Foundational AI Concepts

Generative AI Large Language Models (LLMs)

Technology that creates new content based on AI systems trained on vast text data to
training data. Unlike traditional AI that simply understand and generate human-like language.
analyzes or categorizes existing information, These sophisticated models can process billions
generative AI can produce entirely new text, of parameters and have been trained on trillions
images, music, or other media that didn't of words from diverse sources. LLMs like GPT-4,
previously exist. This creative capability is what Claude, and Llama form the backbone of modern
makes generative AI particularly revolutionary, AI applications, enabling them to engage in
enabling applications from content creation to conversations, answer questions, write essays,
product design. summarize documents, and more with
remarkable fluency.

GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) Machine Learning

Family of neural network models that predict text Systems learning from data without explicit
sequences. Developed by OpenAI, GPT models programming. Rather than following pre-defined
revolutionized the field by demonstrating how rules, machine learning algorithms identify
pre-training on diverse internet text followed by patterns in data and improve their performance
fine-tuning could create increasingly capable AI over time. This approach allows computers to
systems. Each generation (GPT-3, GPT-4, etc.) tackle tasks that would be impossibly complex to
has shown significant improvements in code directly, from image recognition to
capabilities, with applications spanning from language translation.
chatbots to coding assistants.

Neural Networks, the fifth foundational concept, are computing systems inspired by human brain structure. These
interconnected layers of artificial neurons process information by passing signals through weighted connections,
enabling the system to learn complex patterns. Deep neural networks with many layers power today's most
advanced AI capabilities, from understanding speech to generating realistic images.
Key AI Capabilities & Methods
Natural Language Processing (NLP)

AI's ability to understand human language. NLP

encompasses a wide range of capabilities including
sentiment analysis, text classification, machine
translation, summarization, and question answering.
Modern NLP systems can interpret nuance, context,
and even some cultural references, making them
powerful tools for information processing and human-
computer interaction.

The evolution of NLP has transformed how we interact

with technology, enabling voice assistants, automated Computer Vision
customer service, and sophisticated content analysis
AI systems that can interpret visual information. These
tools that can process vast amounts of text data in
models can identify objects, recognize faces, read text,
seconds.
track motion, and even generate entirely new images.
Computer vision applications range from autonomous
vehicles and medical diagnostics to augmented reality
and content moderation.

Multimodal Models Reinforcement Learning Fine-tuning

AI systems that work with Training method where AI learns Process of adapting pre-trained
multiple data types (text, images, through reward systems. By models for specific tasks. This
audio). Rather than specializing receiving feedback on its actions, technique leverages knowledge
in one format, these versatile the AI optimizes its behavior to gained from general training and
models can process and generate maximize rewards, similar to how focuses it on specialized
various forms of content, humans learn through positive applications, dramatically
enabling more natural and and negative consequences. improving performance.
comprehensive interactions.
AI Development Concepts

Prompt Engineering
Crafting effective instructions for AI systems

Training Data
Information used to teach AI systems patterns

Inference
Process where AI generates responses

Prompt Engineering is rapidly emerging as a crucial skill for working with generative AI. The art and science of
crafting clear, specific instructions helps extract the best possible outputs from AI systems. Effective prompts
provide context, specify desired formats, and guide the AI toward relevant information. As models become more
powerful, the difference between mediocre and exceptional results often lies in the quality of prompting.

Training Data forms the foundation of any AI system's knowledge. The quantity, quality, and diversity of this data
directly impacts the model's capabilities and limitations. Modern LLMs are trained on trillions of words from books,
articles, websites, code repositories, and other text sources. Biases or gaps in this training data can lead to
corresponding weaknesses in the resulting AI.

API (Application Programming Interface) Parameters

Connection point allowing interaction with AI services. Variables that determine how an AI model processes
APIs provide standardized methods for developers to information. The number of parameters (often
integrate AI capabilities into their applications without measured in billions for modern models) roughly
needing to build or host the models themselves. This correlates with a model's capacity to learn complex
democratizes access to cutting-edge AI, enabling patterns. These numerical values are adjusted during
companies of all sizes to leverage powerful models training to optimize the model's performance.
through simple code interfaces.
Beyond the raw parameter count, the architecture and
Most commercial AI services like OpenAI's GPT training methodology significantly impact a model's
models, Google's Gemini, and Anthropic's Claude are capabilities. Some smaller, more efficiently designed
primarily accessed through APIs, allowing developers models can outperform larger ones on specific tasks
to send prompts and receive responses due to better optimization or training techniques.
programmatically.
AI Ethics & Challenges
As AI systems become more powerful and integrated into critical aspects of society, understanding their ethical
dimensions and inherent challenges becomes increasingly important. These five concepts represent key areas of
concern for responsible AI development and deployment.

Hallucinations Bias Alignment

When AI generates false or Systematic errors in AI outputs Ensuring AI systems behave
misleading information. Unlike reflecting human prejudices. according to human values and
human lying, hallucinations Since AI systems learn from intentions. As AI becomes more
aren't intentional deception but human-created data, they can capable, ensuring it acts in ways
rather a limitation of how these absorb and amplify existing that align with human goals and
models work. They can societal biases related to race, ethical principles becomes
confidently present incorrect gender, age, and other crucial. Alignment research
facts, fabricate citations, or attributes. These biases may focuses on techniques to make
create entirely fictional manifest in hiring algorithms, AI systems helpful, harmless,
scenarios that appear plausible content recommendations, or and honest.
but have no basis in reality. language generation.
Methods include reinforcement
This phenomenon occurs Addressing bias requires learning from human feedback
because language models diverse training data, careful (RLHF), constitutional AI
predict plausible text based on evaluation, and sometimes approaches, and red-teaming
patterns rather than accessing explicit constraints on model exercises to identify potential
a verified knowledge base. outputs. Complete elimination misuse or harmful behaviors.
Hallucinations pose serious of bias remains an ongoing
challenges for applications challenge in AI development.
requiring factual accuracy.

Prompt Injection Responsible AI

Attempts to manipulate AI behavior through carefully Framework for ethical AI development and
crafted inputs. Similar to SQL injection attacks on deployment. This holistic approach encompasses
databases, these techniques aim to override an AI's transparency, fairness, accountability, privacy, and
built-in safeguards or instructions. For example, an security considerations throughout the AI lifecycle.
attacker might embed instructions within seemingly Responsible AI practices aim to maximize benefits
innocent text to trick the AI into generating harmful while minimizing potential harms.
content or revealing system prompts.
Many organizations and governments are developing
Defending against prompt injections requires robust guidelines, regulations, and governance structures to
system design, careful input sanitization, and ongoing ensure AI systems are developed and deployed
security research as new attack vectors are responsibly, with appropriate human oversight and
discovered. intervention capacity.
Advanced AI Terminology
Embeddings
Tokens Mathematical representations of
Text units processed by language words/concepts
models
Latent Space
Compressed representation of
data
Transformers
Architecture enabling contextual Transfer Learning
understanding Applying knowledge across
different tasks

Tokens are the fundamental processing units for language models. Text is broken down into these smaller pieces,
which might be words, parts of words, or individual characters depending on the tokenization method. For example,
"generative AI" might be processed as ["gener", "ative", " AI"]. Models have context windows measured in tokens
(like 8K or 32K), limiting how much text they can process at once. Understanding tokens helps manage input
limitations and optimize prompt design.

Embeddings translate words, sentences, or concepts into numerical vectors in high-dimensional space. This
mathematical representation captures semantic relationships, allowing similar concepts to exist near each other in
the embedding space. These vectors enable AI systems to understand meaning beyond simple pattern matching.
Embedding models like text-embedding-ada-002 or CLIP power semantic search, recommendation systems, and
content clustering by converting text or images into these numerical representations.

Latent Space represents the compressed, abstract representation of data within AI models. In this multidimensional
space, complex information is encoded in a more manageable form while preserving essential relationships. For
generative models, the latent space acts as a kind of "imagination space" where the model can navigate between
different concepts and generate new outputs by sampling from or interpolating between points. Understanding
latent space helps explain how models can blend concepts or generate variations on themes.

Transfer Learning revolutionized AI development by allowing knowledge gained in one context to be applied to
another. Rather than training models from scratch for every task, developers can start with models pre-trained on
general data and adapt them to specific applications. This approach dramatically reduces the data and computing
resources needed for new applications. For example, a model pre-trained on general language understanding can
be fine-tuned for specialized tasks like medical diagnosis or legal document analysis with relatively small amounts
of domain-specific data.

Transformers, introduced in the landmark 2017 paper "Attention Is All You Need," represent the architectural
breakthrough powering modern language models. Their key innovation4the attention mechanism4allows the model
to weigh the importance of different words in relation to each other, regardless of their distance in the text. This
enables transformers to capture long-range dependencies and understand context much more effectively than
previous architectures. Almost all leading language models today (GPT, PaLM, Llama, Claude) are based on
transformer architectures or their variants.