,0,1,1,1

We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions are 4 and that’s even so we get a 0
for this.
R1=0

 For R2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11 .

R2 ,3,6,7,10,11=1,1,1,1,0,1

We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions are 5 and that’s odd so we get a 1
for this.
R2=1

 For R4: bits 4, 5, 6, 7

 R4,5, 6,7=1,0,1,1

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We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions are 3 and that’s odd so we get a 1
for this.
R4=1

 For R8: bit 8,9,10,11 .

R8,9,10,11=0,1,0,1

We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions are 2 and that’s even so we get a 0
for this.
R8=0

 R8 R4 R2 R1=(0110)2 =(6)10
The bits give the binary number 0110 whose decimal representation is 6. Thus, bit 6 contains
an error. To correct the error the 6th bit is changed from 1 to 0.

Corrected Data is:

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
D11 D10 R9 D8 D7 D6 D5 R4 D3 R2 R1

3.5 IEEE Standards:

A set of network standards developed by the IEEE they include:
• IEEE 802.1: Standards related to network management.
• IEEE 802.2: General standard for the data link layer in the OSI Reference Model. The IEEE
divides this layer into two sublayers -- the logical link control (LLC) layer and the media access
control (MAC) layer. The MAC layer varies for different network types and is defined by
standards IEEE 802.3 through IEEE 802.5.
• IEEE 802.3: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use CSMA/CD. This is the basis of
the Ethernet standard.
• EEE 802.4: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a token passing mechanism
(token bus networks).
• IEEE 802.5: Defines the MAC layer for token-ring networks.
• IEEE 802.6: Standard for Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs).
• IEEE 802.11 Wireless Network Standards: 802.11 is the collection of standards setup for
wireless networking.

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3.5.1 Wireless LAN

Wireless communication is one of the fastest growing technologies. The demand for connecting
devices without cable is increasing everywhere. Wireless LANs are found on college campuses,
office buildings, and public areas. At home, a wireless LAN can connect roaming devices to the
Internet.

A Wireless LAN is a group of computers or other devices that form a network based on radio
transmission (rather than wired connection).WLAN are wireless computer network that are uses
high frequency radio wave instead of cable for connecting the devices within a limited area
forming LAN.
IEEE 802.11
IEEE has defined the specification for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11, which covers the
physical and data link layers. But before discussing these layers, we describe the architecture of
the protocol in general.
Architecture
The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and the extended
service set (ESS).
Basic Service Set
IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building block of a wireless LAN. A
basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and a possible central base
station, known as the access point (AP). Figure 3.6 shows two sets in this standard. The BSS
without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs. It is what is called
an ad hoc architecture. In this architecture, stations can form a network without the need of an
AP; they can locate each other and agree to be part of a BSS. A BSS with an AP is sometimes
referred to as an infrastructure network.

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Extended Service Set

An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs. In this case, the BSSs
are connected through a distribution system, which is usually a wired LAN. The distribution
system connects the APs in the BSSs. IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it
can be any IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet. Note that the extended service set uses two types of
stations: mobile andstationary. The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS. The
stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN. Figure 3.7 shows an ESS.

When BSSs are connected, we have what is called an infrastructure network. In this network, the
stations within reach of one another can communicate without the use of an AP. However,
communication between two stations in two different BSSs usually occurs via two APs. The idea
is similar to communication in a cellular network if we consider each BSS to be a cell and each
AP to be a base station. Note that a mobile station can belong to more than one BSS at the same
time.
Station Types
IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations based on their mobility in a wireless LAN:
no-transition, BSS-transition, and ESS-transition.
No-Transition Mobility A station with no-transition mobility is either stationary (not moving)
or moving only inside a BSS.
BSS-Transition Mobility A station with BSS-transition mobility can move from one BSS to
another, but the movement is confined inside one ESS.
ESS-Transition Mobility A station with ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS to
another. However, IEEE 802.11 does not guarantee that communication is continuous during the
move.

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The Wi-Fi Alliance created a naming system to aid the general public in differentiating between
different versions of IEEE 802.11.

IEEE 802.11:
This is the original standard created in 1997 but currently defunct. The version supports a
maximum connection speed of 1Mbps. Unfortunately, devices using this version are no longer
produced and don’t work on today’s equipment.
IEEE 802.11a:
This second version was developed in 1999 and works on a 5GHz Wi-Fi band. The version was
released hoping that it will encounter less interference, especially since most devices then used
the 2.4GHz band. Nonetheless, IEEE 802.11a is faster, with maximum data rates of 1.5Mbps to
54Mbps.
IEEE 802.11b:
This version was also developed in 1999 but used the typical unregulated radio signaling
frequency of the 2.4GHz band. It comes with a maximum speed of 11Mbps, and it is the version
that increased Wi-Fi’s popularity. Most vendors preferred using these frequencies due to low
production costs. Unfortunately, its unregulated nature means that IEEE 802.11b can face
interference from cordless phones, ovens, and all other devices using the 2.4GHz range.
IEEE 802.11g:
This 2003 sequel improved the maximum data rates of 54Mbps while maintaining the reliable
2.4GHz band usage, which explains its widespread adoption. Also called Wi-Fi 3, this standard
combines the good features of IEEE 802.11b and IEEE 802.11a. As such, it is compatible with
backward technologies, meaning that 802.11b APs can work with IEEE 802.11g adapters.
IEEE 802.11n:
The IEEE 802.11n, otherwise called Wireless N or Wi-Fi 4, was developed to improve the
bandwidth rates provided by IEEE 802.11g. This standard uses several antennas and wireless
signals, popularly known as MIMO technology, contrary to the one used by IEEE 802.11g.
802.11n was ratified by industry standards in 2009, enabling it to provide maximum network
bandwidths of 600Mbps. It also offers a better Wi-Fi range compared to previous standards since
it has a higher signal intensity. The only drawback of this standard is that it is more expensive
than IEEE 802.11g.

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3.6 Bluetooth Architecture:

Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless voice and data communication. It is a Wireless
Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for data communications over smaller
distances. A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a group of interconnected piconets is
called a scatternet. Bluetooth network is a ad-hoc network. Bluetooth uses IEEE 802.15
standard.

There are two Bluetooth Architecture :

1.Piconet
2.Scatternet
 Piconet

Fig: Piconet

A piconet is the type of connection that is formed between upto 8 Bluetooth-enabled devices
such as mobile, laptop, speaker, mouse, keyboard or PDAs over a short range of 10m radius.
Network ranges from two to eight connected devices. When network is established, one device
takes the role of the master while all other devices acts as slaves. The master node is the primary
station that manages the small network. The slave stations are secondary stations that are
synchronized with the primary station. Communication can take place between a master node
and a slave node in either one-to-one or one-to-many manner. However, no direct
communication takes place between slaves

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 Scatternet

Fig: Scatternet

A scatternet is a number of interconnected piconets that supports communication between more

than 8 devices. Scatternets can be formed when a member of one piconet (either the master or
one of the slaves) elects to participate as a slave in a second, separate piconet. The device
participating in both piconets can relay data between members of both ad hoc networks.
However, the basic Bluetooth protocol does not support this relaying - the host software of each
device would need to manage it. Using this approach, it is possible to join together numerous
piconets into a large scatternet, and to expand the physical size of the network beyond
Bluetooth's limited range.

3.7 Mobile Generation:

The aim of each different generation development is to improve the speed and capability of the
wireless connection. It is only data that is carried by the later generations though, as voice is still
mostly carried using 2G technologies.
Cellular communication is progressing through different generations. Initially we had first
generation (1G), then second generation (2G). This developed into third generation (3G) and
now that has advanced into fourth generation (4G) and fifth generation (5G). All of the names
refer to the generation of wireless communications that the technology has gone through.
1G ‐ First Generation
This was the first generation of cell phone technology. The very first generation of commercial
cellular network was introduced in the late 70's with fully implemented standards being
established throughout the 80's. 1G is an analog technology and the phones generally had poor
battery life and voice quality was large without much security, and would sometimes experience
dropped calls. These are the analog telecommunications standards that were introduced in the
1980s and continued until being replaced by 2G digital telecommunications. The maximum
speed of 1G is 2.4 Kbps.

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2G ‐ Second Generation
Cell phones received their first major upgrade when they went from 1G to 2G. The main
difference between the two mobile telephone systems (1G and 2G), is that the radio signals used
by 1G network are analog, while 2G networks are digital. Main motive of this generation was to
provide secure and reliable communication channel. It implemented the concept of CDMA and
GSM. Provided small data service like sms and mms. Second generation 2G cellular telecom
networks were commercially launched in 1991. During 2G Cellular phones are used for data also
along with voice. The advance in technology from 1G to 2G introduced many of the fundamental
services that we still use today, such as
• SMS
• internal roaming
• conference calls
• call hold and
• billing based on services e.g. charges based on long distance calls and real time billing.

The max speed of 2G with General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is 50 Kbps or 1 Mbps with
Enhanced Data
Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).
3G ‐ Third Generation
This generation set the standards for most of the wireless technology we have come to know and
love. Web browsing, email, video downloading, picture sharing and other smartphone
technology were introduced in the third generation. Introduced commercially in 2001, the goals
set out for third generation mobile communication were to facilitate greater voice and data
capacity, support a wider range of applications, and increase data transmission at a lower cost.
3G has Multimedia services support along with streaming are more popular. In 3G, Universal
access and portability across different device types are made possible (Telephones, PDA's, etc.).
3G increased the efficiency of frequency spectrum by improving how audio is compressed
during a call, so more simultaneous calls can happen in the same frequency range. 3G
technology is capable of allowing internet speeds that can reach 7 Mbps, but this speed is
unrealistic and is often approximately 2 to 3 Mbps.

People felt that the speeds reached by 3G technology were better, but that speed and access could
still be improved regarding the internet and mobile devices. This encouraged the development of
4G technology, the 4th generation of mobile communication standard.

4G ‐ Fourth Generation
4G is a very different technology as compared to 3G and was made possible practically only
because of the advancements in the technology in the last 10 years. Its purpose is to provide high
speed, high quality and high capacity to users while improving security and lower the cost of
voice and data services, multimedia and internet over IP. Potential and current applications

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include;
• mobile web access
• IP telephony
• gaming services
• high‐definition mobile TV
• video conferencing
• 3D television, and
• cloud computing
The development of 4G technology provided two main benefits, increased upload and download
speeds and reduced latency. 4G technology is approximately five times (and sometimes more)
faster than 3G technology. This meant that the speed at which files could be downloaded was
significantly increased. This increase in speed meant that files could be downloaded in a much
faster time. Typically, with 3G technology, a 2GB file could take approximately 30 minutes to
download. However, with 4G technology that download time could be potentially cut to
approximately 3–4 minutes. This significantly improved the experience of mobile devices
and internet usage for the user.

5G ‐ Fifth Generation
5G is a generation currently under development, that's intended to improve on 4G. 5G promises
significantly faster data rates, higher connection density, much lower latency, among other
improvements. Some of the plans for 5G include device‐to‐device communication, better battery
consumption, and improved overall wireless coverage.
5G technology is set to dramatically affect the use of mobile internet. In order to provide 5G
access there is a major restructure occurring on parts of the radio network that is used to transmit
data. This restructure is reported to allow data to be transmitted approximately 100 times faster.
The development from 3G to 4G technology and further developments into 5G technology will
enable a number of advancements. These may include:
• greater speed in internet access
• faster loading speeds of applications, such as maps
• the ability to have multiple people in video conferencing calls
• more effective location services to allow for real‐time updates, such as traffic andweather
• the ability to stream high‐definition (HD)

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