TBLT | FRAMEWORKS

TBLT | DIFFERENT VERSIONS

Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is an approach to language teaching that views tasks as the central units of instruction, where lessons include activities to scaffold the tasks (pre-task), the tasks themselves (main task), and activities to complement those tasks (post-task).
Tasks are generally defined as activities in which learners engage in language use to convey a message in order to achieve a communicative outcome (i.e. non-linguistic).

There are different views and approaches to TBLT. These approaches are often defined as ‘ strong’ and ‘weak’ forms of TBLT, with the former advocating a syllabus exclusively made of tasks (Task-based) and the latter supporting a syllabus in which tasks can be the carriers of pre-
determined language items (Task-supported).

The following is an attempt to present different versions of TBLT and their corresponding possible pedagogic procedures for implementation.

STRONG WEAK
(TASK-BASED) (TASK-SUPPORTED)

Prabhu Long Skehan Willis (& Willis) Ellis Nunan

(1987) (1985; 1991; 2014) (1998; 2011, 2018) (1996, 2004, 2007) (2003, 2017, 2018) (2004)

Natural language use1 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Pedagogic input and output Primarily real-world output Real-world and pedagogic Real-world and pedagogic Real-world and pedagogic
Type of tasks2 Pedagogic output tasks
tasks tasks input and output tasks input and output tasks input and output tasks

Linguistic focus3 Unfocused Unfocused Unfocused Primarily unfocused Focused and unfocused Primarily focused

Task-based
Approach4 Task-based Task-based Task-based Primarily task-based Primarily task-supported
Task-supported

Pre-task linguistic support5 No Primarily no No Yes Yes Yes

In the pre-task and main task Primarily in the pre-task phase In the pre-task and post-task In the pre-task, main task and In the pre-task, main task and
In the main task phase
Focus on form6 phases (implicit / incidental / (pre-emptive) but also in the phases (pre-emptive / post-task phases (pre-emptive post-task phases (pre-emptive
(primarily implicit / reactive)
pre-emptive / reactive) post-task phase (reactive) reactive) / reactive) / reactive)

Learner-centeredness7 No (but possible) Yes / No Yes Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No

Rejection of traditional
approaches8
Yes Yes Yes Yes No No

1
Language is treated as a medium for communication and not as an object of study. The focus of a task is on conveying and negotiating meaning, rather than studying de-contextualized linguistic forms and manipulating them.
2
Real-world tasks: input and output tasks that aim at authentic situations and interactions that learners may encounter in real life (e.g. making a hotel booking). / Pedagogic tasks: input and output tasks that aim at activating specific linguistic features in authentic interactions, but
do not necessarily reflect real-life situations (e.g. spot the difference).
3
Focused tasks: tasks that are designed with a specific language focus in mind (e.g. a grammatical item). / Unfocused tasks: tasks that are not designed with a specific language focus in mind (e.g. a grammatical item). However, different unfocused tasks will inevitably ‘invite’ the
use of a selection of different linguistic features.
4
Task-based refers to an approach whose syllabus is entirely based on unfocused tasks (i.e. there is no linguistic specification); Task-supported refers to an approach whose syllabus is based on focused tasks (i.e. there is a linguistic specification).
5
In the pre-task phase of the lesson, the teacher draws the learners’ attention to ‘useful’ linguistic features (generally lexical rather than grammatical) that learners may need later when performing the task.
6
The teacher draws the learners’ attention, implicitly or explicitly, to linguistic features that may help learners improve the way they convey or negotiate meaning. This can take place in the pre-task, task or post-task phase of the lesson.
7
Classroom interaction in which learners perform tasks in pairs or small groups. This is in contrast to teacher-centered interaction in which the teacher conducts tasks in teacher-student(s) mode.
8
Rejection of grammar-translation and presentation-practice-production models.

Adapted and expanded from: Ellis (2017, 2018)

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 TBLT | FRAMEWORKS

TBLT Framework | PRABHU

Overview

Natural language use Yes Pre-task linguistic support No

In the pre-task and main task phases (implicit / incidental / pre-emptive /
Type of tasks Pedagogic input and output tasks Focus on form reactive)

Linguistic focus Unfocused Learner-centeredness No (but possible)

Approach Task-based Rejection of traditional approaches Yes

Definition of task

“[A task is] ‘an activity which required learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process.” (Prabhu, 1987: 24)

Framework and pedagogic procedures

PRE-TASK MAIN TASK POST-TASK

PRELIMINARY PUBLIC TASK (via teacher-led whole-class dialogic MAIN TASK (via learner-led individual written productions) MARKING / EVALUATION
instruction and elicitation) • Orientate learners to the main task by reviewing some essential • Mark productions and provide feedback on outcome(s) and success
• Orientate learners to the pre-task by establishing/reviewing some information covered in the pre-task phase (i.e. non-language-related)
essential information (e.g. numbers, times, locations, etc.) • Perform the main task (independently on a worksheet. Task • Return productions (and compare results with other learners if
instructions and questions may be provided on a worksheet or desired)
PUBLIC TASK (via teacher-led whole-class dialogic instruction and orally by the teacher)
elicitation) • Reactively provide incidental implicit language-related feedback
• Perform the same or similar main task adjusting (reactively) the and support (e.g. via teacher- or learner-initiated re-formulation
complexity of the task (i.e. breaking it down into smaller steps) and and/or correction) to facilitate the completion of the task
input (i.e. spontaneous, not pre-selected) according to the learners’
abilities and/or responses to the task. This public task establishes Task types
the outcome(s) of the main task and serves as demonstration / • Information-gap activity
preparation for the main task (to be performed individually). • Reasoning-gap activity (preferably)
• Reactively provide incidental implicit language feedback and • Opinion-gap activity
support (e.g. via teacher- or learner-initiated re-formulation and/or
correction) to facilitate the completion of the task Sample tasks
• Naming parts of a diagram
Task types • Finding, naming, or describing specific locations on a map
• Information-gap activity (preferably): transfer of given information • Constructing timetables
from one person to another • Constructing events from narrative accounts
• Reasoning-gap activity: derive some new information from given • Filling in forms
information through processes of inference, deduction, practical • Interpreting information presented in tables
reasoning, or a perception of relationships or patterns • Deciding on choices which best meet given needs
• Opinion-gap activity: identify and articulate a personal preference, • Listening to stories and completing them with appropriate
feeling, or attitude in response to a given situation solutions
• Identifying factual inconsistencies in given narrative or descriptive
accounts

Full list in: Prabhu (1987: 140-145)

Adapted from: Prabhu (1987)

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 TBLT | FRAMEWORKS

TBLT Framework | LONG

Overview

Natural language use Yes Pre-task linguistic support Primarily no

Type of tasks Primarily real-world output tasks Focus on form In the main task phase (primarily implicit / reactive)

Linguistic focus Unfocused Learner-centeredness Yes / No

Approach Task-based Rejection of traditional approaches Yes

Definition of task

“A task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation, borrowing a
library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, taking a hotel reservation, writing a check, finding a street destination, and helping someone across a road. In other words, by “task” is meant the hundred
and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between. “Tasks” are the things people will tell you they do if you ask them and they are not applied linguists.” (Long, 1985: 89)

Framework and pedagogic procedures

PRE-TASK MAIN TASK POST-TASK

PRE-TASK ACTIVITIES MAIN TASK EVALUATION

• Define the topic and the task and create and/or revise content- • Perform the main task • Content-related feedback
knowledge about the task • Provide primarily implicit reactive language-related corrective • Language-related feedback
• Introduce and understand the main task (also via video, audio, feedback
teacher- or learner-led demonstration of the task) ASSESSMENT/EXIT TASK
• Provide elaborate (i.e. modified to increase comprehension but not • Perform the same or similar main task for assessment purposes
linguistically simplified) input (oral or written) via a model performing
the same or similar task, or text providing information, to scaffold
the task. Input can be enhanced to increase salience of language
considered important for the main task that may be incidentally (less
often intentionally) noticed/detected. Comprehension-based
activities can be incorporated.
• Research and gather content-related information necessary for the
main task
• Prepare materials necessary for the main task (e.g. survey questions)
• Plan how to perform the main task
• Perform similar tasks (increasing in difficulty - these can be teacher-
led input-based tasks and learner-led mini-tasks in pairs, groups or
whole-class mode) leading to the main task
• Provide primarily implicit reactive language-related input and
feedback

Adapted from: Long (1985; 1991; 2015) and Long et al. (2003)

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 TBLT | FRAMEWORKS

TBLT Framework | SKEHAN

Overview

Natural language use Yes Pre-task linguistic support No

Primarily in the pre-task phase (pre-emptive) but also in the post-task phase
Type of tasks Pedagogic output tasks Focus on form (reactive)

Linguistic focus Unfocused Learner-centeredness Yes

Approach Task-based Rejection of traditional approaches Yes

Definition of task

“[A task is] “an activity in which: meaning is primary; there is some communication problem to solve; there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities; task completion has some priority; the assessment of the task is in
terms of outcome. (…) [Tasks] do not give learners other people’s meaning to regurgitate; are not concerned with language display; are not conformity-oriented; are not practice-oriented; do not embed language into materials so that specific
structures can be focused upon.” (Skehan, 1998: 95)

Framework and pedagogic procedures

PRE-TASK MAIN TASK POST-TASK

PRE-EMPTIVE ACTIVITIES MAIN TASK POST-TASK ACTIVITIES 1

• Create or revise schematic knowledge (e.g. topic, task type, • Remind learners of language accuracy and complexity • Perform the same task publicly (i.e. in front of the teacher, a larger
discourse macro-features, etc.) about the main task (e.g. prediction, • Inform learners of post-task activities group of learners or a camera for later analysis)
mind maps, brainstorming, etc.) • Perform the main task
• Process a text (oral or written) for content and/or meaning to • No intervention or feedback POST-TASK ACTIVITIES 2
introduce and facilitate the main task • Repeat the same or similar main task
• Observe and/or examine a model (oral or written) of others TASK FACTORS (influencing difficulty) • Carry out language-focused activities to exploit emergent and
performing the same or a similar task Code complexity salient language with a focus on accuracy and complexity (e.g.
• Carry out activities to implicitly or explicitly highlight, learn, recall • Complexity and range of language expected/needed for the task transcribing the main task performance, clarifying an area of
useful language for the main task (learners can be informed immediately before the task if accuracy difficulty, practicing a language item, etc.)
• Carry out activities to practice useful language for the main task is required, or a specific structure is to be used)
• Plan and evaluate content-related features needed to perform the
main task (e.g. topics, ideas, etc.) Cognitive complexity
• Plan and evaluate language-related features needed to perform the • Familiarity with the task in relation to schematic knowledge of
main task (e.g. lexis, grammar, etc.) topic, task type, discourse macro-features, etc.
• Perform the same or similar task • Intellectual demands in relation to the content of the task (e.g.
describing your room - easy Vs describing a manufacturing
process - difficult). This also relates to the introduction of a
‘surprise element’ midway while performing the task (e.g. learner
plan the menu for a dinner party. In the middle of the task they are
told that some of the guests are vegetarian)

Communicative pressure
• Time available to complete the task
• Language skills to be mobilized (listening/speaking – more
pressure Vs reading/writing – less pressure)
• Number of participants in the task, number of relationships, etc.
• Emphasis on completing the task correctly (e.g. giving an
approximate description Vs giving an exact description)
• Amount of control over the task (e.g. deciding goals, asking for
repetitions, asking for clarifications, etc.)

Adapted from: Skehan (1998; 2011, 2018)

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 TBLT | FRAMEWORKS

TBLT Framework | WILLIS (&WILLIS)

Overview

Natural language use Yes Pre-task linguistic support Yes

Type of tasks Real-world and pedagogic input and output tasks Focus on form In the pre-task and post-task phases (pre-emptive / reactive)

Linguistic focus Primarily unfocused Learner-centeredness Yes / No

Approach Primarily task-based Rejection of traditional approaches Yes

Definition of task

“[Tasks are] activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.” (Willis, 1996)
“[A task can be determined] by asking the following questions. (…) 1. Does the activity engage learners’ interests? 2. Is there a primary focus on meaning? 3. Is there an outcome? 4. Is success judged in terms of outcome? 5. Is completion a
priority? 6. Does the activity relate to real world activities?” (Willis & Willis, 2007)

Framework and pedagogic procedures

PRE-TASK MAIN TASK POST-TASK

FACILITATING TASKS MAIN TASK ANALYSIS

• Introduce, define and explore the topic • Perform the main task • Carry out consciousness-raising activities to identify, process and
• Create or revise content-knowledge about the main task (e.g. • Do not provide language-related feedback or support expand specific language features that appeared in the model of
prediction, mind maps, brainstorming, etc.) others performing the same or a similar task
• Process a text (oral or written) for content and/or meaning to  • Process a text (oral or written) for content and/or meaning and/or
introduce, facilitate and prime the main task language to expand and enrich the main task
• Observe and/or examine a model (oral or written) of others PLANNING to REPORT • Raise awareness of additional useful words, phrases, patterns, etc.
performing the same or a similar task • Prepare to report (including oral rehearsal or written draft) the • Provide language-related feedback
• Carry out activities to highlight, learn, recall useful words and outcome(s) of the main task to other members of the class
phrases • Provide language-related feedback and support PRACTICE
• Carry out strategy-focused activities to raise awareness of ways to • Carry out language-focused activities to practice and reinforce
prevent and/or overcome possible communication problems  language (words. phrases, patterns, etc.) covered in the analysis
• Understand main task instructions and intended outcome(s) stage
• Prepare for and/or rehearse the main task REPORT • Practice other features occurring in the model text(s) or report
• Perform the same or similar task (simplified version: mini-task) • Report (orally or by displaying written work) the outcome(s) of the stage
main task to other members of the class
• Examine or observe a model (oral or written) of others performing REPETITION
the same or a similar task • Repeat the same or similar main task
• Provide content- and language-related feedback • Repeat the report

Adapted from: Willis (1996, 2004) and Willis & Willis (2007)

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 TBLT | FRAMEWORKS

TBLT Framework | ELLIS

Overview

Natural language use Yes Pre-task linguistic support Yes

Type of tasks Real-world and pedagogic input and output tasks Focus on form In the pre-task, main task and post-task phases (pre-emptive / reactive)

Linguistic focus Focused and unfocused Learner-centeredness Yes / No

Approach Task-based / Task-supported Rejection of traditional approaches No

Definition of task

“[A task] must satisfy the following criteria: 1. The primary focus should be on ‘meaning’ (by which is meant that learners should be mainly concerned with processing the semantic and pragmatic meaning of utterances). 2. There should be
some kind of ‘gap’ (i.e. a need to convey information, to express an opinion or to infer meaning). 3. Learners should largely have to rely on their own resources (linguistic and non-linguistic) in order to complete the activity. 4. There is a clearly
defined outcome other than the use of language (i.e. the language serves as the means for achieving the outcome, not as an end in its own right).” (Ellis, 2009: 223)

Framework and pedagogic procedures

PRE-TASK MAIN TASK POST-TASK

FRAMING OPTIONS PERFORMANCE OPTIONS (Handling the task) REFLECTION OPTIONS

• Frame the main task, state purpose, utility and outcome(s) • Perform the main task under time pressure to promote fluency • Report (orally or by displaying written work) the outcome(s) of the
• Define the topic and the task and create and/or revise content- • Perform the main task without time pressure to promote accuracy main task to the class
knowledge about the task (e.g. prediction, mind maps, • Reflect on own performance of the main task (e.g. challenges and
brainstorming, etc.) • Perform the main task with access to the input data (e.g. referring successes in relation to fluency, complexity and accuracy;
• Understand main task instructions and intended outcome(s) to pictures, texts, etc.; using language embedded in the task such communication strategies; new language learnt; etc.)
as in an information-gap activity; ‘borrowing’* language examined • Reflect on improvements needed in the performance of the task
MODEL OPTIONS in pre-task stages) (e.g. fluency, complexity and accuracy; communication strategies;
• Observe and/or examine a model (oral or written) of others • Perform the main task without access to the input data (i.e. relying language needed; etc.)
performing the same or a similar task solely on personal resources) • Evaluate the task itself (e.g. learner interests, preferences,
opinions, attitudes towards the task)
PREPARATION OPTIONS • Introduce a ‘surprise element’ midway while performing the task
• Carry out language-focused activities to raise awareness of useful (e.g. learner plan the menu for a dinner party. In the middle of the LANGUAGE FOCUS OPTIONS
lexical items and features (less often grammatical ones) task they are told that some of the guests are vegetarian) • Carry out consciousness-raising activities to identify, analyze,
• Carry out strategy-focused activities to raise awareness of ways to process and expand specific language features which were
prevent and/or overcome possible communication problems PROCESS OPTIONS (Handling generated discourse) incorrectly used or avoided
• Learner- or teacher-initiated implicit language-related feedback • Carry out noticing activities such as analyzing the transcript or a
PLANNING OPTIONS and support (e.g. requests for clarification, reformulations, recasts recording of the performance to raise awareness of personal
• Plan and evaluate content-related features needed to perform the of errors, etc.) knowledge gaps
main task (e.g. topics, ideas, etc.) • Learner- or teacher-initiated explicit language-related feedback • Carry out language-focused activities to practice and reinforce
• Plan and evaluate language-related features needed to perform the and support (e.g. explicit corrections, questions or comments language (words. phrases, patterns, etc.) analyzed and/or used in
main task (e.g. lexis, grammar, etc.) using metalanguage, queries about form, reminders of useful previous stages
language, clarifications of rules or patterns, etc.)
SIMILAR TASK OPTIONS REPETITION OPTIONS
• Perform the same or similar task (also as a dialogic teacher-led • Repeat the same or similar task (privately, with a different
activity) partner/group, publicly)

Adapted from: Ellis (2003, 2006, 2017, 2018)

*The term ‘borrowing’ (originally defined by Prabhu) is contrasted to ‘reproduction’: borrowing refers to ‘taking over’ a sample of language independently and voluntarily (i.e. the learner chooses to do so); reproduction refers to ‘taking over’ a sample of language arbitrarily because
of ‘some external authority’ (e.g. the teacher imposes the use). Ellis states that ’borrowing is compatible with task-based learning but reproduction is not’. (Ellis, 2006: 27).

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 TBLT | FRAMEWORKS

TBLT Framework | NUNAN

Overview

Natural language use Yes Pre-task linguistic support Yes

Type of tasks Real-world and pedagogic input and output tasks Focus on form In the pre-task, main task and post-task phases (pre-emptive / reactive)

Linguistic focus Primarily focused Learner-centeredness Yes / No

Approach Primarily task-supported Rejection of traditional approaches No

Definition of task

“[A task is] a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express
meaning, and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right.” (Nunan, 2004: 4)

Framework and pedagogic procedures

PRE-TASK MAIN TASK POST-TASK

SCHEMA BUILDING PEDAGOGICAL TASKS DEBRIEFING TASKS

• Introduce the topic, set the context for the task, introduce key • Rehearsal tasks: perform a main task which replicates authentic • Provide content- and language-related feedback
vocabulary and expressions for the task out-of-the classroom situations and interactions that learners • Reflect on learning experience and personal development
may encounter in real life
ENABLING SKILLS • Activation tasks: perform a main task which activates emerging
 language skills in authentic interactions, but do not necessarily
reflect real-life situations
Language exercises: reproductive use (i.e. manipulation) of restricted
language models provided by the teacher and the materials with a focus
on lexical, phonological and/or grammatical systems

• Observe and/or examine a model (oral or written) of others

performing the same or a similar task
• Provide restricted/controlled practice of key vocabulary, structures
and functions for the main task
• Provide intensive listening practice using a model of others
performing the same or a similar task
• Carry out language-focused activities to notice, analyze and/or
practice useful lexical, structural and phonological items and
features needed for the main task

Communicative activities: reproductive use (i.e. manipulation) of

restricted language models provided by the teacher and the materials
with a focus on meaningful communication

• Carry out pair or group work activities which allow for genuine
information exchange (e.g. information-gap) in preparation for the
main task

Adapted from: Nunan (2004)

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 TBLT | FRAMEWORKS

REFERENCES
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R.. (2006). The Methodology of Task-based Teaching. Asian EFL Journal, 8(3): 19-45.
Ellis, R. (2009). Task-based language teaching: sorting out the misunderstandings. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 19(3), 221-246.
Ellis, R. (2017). Position paper: Moving task-based language teaching forward. Language Teaching 50(4), 507-526.
Ellis, R. (2018). Taking the critics to task: the case for task-based teaching. In Walker, I., Chan D.K.G., Nagami, M. & Bourguignon, C. (Eds.), New Perspectives on the Development of Communicative and Related Competence in Foreign Language Education. Boston: De Gruyter.
Long, M.H. (1985). A role for instruction in second language acquisition: task-based language teaching. In K. Hyltenstam & M. Pienemann (Eds.), Modelling and assessing second language acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Long, M.H. (1991). Focus on form: a design feature in language teaching methodology. In K. de Bot, R. Ginsberg & C. Kramsch (Eds.), Foreign language research in cross- cultural perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamin.
Long, M.H. (2015). Second language acquisition and task-based language teaching. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Long, M.H., Doughty, C., Kim, Y., Lee, J.-H., & Lee, Y.-G. (2003). Task-based language teaching: A demonstration module (NFLRC RN#37 [text, audio CD, and video]). Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i, Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center.
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Prabhu, N.S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Skehan, P. (2011). Researching tasks: Performance, assessment and pedagogy. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Skehan, P. (2018). Second Language Task-Based Performance: Theory, Research, Assessment. New York: Routledge.
Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. Harlow: Longman.
Willis, J. (2004). Perspectives on task-based instruction: understanding our practices, acknowledging different practitioners. In Leaver, B.L. & Willis, J. (Eds.), Task-Based Instruction in Foreign Languages. Practices and Programs. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Willis, D. & Willis, J. (2007). Doing Task-based Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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