UNIVERSITY OF ELDORET

MATH 121: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

TOPIC: APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

Definition of an Increasing and Decreasing Function

Let y=f(x) be a differentiable function on an interval (a, b). If for any two points 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) such that x1<x2,
there holds the inequality f(x1) ≤ f(x2), the function is called increasing (or non-decreasing) in this interval.

Figure 1.

If this inequality is strict, i.e., f(x1) < f(x2), then the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be strictly increasing on the
interval (a, b).

Similarly, we define a decreasing (or non-increasing) and a strictly decreasing function.

Figure 2.

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These concepts can be formulated in a more compact form. A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is called

• increasing (non-decreasing) on the interval (a, b) if

∀x1, x2 ∈ (a, b): x1< x2⇒f(x1) ≤f(x2);

• strictly increasing on the interval (a, b) if

∀ x1, x2 ∈ (a, b): x1< x2⇒f(x1) < f(x2);

• decreasing (non-increasing) on the interval (a, b) if

∀x1, x2∈ (a, b): x1<x2⇒f(x1) ≥ f(x2);

• strictly decreasing on the interval (a, b) if

∀ x1, x2∈ (a, b): x1<x2⇒f(x1)>f(x2).

It is clear that a non-decreasing function can contain strictly increasing intervals and intervals where the
function is constant. This is schematically illustrated in Figures 3−6.

Figure 3. Figure 5.

Figure 4. Figure 6.
If a function f(x) is differentiable on the interval (a, b) and belongs to one of the four considered types (i.e., it is
increasing, strictly increasing, decreasing, or strictly decreasing), this function is called monotonic on this
interval.
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The concept of increasing and decreasing functions can also be defined for a single point x0. In this case, we
consider a small δ-neighborhood (𝑥0 − 𝛿, 𝑥0 + 𝛿) of this point. A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is strictly increasing at x0
if there exists a number 𝛿 > 0 such that

∀𝑥 ∈ (𝑥0 − 𝛿, 𝑥0 ) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑥0 );

∀𝑥 ∈ (𝑥0 , 𝑥0 + 𝛿) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑓(𝑥0 ).

Similarly, we can define a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), which is strictly decreasing at the point x0.

Criteria for Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Again, consider a function y=f(x) assuming it is differentiable on an interval (a, b). To determine if the function
is increasing or decreasing on the interval, we use the sign of the first derivative of the function.

Theorem 1.

In order for the function y=f(x) to be increasing on the interval (a, b), it is necessary and sufficient that the first
derivative of the function be non-negative everywhere in this interval:

𝑓′(𝑥) ≥ 0 ∀𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏).

A similar criterion applies to the case of a function that is decreasing on the interval (a, b):

𝑓′(𝑥) ≤ 0 ∀𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏).

We prove both (necessary and sufficient) parts of the theorem for the case of an increasing function.

Necessary condition.

Consider an arbitrary point x0 ∈ (a, b). If the function y=f(x) is increasing on (a, b), then by definition, we can
write:

∀𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑥 > 𝑥0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑓(𝑥0 );

∀𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑥 < 𝑥0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑥0 ).

It can be seen that in both cases the following inequality holds:

f(x)−f(x0 )
≥ 0, where x ≠ 𝑥0
x−x0 )

In the limit as x→x0, the left-hand side of the inequality is equal to the derivative of the function at the point x0
that is by the limit sign preservation property:

f(x) − f(x0 )
lim = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) ≥ 0
x→𝑥0 (x − x0 )

This relationship is valid for any x0∈ (a, b).

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Consider the sufficient condition that is the converse statement. Suppose that the derivative f′(x) of a function
y=f(x) is non-negative in the interval (a, b):

𝑓 ′ ( 𝑥0 ) ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏).

If x1 and x2 are two arbitrary points of the interval such that x1<x2, then by Lagrange’s theorem we can write:

𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓′(𝑐)(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ), where 𝑐 ∈ [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ], ⇒ 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎 , 𝑏).

Since f′(c) ≥ 0, then the right-hand side of the equality is non-negative. Consequently, 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥1) i.e., the
function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing in the interval (a, b).

Consider now the cases of a strictly increasing and strictly decreasing function. There exists a similar theorem
that describes the necessary and sufficient conditions. Omitting the proof, we state it for the case of a strictly
increasing function.

Theorem 2.

Suppose that a function y=f(x) is differentiable on an interval (a, b). In order for the function to be strictly
increasing in this interval, it is necessary and sufficient that the following conditions are satisfied:

1. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ≥ 0 ∀𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏);

2. f′(x) is not identically equal to zero at any interval [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ] ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏).

The condition 1 is contained in Theorem 1 and is an indication of a non-decreasing function. The additional
condition 2 is required in order to exclude the intervals of constancy, in which the derivative of f(x) is
identically zero.

In practice (when finding the intervals of monotonicity), the sufficient condition for a strictly increasing or a
strictly decreasing function is commonly used. Theorem 2 implies the following wording of the sufficient
criterion:

If the condition 𝑓′(𝑥) > 0 is satisfied for all 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), except perhaps only a few distinct points where

f'(x) = 0, then the function f(x) is strictly increasing in this interval.

Accordingly, the condition 𝑓′(𝑥) < 0 defines a strictly decreasing function.

The number of points where 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0 is usually finite. According to Theorem 2, they cannot tightly fill any
subinterval of the interval (a, b).

We also give a criterion for increasing/decreasing functions at a point:

Theorem 3.

Let x0∈ (a, b).

• If 𝑓′(𝑥0 ) > 0, then the function f(x) is strictly increasing at the point x0;
• If 𝑓′(𝑥0 ) < 0, then the function f(x) is strictly decreasing at the point x0.
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Properties of Monotonic Functions

Increasing and decreasing functions have certain algebraic properties, which may be useful in the investigation
of functions. Here are some of them:

1. If the functions f and g are increasing (decreasing) on the interval (a, b), then the sum of the functions

f + g is also increasing (decreasing) on this interval.

2. If the function f is increasing (decreasing) on the interval (a, b), then the opposite function −f is
decreasing (increasing) on this interval.
3. If the function f is increasing (decreasing) on the interval (a, b), then the inverse function 1f is
decreasing (increasing) on this interval.
4. If the functions f and g are increasing (decreasing) on the interval (a, b) and moreover, 𝑓 ≥ 0, 𝑔 ≥ 0,
then the product of the functions 𝑓𝑔 is also increasing (decreasing) on this interval.
5. If the function g is increasing (decreasing) on the interval (a, b) and the function f is increasing
(decreasing) on (c, d) where 𝑔: (𝑎, 𝑏) → (𝑐, 𝑑), then the composition of functions 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 (i.e., the
composite function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is also increasing (decreasing) on the interval (a, b)

EXAMPLE TWO
a) Using the definition of monotonicity, prove that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 is strictly increasing for 𝑥 ≥ 0
Solution
We take two arbitrary points 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 such that 0 ≤ 𝑥1 < 𝑥2
𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = (𝑥2 2 + 1) − (𝑥1 2 + 1)
= 𝑥2 2 − 𝑥1 2
= (𝑥2 + 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
(𝑥2 + 𝑥1 ) > 0 And (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) > 0
Then
(𝑥2 + 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) > 0 ⟹ 𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 0
This means by definition that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 is strictly increasing on the interval.
EXAMPLE TWO
Determine where the function R(x) = (x + 1)(x − 2)2 is increasing and decreasing.
Solution.
𝑑𝑅
= 1(𝑥 − 2)2 + 2(𝑥 − 2)1(𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑅
= (𝑥 − 2)2 + 2(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑅
= (𝑥 − 2)[(𝑥 − 2) + 2(𝑥 + 1)]
𝑑𝑥
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 𝑑𝑅
= (𝑥 − 2)[𝑥 − 2 + 2𝑥 + 2]
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑅
= (𝑥 − 2)3𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Finding the critical points:
𝑑𝑅
= 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 2)3𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2
𝑑𝑥
Test 𝑥 < 0 (𝑒. 𝑔 𝑥 = −2) then,
𝑑𝑅
= ((−2) − 2)[3(−2)] = (−4)(−4) = 24 > 0
𝑑𝑥
Hence, R(x) is increasing on (−∞, 0)
Test 0 < 𝑥 < 2 (𝑒. 𝑔 𝑥 = 1) then,
𝑑𝑅
= ((1 − 2)[3(1)] = (−1)(3) = −3 < 0
𝑑𝑥
Hence, R(x) is decreasing on (0,2)
Test 𝑥 > 2(𝑒. 𝑔 𝑥 = 4) then,
𝑑𝑅
= (4 − 2)[3(4)] = (2)(12) = 24 > 0
𝑑𝑥
Hence, R(x) is increasing on (2, +∞)

ASYMPTOTES

▪ An asymptote of a curve y=f(x) that has an infinite branch is called a line such that the distance between
the point (x, f(x)) lying on the curve and the line approaches zero as the point moves along the branch to
infinity.
▪ Asymptotes can be vertical, oblique (slant) and horizontal. A horizontal asymptote is often considered as
a special case of an oblique asymptote.

Vertical Asymptote

The straight-line x=a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) if at least one of the
following conditions is true:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞

𝑥→𝑎−0 𝑥→𝑎+0

In other words, at least one of the one-sided limits at the point x = a must be equal to infinity.

A vertical asymptote occurs in rational functions at the points when the denominator is zero and the numerator
is not equal to zero (i.e. at the points of discontinuity of the second kind). For example, the graph of the function
y=1x has the vertical asymptote x=0 (Figure 1). In this case, both one-sided limits (from the left and from the
right) tend to infinity:

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 1 1
lim = −∞. lim = +∞
𝑥→0−0 𝑥 𝑥→0+0 𝑥

Figure 1.

A function which is continuous on the whole set of real numbers has no vertical asymptotes.

Oblique Asymptote

The straight-line 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏 is called an oblique (slant) asymptote of the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) as
𝑥 → +∞ (Figure 2) if

lim [f(x) − (kx + b)] = 0.

𝑥→+∞

lim [𝑓(𝑥) − (𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏)] = 0

𝑥→+∞

Figure 2.

Similarly, we introduce oblique asymptotes as 𝑥 → −∞.

The oblique asymptotes of the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) may be different as 𝑥 → +∞ and 𝑥 → −∞.
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Therefore, when finding oblique (or horizontal) asymptotes, it is a good practice to compute them separately.

The coefficients k and b of an oblique asymptote 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏 are defined by the following theorem:

A straight line 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏 is an asymptote of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 → +∞ if and only if the following two
limits are finite:

𝑓(𝑥)
lim = 𝑘, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim [f(x) − kx] = 𝑏.
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞

Proof.

Necessity. Let the straight line 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏 be an asymptote of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 → +∞. Then the
following condition is true:

lim [f(x) − (kx + b)] = 0

𝑥→+∞

or, equivalently,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝛼 (x), where lim α(x) = 0.

𝑥→+∞

Dividing both sides of the equation by x, we obtain:

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝛼(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑏 𝛼(𝑥)

= ,⇒ =𝑘+ + .
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Consequently, in the limit as x→+∞, we have

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝛼(𝑥)
lim = lim [ ] = 𝑘,
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥

lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘𝑥] = lim [𝑏 + 𝛼(𝑥)] = 𝑏

𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞

Sufficiency. Suppose that there are finite limits

𝑓(𝑥)
lim =k and lim [𝑏 + 𝑘(𝑥)] = 𝑏
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞

The second limit can be written as

lim [𝑓(𝑥) − (𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏)] = 0,

𝑥→+∞

that meets the definition of an oblique asymptote. Thus, the straight-line 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏 is an asymptote of the
function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

Note: Similarly, we can prove the theorem for the case of 𝑥 → ∞.

Horizontal Asymptote

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In particular, if 𝑘 = 0, we obtain a horizontal asymptote, which is described by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑏. The
theorem on necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a horizontal asymptote is stated as follows:

A straight-line y=b is an asymptote of a function y=f(x) as x→+∞, if and only if the following limit is finite:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏
𝑥→+∞

The case x→−∞ is considered in the same way.

Asymptotes of an Implicit Curve

An implicitly defined algebraic curve is described by the equation

𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0,

where the left-hand side is a polynomial in the variables x and y.

In differential geometry, the following method for finding an oblique asymptote of an algebraic curve is used.
Suppose that the asymptote is described by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏. Substituting this expression for y in the
equation of the curve, we obtain an algebraic equation in one variable x:

𝐴0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ … … … … + 𝐴𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑛 = 0,

where the coefficients Ai depend on the parameters of the asymptote k and b (the coefficient A0 depends only
on k). The values of k and b can be determined from the condition:

A (k) = 0
{ 0
A1 (k, b) = 0

To find a vertical asymptote, it is necessary to substitute its equation x=a in the equation of the curve and
convert the latter to the form:

B0yn + B1yn−1 +…………….+ Bn−1y + Bn = 0.

A necessary condition for the existence of a vertical asymptote is the absence of the term of the highest degree
B0yn in the last equation.

The value of the parameter a is determined from the condition

B1(a)=0.

The above formulas for the asymptotes of an implicit curve are valid if the curve has no singular points at
infinity.

Example Five
2𝑥−3
a) Find the asymptotes of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+1
.

Solution
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The function is defined for all 𝑥 ≠ −1. Compute the one-sided limits at 𝑥 = −1:
2𝑥 − 3 −5
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = = +∞;
𝑥→−1−0 𝑥→−1−0 𝑥 + 1 −0
2𝑥 − 3 −5
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = = −∞;
𝑥→−1+0 𝑥→−1+0 𝑥 + 1 +0
Hence 𝑥 = −1 is a vertical asymptote of the function.
The possible horizontal asymptotes at 𝑥 → ±∞:
3
2𝑥 − 3 2 − 𝑥
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = =2
𝑥→±∞: 𝑥→±∞: 𝑥 + 1 1
1−𝑥

The horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 = 2

The oblique asymptotes are obtained by calculating the slope k:
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑘 = lim
𝑥→±∞: 𝑥

2𝑥 − 3
= lim
𝑥→+∞: 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)

2𝑥 − 3
= lim
𝑥→+∞: 𝑥 2 + 𝑥

2 3
𝑥 − 𝑥2
= lim
𝑥→+∞: 1
1+𝑥

0
= =0
1
The same is for 𝑥 → −∞. Therefore, there is no oblique asymptotes.

CURVE SKETCHING

The following steps are taken in the process of curve sketching:

1. Domain

Find the domain of the function and determine the points of discontinuity (if any).

2. Intercepts

Determine the x− and y−intercepts of the function, if possible. To find the x−intercept, we set 𝑦 = 0 and solve
the equation for x. Similarly, we set 𝑥 = 0 to find the y−intercept. Find the intervals where the function has a
constant sign (𝑓(𝑥) > 0 and 𝑓(𝑥) < 0).

3. Symmetry
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Determine whether the function is even, odd, or neither, and check the periodicity of the function.

If 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all x in the domain, then f(x) is even and symmetric about the y−axis.

If 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) for all x in the domain, then f(x) is odd and symmetric about the origin.

4. Asymptotes

Find the vertical, horizontal and oblique (slant) asymptotes of the function.

5. Intervals of Increase and Decrease

Calculate the first derivative f′(x) and find the critical points of the function. (Remember that critical points are
the points where the first derivative is zero or does not exist.) Determine the intervals where the function is
increasing and decreasing using the First Derivative Test.

6. Local Maximum and Minimum

Use the First or Second Derivative Test to classify the critical points as local maximum or local minimum.
Calculate the y−values of the local extreme points.

7. Concavity/Convexity and Points of Inflection

Using the Second Derivative Test, find the points of inflection (at which 𝑓′′(𝑥) = 0). Determine the intervals
where the function is convex upward (𝑓′′(𝑥) < 0) and convex downward (𝑓′′(𝑥) > 0).

8. Graph of the Function

Sketch a graph of f(x) using all the information obtained above.

WORKED EXAMPLES ON APPLICATION OF DERIVATES.

Example One
The volume of a sphere is increasing at the rate of 8 cm3/s. Find the rate at which its surface area is increasing
when the radius of the sphere is 12 cm.

Solution

4 3
𝑉= 𝜋𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆. 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
3

Rate of volume and surface area:

𝑑𝑉 4 𝑑𝑟
= 𝜋 × 3𝑟 2 ×
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑟
= 4𝜋 × 2𝑟 ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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 𝑑𝑉 8𝑐𝑚3 4 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 8×7
= ⟹ 𝜋 × 3𝑟 2 × =8⟹ = = 0.00441
𝑑𝑡 𝑠 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 22 × 4 × 122

𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑟 4×22×2×12
Now = 4𝜋 × 2𝑟 × 𝑑𝑡 = × 0.00441 = 65.33𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑑𝑡 7

Example Two
Find the point on the curve y2 = 2x which is at a minimum distance from the point (1, 4).

Solution

Suppose a point (x, y) on the curve 𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 is nearest to the point (1,4). Then,

y2
y 2 = 2x ⟹ x = ………………………………(i)
2

𝑑2 = (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 …………………… (Using distance formula)

2
y2
Now, 𝑍 = 𝑑2 = (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 ⟹ 𝑍 = ( 2 − 1) + (𝑦 − 4)2………………………From eq. (i)

y4 𝑑𝑍
⟹𝑧= + 1 − y 2 + y 2 + 16 − 8𝑦 ⟹ = 𝑦3 − 8
4 𝑑𝑦

For maximum or minimum values of Z, we must have:

𝑑𝑍
= 0 ⟹ 𝑦3 − 8 = 0 ⟹ 𝑦 = 2
𝑑𝑦

Substituting the values of y in (i), we get 𝑥 = 2

𝑑2 𝑍 𝑑2 𝑍
Therefore, 𝑑𝑦 2 = 3𝑦 2 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 2 = 12 > 0

So, the required nearest point is (2,2).

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