COLD WAR

After WWII, the world is divided into USA & USSR.

An ideological battle b/w communism & capitalism.
Karl Marx believes that economic inequalities could lead to revolution. The workers which
were exploited would raise up to replace capitalism with communism. His theory – Marxism.
1922 Soviet Republic was created. From remnants of Russia & came to be known as USSR.
During WWII, USSR is an ally of both British & USA against the axis powers.
After WWII, all the countries make necessary arrangements to avoid future wars and create
UN, for finances IMF & World Bank  Roosevelt invited Stalin.
Bombings at Hiroshima & Nagasaki and after that the Truman Doctrine.
Meccathyism.
CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) – setup in sept. 1947 in USA. CIA continued to influence
Italian politics for the next 24 yrs.
The Marshall Plan 1948 – to address the road of communism in Europe. USA want
Germany to revive but USSR wanted Germany to remain weak so it can’t possess threat.
The Berlin Blockade June 1948 – by the USSR to drive out American, British & French;
berlin airlift conducted by Truman.
1949 NATO Create support & alliance against USSR
Sino-Soviet Treaty b/w Mao Zedong & Stalin
Korean War earlier North & South Korea was owned by USA & USSR respectively, then
USSR provoked N. Korea to declare war against the other part.
The nuclear arms race  Khrushchev Warsaw Pact to counter NATO and formation of
KGB launch of ballistic missiles due which initiation of formation of NASA
The third world 1950 – 1st USA & allies; 2nd USSR, China & allies; 3rd non-aligned
countries
The Suez Crisis Abdal Gamer Nasser (Egypt) nationalised the canal then war happened
which included France & Britain; Nasser won protected his country from the colonial powers
The Berlin Wall Khrushchev met Kennedy; creates a physical barrier b/w east & west
Berlin.
The Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 Fidel Castro; setting up of X-Com by Kennedy
1972 both sides signed anti-ballistic missile treaty
The Vietnam War - 1968 wars break out & assassination of Martin Luther King
Cambodia Laos were turned to be communist; the leader of Cambodia make the next 4yrs
the Cambodian genocide period.
Mao’s China – due to excessive attempts to industrialisation 1958-1962 as period of great
famines & droughts
1969 war b/w the 2 communist superpowers USSR & China due to this improvement of
relations b/w China (Mao) & USA (Nixon)
Détente (the period of easing of tensions between nations)
The space race began in 1957 when USSR launched sputnik launch of a mission together is
the ultimate détente.
The end of Détente 1973- war in middle Egypt & Syria (USSR) attacked on Israel (USA)
Gorbachev
The fall of USSR 9th Nov. Berlin wall came down thus, reuniting Germany; 1990 Gorbachev
received Nobel peace prize; 25th December 1991 Gorbachev resigned & terminated the
existence of USSR dividing it into 15 independent states
Origin & Causes
The Cold War was a period of hostile and tense international relations between the USA and
the USSR after World War II. It was characterized by ideological hatred, political distrust,
diplomatic maneuvering, military competition, espionage, psychological warfare, and
strained relations.
Walter Lippmann called the Cold War a pseudo war which, according to Flemming, was
fought in the minds of men.
Louis Hall viewed it as a bitter state of tension between two blocs, more perilous than actual
armed conflict. Instead of resolving problems, the Cold War complicated them. While
countries involved maintained diplomatic relations, they often used diplomats to sow distrust
between people and their governments, making it a war of nerves.
Origin of the Cold War (Realist explanation)
The Cold War originated from three main realist arguments, each focusing on power factors
but differing in levels of analysis.
1. Domestic-Level Explanation: Argues that the Soviet Union caused the Cold War due to its
inherently aggressive society.
2. Domestic-Level Argument: Claims that the United States caused the Cold War because its
capitalist economic system was expansionist.
3. Systemic-Level Explanation: Argued that neither the United States nor the Soviet Union
was responsible for the Cold War. Instead, it was a consequence of the security dilemma. The
two superpowers faced each other across a power vacuum in central Europe and had to
compete for influence, regardless of their aggressiveness.
Causes of Cold War
1. Historical Causes
 Some attribute the origins of the Cold War to the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, as
Western nations were alarmed by the global reach of communism.

2. Mutual distrust & fear

Secrecy surrounding military and political actions on both sides fuelled fear and
suspicion, undermining trust. For example, the USA's atomic bomb secrecy raised Soviet
suspicions.
3. Soviet expansion in Eastern Europe
The Soviet Red Army's occupation of Eastern European countries, imposing communist
governments, raised concerns in the West about Soviet expansion.
4. Reparations
Disagreements over post-war reparations from Germany strained relations, with the
USSR insisting on a significant share.
5. The Iron Curtain Speech
Winston Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech in 1946 highlighted the ideological division
between the Eastern Bloc and Western democracies.
6. Berlin blockaded & Airlift
The Berlin Blockade and the construction of the Berlin Wall deepened the division
between East and West. The Berlin wall can be regarded as the Symbol of ColdWar.
7. The Long Telegram
George Kennan's telegram outlined the U.S.–Soviet conflict and proposed a policy of
containment.
8. Russia infringes Balkan Agreement
The Soviet Union disregarded agreements on dividing Eastern Europe, setting up
communist governments in violation of prior arrangements.
9. Soviet Activities in Iran Greece and Turkey
Soviet actions in Iran and conflicts in Greece and Turkey added to tensions.
10. The Truman doctrine & Marshall Plan
The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan provided aid to countries threatened by
communism, seen as efforts to contain it.
11. Competition for influence
The superpowers competed for influence worldwide, leading to conflicts in various
regions.
12. Ideological differences
Capitalism in the United States and communism in the Soviet Union created ideological
divisions and mutual suspicion.
13. Formation of NATO & Warsaw pact
The establishment of NATO and the Warsaw Pact solidified military alliances on both
sides.
14. Leadership & Personalaties
Key leaders' (Truman, Reagan, Stalin, Gorbachev) decisions, strategies, and negotiating
styles influenced the course of the Cold War.
15. WWII & Power Vacuum
The aftermath of World War II left Europe weakened, with a power vacuum in several
regions, contributing to the Cold War's origins.
 Phase I of Cold War (1946-49)
The first phase of the Cold War began with the consolidation of Soviet influence in Eastern
Europe and its expansion into regions of geostrategic importance to the Western powers,
including Iran, Turkey, and Greece. These events prompted the United States to shift from a
policy of isolationism to interventionism.
The Crisis in Iran
Background: During World War II, in 1941, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom jointly
invaded Iran to secure supply routes and prevent German influence. His son Mohammad
Reza Shah replaced Reza Shah Pahlavi, and the Allies occupied Iran to ensure its neutrality.
Soviet Occupation: After the war, the Soviet Union delayed its withdrawal from northern
Iran, citing the need for a stable, pro-Soviet government. This occupation and support for
separatist movements raised tensions.
Resolution: Diplomatic negotiations and pressure from Western Allies led to the Soviet
withdrawal from northern Iran in May 1946. The crisis highlighted the power struggle
between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union.
The Turkey Crisis
Background: The Soviet Union demanded internationalization of the Bosporus Strait, under
Turkish control since 1936. The Soviets aimed to influence Turkish politics, gain control of
the straits, and expand their regional influence.
Strategic Importance: Turkey's control of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits made it
strategically significant, and the Soviet Union sought control of these waterways to enhance
its naval capabilities.
Soviet Pressures: Soviet demands for territorial revisions along Turkey's eastern border
created tensions and concerns, as did their support for leftist and communist factions within
Turkey.
U.S. Involvement: The Truman Doctrine, introduced in 1947, provided economic and
military aid to countries threatened by communism. Turkey benefited from this aid to counter
Soviet influence.
NATO Membership: In 1952, Turkey became a NATO member, strengthening its alignment
with Western democracies and providing defense against potential Soviet aggression.
The Greece Crisis
Background: Greece faced turmoil after World War II. The Greek Communist Party sought
political influence and launched a civil war with communist insurgents posing a threat to the
Western-backed government.
Soviet Involvement: The Soviet Union supported Greek communist insurgents by providing
weapons, equipment, and political backing. They aimed to promote pro-Soviet sentiment and
undermine the government.
Yugoslav Role: Yugoslavia, under Marshal Tito, played a direct role in supporting Greek
communists, further straining relations with the Soviet Union.
Western Response: The Truman Doctrine provided aid to Greece to counter the communist
threat, leading to the defeat of the communist insurgents in 1949.
Impact: The Greek Civil War, with Soviet involvement, highlighted the broader struggle
between the Western democracies and the communist bloc after World War II. It also strained
Soviet-Yugoslav relations.
Soviet Response to the Marshall Plan
Economic Response: In July 1947, the Soviets introduced the Molotov Plan, forging
economic ties with Eastern European countries to make them reliant on the Soviet Union.
Political Response: In September 1947, the Soviets established the Communist Information
(COMINFORM) to control foreign communist parties.
Suppression of Non-Communists: Within a year, the Soviets effectively suppressed non-
communist elements in countries like Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Poland.
Pact of Brussels
In response, Western European nations signed the Pact of Brussels in March 1948, a mutual
defense treaty aimed at addressing the perceived Soviet threat.
Soviet Reaction and the Berlin Blockade
In protest, Soviet representatives withdrew from the Allied Control Council in March 1948,
intensifying Cold War tensions over Germany.
This, along with the creation of West Germany in June 1948 and the introduction of the
Deutsche mark in the Western zones, led to the Soviet Union imposing the Berlin Blockade.
Berlin Blockade and Airlift
The Berlin Blockade started in June 1948, with the Soviets blocking all routes to West Berlin
to gain control. In response, the Western Allies initiated the Berlin Airlift, supplying West
Berlin by air from June 1948 to May 1949, led by the United States.
Impact
 Symbolism: The Berlin Blockade and Airlift symbolized the ideological division between
the Western democracies and the Soviet-controlled Eastern Bloc.
 Formation of West Germany: In response to the blockade, the Western Allies established
West Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany) in 1949.
 NATO: The Berlin crisis contributed to the formation of NATO in 1949, reinforcing the
commitment to mutual defense against potential aggression.
 Division of Berlin: Berlin remained divided, with East Berlin under Soviet control and
West Berlin aligned with the Western powers.
The Berlin Blockade and Airlift marked an early and significant confrontation between the
Western Allies and the Soviet Union, setting the stage for the broader Cold War dynamics.

Phase II of Cold War (1949-53)

The Cold War Shifts to Asia
In the late 1940s, the Cold War's focus shifted to Asia. The rise of the People's Republic of
China, led by Mao Zedong, and the defeat of the Chinese Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek
worried Western powers, leading to a vision of a growing communist bloc.
The Korean War
Korea was under Japanese occupation until the end of World War II. In 1943, the Cairo
Declaration expressed the desire for Korea's independence, supervised by major Allied
powers. When the Soviet Red Army entered North Korea in 1945, the U.S. proposed a
division of Korea along the 38th parallel.
Korean Crisis
The Korean War (1950-1953) was a major Cold War conflict between North Korea
(supported by the Soviet Union and China) and South Korea (supported by the U.S. and
Western nations). Both sides sought to unify Korea under their own ideology.
Conflict and International Response
North Korea's surprise invasion of South Korea in 1950 led to intense fighting. The United
Nations Security Council, due to the Soviet Union's absence, passed Resolution 82, labeling
North Korea as the aggressor and calling on UN member states to support South Korea. A
UN coalition, led by the U.S., aided South Korea, while China intervened in support of North
Korea.
Ceasefire and Aftermath
Negotiations for an armistice began in 1951 and concluded in 1953, establishing the Korean
Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) near the 38th parallel.
The Korean War exemplified the early Cold War conflicts, reflecting the ideological and
geopolitical struggles of the era.
Phase III of Cold War (1953-59)
After the Korean crisis, Indochina became a Cold War battleground. Tensions rose between
French colonial authorities and the communist Viet Minh in Vietnam, causing U.S. concern.
Soviets and Communist China recognized the Viet Minh by January 1950. By 1954, the Viet
Minh controlled parts of North Vietnam and influenced the south. Communist influence
spread from Vietnam to Laos and Cambodia, worrying Western powers.
Vietnam Crisis
Vietnam was French Indochina before WWII. Japan occupied it in 1940, with French
administration continuing. After Japan's defeat, the British controlled the south, and the
Chinese Nationalists the north. The U.S. aimed for Asian decolonisation but didn't challenge
France. Chinese Nationalists returned northern control to France. Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh
sought semi-independence within French Indochina.
Geneva Accords & Vietnam crisis – The First Indochina War (1946-1954) ended with the
Geneva Accords after the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu. China and USSR compromised,
leading to an independent Laos and Cambodia and a divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel. The
U.S. acknowledged this and pledged not to undermine the settlement.
Cold War Background – The Vietnam War happened during the Cold War, with
communism seen as a significant threat. The U.S. increased involvement, providing aid and
advisors, eventually leading to direct military intervention.
War Escalation – The U.S. sent troops and conducted bombing campaigns against North
Vietnam. The war expanded to involve American ground forces fighting Viet Cong in the
South and the North Vietnamese Army in the North. An anti-war movement emerged in the
U.S. and globally, questioning the war's justification and costs.
Tet Offensive – In 1968, the North launched the Tet Offensive, a surprise attack in South
Vietnam. While militarily a setback for the North, it had a significant psychological impact in
the U.S., further reducing support for the war.
Withdrawal & fall of Saigon – Growing opposition in the United States led President Nixon
to pursue "Vietnamization," gradually reducing U.S. involvement. The Paris Peace Accords in
1973 led to U.S. troop withdrawal, but fighting continued between North and South Vietnam.
In 1975, North Vietnamese forces captured Saigon, reunifying Vietnam under communism
and ending the war.
India's Response – India, committed to non-alignment, advocated peaceful solutions and
mediated dialogue between conflicting parties. India proposed a 20-point peace plan for
ceasefire, troop withdrawal, and recognition of the National Liberation Front (NLF) in South
Vietnam, but it didn't gain traction.
Legacy of this war – The Vietnam War had devastating effects, with millions of lives lost
and lasting impacts on societies. It triggered cultural and political changes, notably in the
U.S., with the anti-war movement shaping future politics and society. The Vietnam War
remains a deeply debated and studied topic due to its complexity, moral dilemmas, and
profound implications for international relations and conflicts.
1st Taiwan Crisis
A Cold War confrontation between the People's Republic of China (PRC) led by Mao Zedong
and the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan led by Chiang Kai-shek. The PRC sought to
reclaim Taiwan, escalating tensions with military actions and blockades. The U.S. sent the
Seventh Fleet to deter PRC invasion, signaling support for the ROC.
Background - After the Chinese Civil War (1945-1949), the Communists established the
PRC, while the Nationalists retreated to Taiwan, backed by the U.S.
Eisenhower's Policy - President Eisenhower's "massive retaliation" policy aimed at using
nuclear weapons to respond to aggression but was avoided in this crisis.
Ceasefire and Resolution - Diplomatic efforts led to a ceasefire in 1955, with the PRC
declaring a unilateral ceasefire and the U.S. committing to support Taiwan's security.
India's Response - India's non-aligned response promoted peaceful conflict resolution and
dialogue.
Outcome and Significance - The crisis established a tense status quo in the Taiwan Strait,
with long-term implications for the region's politics and security. It highlighted the risks of
regional conflicts escalating in the Cold War context and set the stage for future
confrontations.
Suez Crisis
President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt aimed to assert control over the Suez Canal and
secure funding for the Aswan High Dam. Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal raised
tensions as it threatened Western access to the vital waterway.
Crisis Unfolds - Israel invaded Egypt in October 1956, coordinating secretly with Britain and
France to topple Nasser. Britain and France deployed forces to regain control of the canal,
under the pretext of separating warring parties.
Global Reaction - The Soviet Union opposed Western intervention and threatened military
action, while U.S. President Eisenhower pressured allies to withdraw.
Resolution - Britain, France, and Israel withdrew their forces under international pressure.
The United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) was established to oversee the withdrawal,
and Indian troops played a role in maintaining peace. The canal remained under Egyptian
control.
India's Response - India, led by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, advocated for a peaceful
resolution through diplomacy and proposed a resolution for ceasefire and withdrawal.
Impact - Shifted the global balance of power, with the U.S. emerging as a prominent player.
They highlighted the decline of traditional colonial powers and the rise of decolonisation
movements. Strained relations between Western allies demonstrated the U.S.'s willingness to
oppose traditional partners to maintain global peace.
Hungarian Uprising, 1956
Khrushchev pressured Hungary to replace its Stalinist leader with a more liberal one as part
of his de-Stalinization campaign, supported by Tito to strengthen his influence in the Soviet
bloc.
Large demonstrations in Budapest demanded withdrawal of Soviet troops and a new
government under Imre Nagy. USSR initially deployed troops but later withdrew.
U.S. Involvement - U.S. Radio Free Europe encouraged Hungarians to revolt, believing
NATO might intervene, although Eisenhower clarified NATO would not save Hungary.
Soviet troops re-entered Hungary, installing a pro-USSR government under János Kádár.
U.S. Sphere of Influence - U.S. expanded its influence through treaties and commitments in
various regions, including ANZUS, Japan, SEATO, Middle East Defense Organization,
Baghdad Pact, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Soviet Sphere - The USSR organized its sphere of influence with the Warsaw Pact in 1955.
Eisenhower Doctrine (1957)
1. Support Against Communism: The U.S. offered economic and military aid to Middle
Eastern nations facing communist threats, potentially including military intervention.
2. Countering Soviet Expansion: It directly responded to perceived Soviet expansion,
aiming to contain communism by assisting countries resisting Soviet-backed movements.
3. Protecting American Interests: The doctrine safeguarded U.S. economic and strategic
interests, especially oil resources, to ensure a stable oil supply.
4. International Collaboration: Eisenhower encouraged global cooperation, particularly with
European nations, to create a united front against Soviet influence.
Phase IV of Cold War (1959-62)
In November 1958, Khrushchev issued an ultimatum aimed at pressuring the Western
powers, including Britain, France, and the U.S., to make several concessions:
 Withdrawal from West Berlin
 Recognition of the Legal Existence of the GDR (East Germany)
 Acknowledgment of GDR's Right to Control Berlin's Borders
 Agreement to a Peace Treaty with Germany, Recognizing Germany's Division and GDR's
Borders with Poland
This marked the beginning of the Berlin crisis. While the Western allies rejected the
ultimatum, they eventually agreed to a foreign ministers' conference in Geneva in the summer
of 1959. Khrushchev's strategy successfully created divisions within the Western alliance.
Notably, West German Chancellor Adenauer became concerned about the Western powers'
signals of compromise and concession, drawing closer to French President de Gaulle, who
advocated a tougher stance against the Soviets. Adenauer was alarmed by British Prime
Minister Harold Macmillan's visit to Moscow and U.S. President Eisenhower's invitation to
Khrushchev to visit the U.S.
The first Berlin crisis concluded with a failure to achieve Khrushchev's main objectives,
such as the withdrawal of Western troops from West Berlin and peace treaties with the
German states. However, Khrushchev succeeded in constructing the Berlin Wall, ensuring the
existence of East Germany and its eventual recognition by the Western powers. This wall
effectively confined East Germans to the GDR, laying the foundation for developing the
GDR's socialist economy under Ulbricht.
Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962
The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 (Fidel Castro launched a guerrilla war against the
government of Fulgencio Batista in Cuba in December 1956) had its roots in various events
leading up to the crisis:
Resentment in South America: During the 1950s, the Soviets acknowledged South America
as a U.S. sphere of interest. However, the U.S.'s dominant influence in the region grew
resentment among South American intellectuals and nationalists. This atmosphere influenced
Fidel Castro to launch a guerrilla war against Fulgencio Batista's government in Cuba in
1956.
Cuban Revolution: By January 1959, Castro's forces successfully took control of Cuba.
While Castro was initially an anti-U.S. Cuban nationalist, tensions with the U.S. and
opposition from the Cuban middle classes pushed him towards Marxism–Leninism. He
sought economic and military support from the Soviet Union. His seizure of U.S. property
and land further strained U.S.-Cuba relations.
Contact with the Soviets: As relations with the U.S. deteriorated in 1959, Castro established
contact with the Soviets. In February 1960, he invited Soviet Deputy Chairman Anastas
Mikoyan to visit Havana.
U.S. Actions: In March 1960, U.S. President Eisenhower ordered the CIA to equip and train
Cuban exiles for future operations against Castro. The U.S. also imposed economic pressure
on Cuba by halting Cuban sugar and oil supply purchases.
Soviet Threat: In July 1960, Khrushchev threatened to send Soviet troops to Cuba to defend
it if the U.S. invaded.
Bay of Pigs Invasion: In April 1961, CIA-trained Cuban exiles attempted an invasion at the
Bay of Pigs, hoping for a popular uprising. However, the invasion failed after President
Kennedy cancelled U.S. air raids and marine landings, leaving the exiles to be defeated.
Soviet Missile Deployment: In August 1962, a secret Soviet-Cuban Treaty allowed the
USSR to place missiles in Cuba. The Soviets began deploying medium-range nuclear
missiles in Cuba, accompanied by troops and defense systems.
The crisis peaked in October 1962 when a U.S. U-2 spy plane discovered the missile
installations in Cuba. The U.S. considered various options, including a full-scale invasion of
Cuba.
However, a compromise was reached: the USSR would withdraw its missiles from Cuba,
and the U.S. agreed not to invade. Secretly, the U.S. also agreed to remove missiles from
Turkey in the near future. This led to the withdrawal of Soviet missiles and troops from Cuba,
effectively ending the crisis.
Détente
Détente was a pivotal shift in U.S.-Soviet relations during the Cold War, marked by reduced
tensions and the quest for peaceful coexistence. It emerged as a response to the Cuban
Missile Crisis and was championed by leaders like Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger.
President Kennedy acknowledged the need for lessening tensions, and Nixon's team aimed
to create an environment promoting cooperation over confrontation. Détente, as defined by
President Carter, as easing tensions and developing new ways for nations with different
political and social systems to coexist peacefully. The Soviet perspective on détente
involved promoting peaceful coexistence between systems, preventing nuclear conflict, and
resolving disputes through peaceful and mutually beneficial cooperation.
While cooperative elements existed, competition for influence persisted during détente.
Overall, it represented a significant chapter in Cold War history, highlighting the potential for
diplomacy to manage conflicts and reduce the risk of a devastating U.S.-Soviet war.
Causes of Détente
Détente, a pivotal shift in U.S.-Soviet relations, had various causes:
Strategic Parity: The Soviet Union's military buildup after 1964 led to a shift in the U.S.-
Soviet balance of power. Soviet intercontinental missile numbers surpassed those of the U.S.,
challenging American strategic superiority.
American Compulsions: The U.S. faced rising criticism from its public and sought relief
from the role of "global policeman." Nixon and Ford viewed détente as a means to protect
U.S. interests amid weariness from foreign policy burdens and the Vietnam War.
Soviet Compulsions: Soviet leaders, including Khrushchev and Brezhnev, embraced
peaceful coexistence and détente. Economic constraints, such as unemployment resulting
from uneven development, also pushed the USSR toward détente.
The China Factor: The rise of Communist China challenged the Soviet Union. The Sino-
Soviet rift allowed the U.S. to leverage the situation by fostering better relations with China
and the Soviet Union, playing the "China card." The bipolar world of the Cold War was
becoming tripolar.
Brandt's Ostpolitik: German Chancellor Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik aimed to improve
relations with Eastern European countries and the Soviet Union. This included non-
aggression treaties and normalization of relations, easing tensions within Europe.
These factors contributed to détente, a period of reduced U.S.-Soviet tensions and
cooperative efforts during the Cold War.
Linkage theory
Détente was the brainchild of Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger. This strategy aimed to
reduce tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union by linking peaceful superpower
relations to mutually beneficial exchanges, like trade concessions. This approach lessened the
incentives for conflict and war.
Implications of détente included a normalisation of relations between the superpowers. It
led to major visits, cultural exchanges, trade agreements, joint technological ventures, and
arms reduction efforts. Additionally, after the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, a "hotline" was
established in 1963, connecting the White House and the Kremlin for direct communication,
enhancing crisis management capabilities.
Major arms control agreement during Détente
o The Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963): This treaty, signed by the U.S., the USSR, and the
UK, banned nuclear tests in the atmosphere, underwater, and in outer space but allowed
them to continue underground. France and China did not initially sign this treaty.
o The Outer Space Treaty (1967): This international treaty aimed to ensure outer space's
peaceful and cooperative use. It prohibited the placement of nuclear weapons in space and
emphasized all countries' freedom of exploration in outer space.
o The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) (1968): This treaty, initially signed by the
U.S., the USSR, and the UK, aimed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. It
committed signatories not to transfer nuclear weapons to other countries or assist them in
manufacturing such weapons. France and China signed the NPT in 1993.
o The Sea-Bed Treaty (1971): This treaty prohibited the emplacement of nuclear weapons
or other weapons of mass destruction on the sea-bed and the ocean floor beyond a 12-
mile coastal zone.
o The Biological Weapons Convention (1972): This convention aimed to prohibit the
development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, and use of biological and toxin
weapons for hostile purposes. It encouraged international cooperation in peaceful
microbiology and the life sciences.
o Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I, 1972): This treaty, following Nixon's visit
to Moscow, included provisions for limiting the construction of missile launchers,
intercontinental and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (ICBMs and SLBMs), and new
submarine-launched ballistic missile launchers.
o SALT II: It limited the number of strategic nuclear delivery vehicles each side could
possess, including ICBMs and SLBMs. Although negotiated, SALT II was never ratified
by the United States due to congressional opposition.
Additionally, various other agreements pertaining to trade, agriculture, oceanography,
economics, and culture were signed between the U.S. and the USSR during this period.
The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) in Helsinki (1975)
brought together 34 countries from Europe and North America to formulate agreed principles,
contributing to easing tensions.
The Apollo-Soyuz joint international space mission in 1975 symbolised the spirit of
détente. It also allowed the U.S. to mend its relationship with China.
Uncertainties & End of Détente
Despite efforts to maintain détente, it faced challenges. Czechoslovakia's Prague Spring and
withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, the Indo-Pak War of 1965-66, the Bangladesh liberation
war in 1971, and the Middle East crisis in 1973 all strained superpower relations. Israel's
actions in the Sinai, Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights during the six-day war further
contributed to the deterioration of détente.
Détente ended definitively with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, marking the start
of a new Cold War.
The USSR aimed to stabilise the arms race, strengthen détente and Ostpolitik in Europe,
promote East-West trade, and counter the threat of a US-PRC alliance through détente.
On the other hand, the USA sought to strengthen relations with NATO allies, resolve the
Vietnam conflict, curb the arms race, and establish a new international order that discouraged
Soviet actions against NATO and the US.
New Cold War
In April 1978, Afghanistan witnessed a communist coup led by the Afghan Communist
Party (PDPA). This coup followed years of political changes, with Prime Minister
Mohammed Daoud Khan taking power in 1973. Afghanistan had significant Soviet
influence due to the aid provided by the USSR. Daoud Khan's attempts to modernise the
country faced opposition from conservative Afghan leaders and Muslim religious authorities
who viewed his reforms as threatening tradition.
The coup resulted in the PDPA taking control, embarking on radical reforms, and facing
opposition from conservative Muslims in rural areas. They aimed to modernize agriculture
but faced public resistance. The USSR increased financial and military support to the new
government but did not initially send troops.
By November 1979, the USSR believed that the survival of the communist regime in
Afghanistan required the removal of the unpopular President Hafizullah Amin. Fears of
Amin seeking assistance from the US and concerns about an Islamic government coming to
power in Afghanistan pushed the USSR to intervene.
Soviet military operations commenced in December 1979, with troops arriving in Kabul.
They faced challenges, including the disintegration of the Afghan army and opposition from
the Afghan people who supported the mujahedin, Muslim fundamentalist guerrilla fighters.
The war demoralised Soviet forces and imposed a significant financial strain.
The US responded strongly by banning grain exports to the USSR, boycotting the 1980
Moscow Olympics, and funding the Afghan mujahedin. China denounced the invasion,
cancelled talks with the USSR, and supplied arms to the mujahedin. Western European
countries condemned the invasion but sought to preserve détente in Europe.
Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev realized the failure of Soviet policy in Afghanistan and
decided to withdraw Soviet troops in November 1986. Mohammed Najibullah replaced
Afghan President Babrak Karmal in hopes of forming a government of national unity.
The Geneva Agreement of 1988 outlined terms for Soviet troop withdrawal but did not bring
peace to Afghanistan. The mujahedin continued to fight, with the USSR providing support to
Najibullah's forces. Fighting persisted even after the Soviet Union's collapse.
Solidarity in Poland, 1980–82 – Poland was militarily vital in the Soviet bloc due to its
strategic location as a potential corridor for Western attacks on the East and vice versa.
Moreover, Poland had a large population and a robust industrial base, making it crucial for
the bloc's economic stability.
The Baltic Crisis (1970-71) – saw Poland facing economic challenges due to its small-scale,
inefficient agriculture. In an attempt to encourage better farming practices and food
production, the government increased food prices by 30% in 1970, leading to strikes,
demonstrations, and Soviet intervention recommendations. Peace was restored by freezing
food prices and securing a substantial loan from the USSR.
June 1976 Riots – a similar food price increase of 60% sparked riots and the formation of the
Workers' Defence Committee. In 1975, the government's attempt to reform the constitution
led to opposition efforts, including human rights defence groups and underground
publications. Pope John Paul II's visit in 1979 further highlighted the disconnect between
Poland's citizens and the government.
Emergence of Solidarity – By mid-1980, Poland faced an economic crisis with rising oil
prices, an economic recession in the West, and increasing debt. In August 1980, strikes
erupted due to food price hikes, leading to the birth of the Solidarity Movement.
The Gdansk Agreement in August 1980 recognised Solidarity as an
independent trade union, guaranteed the right to strike and freedom of speech, and
acknowledged the leading role of the PUWP.
Solidarity's membership reached 8 million by December 1981, with broad support including
the Catholic Church. Amid Soviet intervention concerns, martial law was imposed in
December 1981, leading to Solidarity leaders' arrest, strikes suppression by troops, and
Solidarity's ban in October 1982.
In response, the US and NATO condemned martial law, with the US urging tough sanctions
against the USSR and the cancellation of a planned Soviet gas line to western Europe.
Western European countries rejected these measures but restricted advanced technology
exports to the Soviet bloc.
Between 1981 and 1983, US President Ronald Reagan adopted an uncompromising stance
towards the USSR, including increased armaments, rejection of the SALT II Treaty, missile
deployments in western Europe, and support for the mujahedin in Afghanistan.
Towards end of Cold War
Mikhail Gorbachev's Reforms and Challenges
Gorbachev's Modernization Goals - Gorbachev aimed to modernise the USSR using the
terms glasnost and perestroika. He recognized the need to end the Cold War and reform the
economy for the USSR's survival.
Challenges Faced - The collapse of détente in the late 1970s led to a costly arms race the
USSR couldn't afford. The war in Afghanistan drained resources without evident success. The
Soviet economy suffered from inefficiency, corruption, and a lack of technology.
USSR's Economic Weakness
Historical Success - The Soviet and COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance)
economies performed well until around 1960. Rapid industrialisation and growth in heavy
industries were notable achievements.
Issues in the 1960s - The Soviet command economy became bureaucratic and inflexible. It
struggled to compete in consumer goods against capitalist states. Ideas for decentralisation,
allowing local managers more control, were proposed.
Czechoslovakia's Economic Experiments - Czechoslovakia started decentralizing its
economy between 1965 and 1968. It granted more freedom to factory managers, reduced
business taxes, and introduced wage differentiation and market-based pricing.
Challenges and Discontinuation - Economic experiments in the Soviet bloc were discouraged
after the Prague Spring due to fears of political concessions.
The 1970s and Economic Shifts
Global Economic Changes - The 1970s saw significant changes and crises in capitalist
economies. In response to the October War, oil price increases weakened Western economies,
causing inflation.
Contrast with USSR and COMECON - The USSR and COMECON maintained centralised
control and emphasized heavy industries like coal and steel. Détente allowed Western loans to
COMECON members, and the USSR profited from high oil prices.
Oil Exports and Charges - From July 1975, the USSR increased charges on oil exports to
Eastern Europe, expecting Western loans to cover the extra costs.
Cambodia and Diplomatic Efforts
Soviet Involvement in Cambodia - In 1979, Vietnam, with Soviet support, overthrew the
Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia. Vietnam's presence in Cambodia faced opposition from
the US, PRC, and ASEAN states.
Gorbachev's Diplomacy - Gorbachev aimed to collaborate with the US and PRC to find a
solution for Cambodia. He pressured Vietnam to withdraw its troops, leading to a ceasefire in
1991 with US and USSR assistance.
Human Rights and Opening
Gorbachev's Human Rights Initiatives (1986–88) - He emphasized the importance of human
rights and "Basket three" of the Helsinki Accords. Prominent dissidents were released, Soviet
Jews could emigrate more easily, and foreign media had increased access to the USSR.
Poland 1988
Price Rises and Negotiations - Price increases up to 200 percent were introduced in Poland in
1988. Negotiations between the government, Catholic Church, and Solidarity began.
Round Table Agreements (April 1989) - Solidarity gained recognition as a political party and
created a new constitution. Solidarity could compete for parliamentary seats, while the
communists retained some.
Elections and USSR's Response - Solidarity won a significant majority in the elections,
forming a coalition government. Gorbachev indicated the USSR wouldn't intervene to
support an unpopular communist regime.
Nicaragua and Central America
Sandinistas in Nicaragua - Marxist Sandinistas came to power in Nicaragua in 1979.They
received military support from the USSR, leading to concerns about communist influence in
Central America.
US Involvement and Peace Plan - The US launched a covert war against the Sandinista
government. In 1988, both the US and USSR supported a Central American peace plan
calling for free elections in Nicaragua.
End of the PRC-Soviet Dispute - The Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and Vietnamese
troops from Cambodia eased tensions. Gorbachev's announcement of reduced Soviet troop
presence along the PRC-Soviet border improved relations.
Tiananmen Square and Its Implications
Tiananmen Square (1989) - Gorbachev's visit to Beijing coincided with pro-democracy
protests. The PRC government declared martial law and forcefully cleared demonstrators
from Tiananmen Square.
Message of PRC's Response - The violent crackdown signaled the PRC's commitment to
economic modernization but not political reform.
Hungary's Transition
Hungary's Reform (1988) - Regarding Gorbachev's policies, Hungary's Party replaced its
leadership and acknowledged the need for multi-party democracy.
Round Table Talks and Elections - Round table talks led to agreements for free elections in
Hungary in 1990. The Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party did not dominate the elections as
expected.
Bulgaria's Transition
Zhivkov's Leadership - Bulgaria was under Todor Zhivkov's rule for 35 years, marked by
nepotism and "Bulgarianization."
Transition and Elections - Talks with opposition groups and promises of free elections were
made in Bulgaria. The Communist Party transformed into a socialist party, initially winning
elections but eventually losing in 1991.
Collapse of USSR
Economic Weakness - The USSR and COMECON states experienced economic success
until around 1960. They rapidly industrialized and grew heavy industries, thanks to large
productive units. Central planning and Five Year Plans effectively managed these units.
Challenges to the USSR - The Cold War led to massive military spending and limited trade
with the West. Large armies in Eastern Europe and subsidies to COMECON nations strained
the economy. Limited access to global raw materials due to the Cold War. Ethnic groups, like
the Baltic states, sought greater independence.
Gorbachev's Reforms - Gorbachev aimed to reform the economy through increased tech
investment and decentralization (perestroika). He encouraged worker incentives to boost
productivity.
Glasnost (Openness) - Gorbachev introduced glasnost to gain public support for reforms.
Censorship eased, foreign broadcasts allowed, and investigative journalism exposed
corruption.
Climax of Glasnost (1988–89) - New political organizations formed. Religion tolerated, with
reopened places of worship and religious texts available. Uncensored media, including
newspapers and journals, emerged.
Growing Economic Crisis - Despite reforms, economic difficulties persisted. Budget revenue
declined, leading to inflation and shortages.
Nationalities Problem - Reawakening of nationalism in constituent republics due to Glasnost.
Ethnic groups sought autonomy or independence.
Baltic States - Popular Fronts in Baltic states demanded autonomy and independence.
Elections and declarations of independence followed in 1990.
Gorbachev's Reaction - Gorbachev initially resisted Baltic independence. Economic blockade
and military intervention ensued but couldn't deter nationalist movements.
Armenian-Azerbaijani Conflict - Nagorno-Karabakh dispute intensified due to Glasnost.
Karabakh voted to join Armenia in 1988, sparking violence.
Gorbachev's Response - Gorbachev attempted to resolve the issue but faced rising
nationalism in Armenia and Azerbaijan.
Central Asian Republics - Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan saw nationalist backlash against
central Soviet policies.
Ukraine - Ukraine's nationalist movement, Rukh, demanded independence. Soviet power
weakened as republics declared sovereignty.
Belarus and Russia - They also experienced nationalist movements and demands for
independence.

End of the USSR - Gorbachev's attempts to create a new union treaty failed. The
Ukraine's declaration of independence in December 1991 marked the final blow. On
December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned, and the USSR dissolved on December 31, replaced
by the CIS. Russia became the Russian Federation on December 26, 1991.