UNIT 1- WAVE OPTICS

1.1 INTERFERENCE
1.2 DIFFRACTION
1.3 POLARIZATION

1.1 Interference
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 Principle of superposition
1.1.3 Interference of light
1.1.4 Interference in thin films (Reflection Geometry)
1.1.5 Applications - Colors in thin films
1.1.6 Newton’s Rings- Determination of wavelength and refractive index

1.2 Diffraction

1.2.1 Diffraction: Introduction

1.2.2 Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffractions differences
1.2.3 Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit
1.2.4 double slit & N-slits (Qualitative)
1.2.5 Diffraction Grating
1.2.6 Dispersive power and resolving power of Grating (Qualitative).
1.3 Polarization
1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Types of polarization - Polarization by reflection, refraction and Double refraction
1.3.3 Nicol’s Prism & Uses
1.3.4 Half wave plate & Quarter wave plate
1.4 Question Bank
1.4.1 Problems
1.4.2 Short Answer Questions
1.4.3 Essay Questions
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION

LIGHT –The behaviour of light remained mysterious over the decades, further conclude it is an
Electromagnetic wave.

Newton proposed the simplest model of light known as corpuscular model of light.

Acc to this model, a luminous body emits a stream of tiny particles in all directions.

Phenomenon of reflection & refraction of light can be explained by this model.

A large number of experimental observations like diffraction, Interference, polarization which

could not be explained on basis of corpuscular model.

Huygens proposed a wave model gives a satisfactory explanation of different phenomena such
as Interference , diffraction, polarization.

Hence, Wave optics deals with the study of various phenomena such Interference, diffraction ,
polarization which cannot be done by ray optics

Recalling the properties of light is

Reflection
Successfully
explained by Refraction
newton theory
Interference Successfully explained
by Huygens wave
Diffraction
theorey
Polarization
1.1.2 Principle of superposition

If two or more waves travelling simultaneously in a medium then, the resultant displacement
at any point is due to the vector sum of displacements of individual waves.

Let Y1, Y2, are displacements of first and second waves, the resultant displacement Y is

Y = YI Y2
  +ve sign represents both displacements YI, Y2 are in same direction
 -ve sign represents both displacements YI, Y2 are in opposite direction.

Applications

1. If two waves of same frequency moving in opposite direction superimpose, then the
phenomenon is called Stationary waves .
2. If two waves of same frequency moving in same direction superimpose, then the
phenomenon is called Interference .
3. If two waves with slight difference in frequencies moving in the same direction
superimpose, then the phenomenon is called Beats.

1.1.3 Interference of light

The modification of intensity takes place due to the superposition of Two or more coherent
waves as a result bright and dark fringes are produced (Interference pattern) .this
phenomenon is known as Interference of light.

Interference is classified as constructive interference and destructive interference.

Constructive interference ; if two waves in same phase superimpose on one another. Here,
the resultant amplitude is greater then amplitude of individual waves .

Destructive interference ; if two waves are in out of phase(opposite phase) superimpose on

one another. Here, the resultant amplitude is lesser than amplitude of individual waves .
Conditions for interference of light

 The source must be monochromatic i.e; it contains single wavelength single frequency
& single colour.
 The two sources of the light should be coherent i.e; the waves emitted by the two
coherent sources are always in phase or a constant phase difference between them.
 The amplitudes of the two interfering waves are almost same
 The two coherent sources must be narrow
 The distance between the source and screen must be large
 To observe the interference pattern, the background must be dark.

Types of interference

The phenomenon of interference is divided into two classes

1. Division of wave front –The incident wave front is divided into two parts by utilising the
phenomena of reflection, refraction. These two parts of same wave front travel unequal
distances and reunite at some angle to produce interference bands.

Examples – Fresnel’s bi prism, Lloyd’s mirror …

2. Division of Amplitude –the amplitude of incoming beam is divided into two parts either
by parallel reflection or refraction. These divided parts reunite after travelling different
paths and produce interference. In this case it is not essential to employ a point or a narrow
line source but a broad light source may be employed to produce brighter bands.

Examples –Newton’s rings , Michelson’s interferometer….

1.1.4 Interference in thin film

The colours of thin films, soap bubbles and oil slicks can be explained as due to the
phenomenon of interference. In all these examples, the formation of interference
pattern is by the division of amplitude.
 • Let ‘GH’ and ‘G1H1’ be the two surfaces of a transparent film of film of uniform
thickness ‘t’ and its refractive index is ‘µ’ as shown in above figure.

• Suppose a ray ‘AB’ (of monochromatic light) be incident on its upper part. This ray is
partially reflected along ‘BR’ and transmitted along ‘BC’.

• After one internal reflection at ‘C’ ,’BC’ reflected from lower surface of thin film
along ‘CD’ and transmitted along ‘DR1’ .Now the interference takes place between
reflected rays ‘BR ‘and ‘DR1’. These are reflected from upper and lower
surfaces of thin film.

• Now our aim is to find the path difference between the rays BR and DR1.

• for this purpose, we draw the normal ‘DE’ on ‘BR ‘and normal ‘BF’ on ‘DC’. We also
produce’ DC’ in the backward direction which meets the ‘BQ’ at ‘P’.

From the figure ; Angle ABN =i

Angle QBC = r , Angle BDE = i ,Angle QPC = r

And CF+FD=CD , BQ+QP=BP=2t, PC+CF=PF

The actual path difference between BR and is (BC+CD) – BE

The optical path difference between BR and is µ(BC+CD) – BE ------(1)

For BE , by Snell’s law

From BED , Sin i =BE/BD

From BFD , Sin r =FD/BD

Therefore µ = BE/FD  BE = µFD ---------(2)

 Substitute equ (2) in equ(1) then

Path difference µ(BC+CD) – µFD

(BC+CD – FD)

(BC+ CF) ----------(3)

BCQ & PCQ are congruent triangles

Therefore BC =PC ,BQ = PQ =t

‘QC’ is common side and all angles are equal

Therefore = (PC+CF)µ

= µ(PF) ----------(4)

From PBF

Cos r = PF/PB

PF = (PB) cos r

= (BQ+QB) cos r

= (t+t) cos r

= 2t cos r ---------------(5)

Therefore eq’n (4) becomes = µ (2t) cos r

= 2µt cos r -----------(6)

But according to stokes principles the light ray BR is undergoing additionalpath change of λ/2.
Therefore the total path difference between BR and DR is equal to
2µtcosr± λ /2

= 2µt cos r + λ /2

Condition for bright fringes

Bright fringes are formed in the region of Constructive interference.

Condition : = nλ where n= 0,1,2,3….

2µt cos r + λ/2 = nλ

2µt cos r = nλ – λ/2

2µt cos r = (2n-1)λ/2

Condition for dark fringes

Dark fringes are formed in the region of Destructive interference .

Condition : = (2n+1)λ/2 where n =0,1,2,3….

2µt cos r + λ/2 = (2n+1)λ/2

2µt cos r + λ/2 = nλ + λ/2

2µt cos r = nλ.

1.1.5 Colours in thin films

Colours in Thin films

With monochromatic light alternate dark and bright interference fringes are obtained.
With white light, the fringes obtained are colored. it is because the path difference 2µt cos r +
λ /2 which depends on µ,t,r.

1. Even if t and r kept constant, the path difference will change with µ &λ of light used. White
light composed of various colors from violet to red. The path difference also changes due to
reflection at denser medium by λ/2 as λv > λr .

2. If the thickness of the film varies with uniformly ,at beginning it is thin, which will appear
black.

As path difference varies with thickness of film ,it appears different colors with white light.

3. If angle of incidence changes then angle of refraction also changes ,so that with white light
the film appears various colours when viewed from different directions.
1.1.6 Newton ring’s

In newton rings experiment , the interference is due to division of amplitude .

Experimental arrangement

A plano convex lens L with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate G. A
monochromatic source such as sodium lamp falls on a glass plate AB held at an angle of 45°
with the vertical direction. This glass plate reflects normally a part of the incident light
towards the air film enclosed by the lens and the glass plate. A part of the incident light is
reflected by the curved surface of the lens and a part is transmitted which is reflected back
from the plane surface of the glass plate. These two reflected rays interfere and give rise to
an interference pattern in the form of circular rings. These rings are realized in the air film,
and can be seen with a travelling microscope TM focused on the film.
Theory :

The path difference between two light rays are

2
For air film μ = 1
For normal incidence r = 0,
hence = 2t + λ/2
At the point of contact t = 0,
the path difference is, which is condition for minimum intensity. Thus the central
spot is dark.
The condition for maximum is
2t + λ/2 = nλ
2t = ( )
where
And the condition for dark fringe is
2t + λ/2 = ( )
2t = nλ where n=0, 1, 2, 3 ….
Diameter of the bright and the dark rings :

R (R-t)

From diagram , Using Pythagoras theorem

(R-t)2 + r2 = R2

R2 + t2 -2Rt + r2 = R2

If t is small t2 can be neglected compared with 2Rt

2Rt = rn2 ( since we considering nth ring)
t=
substituting the value of ‘t’ for bright ring diameter
2t = ( )

( )=( )
If
( )
√( ) √( ))
Thus the diameters of the bright rings are proportional to the square roots of odd natural
numbers as (2n - 1) is an odd number.
Similarly substituting for 't' for a dark ring
2

If
 = √
Thus diameter of dark rings is propotional to square root of natural numbers
Determination of wavelength λ
Consider diameter of nth dark ring is
For (n+p) dark ring , the diameter is D2(n+p) = 4(n+p)λR
Substitute D2(n+p) - values then
2
D (n+p) - = 4(n+p)λR -
2
D (n+p) - = 4pλR
 ( )
Wavelength ( )
( )
Radius of curvature (R) =

Determination of refractive index of given medium (µ)

Let be the diameter of the nth ring in presence of some medium of refractive index µ then
= /µ

Similarly for (n+p) ring , ( ) = D2(n+p)/ µ

( )
Substitute above 2 values then ( )- =

( )
Therefore
( )

1.2.1 Introduction

The wave nature of light further confirmed by optical phenomenon known as Diffraction. The
word diffraction is derived from the latin word Diffractus which means to break into pieces.

Hence , condition for bending of light is λ

Diffraction is “Bending of light at the edges of obstacle whose size is comparable to

wavelength of light”.

According to Huygens wave theorey , “Every point on a wavefront is a source of secondary

wavelets spread out in all directions”.
 INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION

1. It is due to the superposition of two or more 1. It is due to superposition of secondary wavelets

waves coming from two coherent sources. coming from different parts of same wave front.

2. All the bright & dark fringes have equal 2. The width of the central bright fringe is
width. maximum.

3. All the bright fringes are in same intensity . 3. The intensity of bright fringes are decrease with
increase its order.
4. The region of dark fringes are perfectly dark.
4. The region of dark fringes are not perfectly dark.
5. Condition for bright fringes is path difference
& 5. Condition for maxima is path difference
For dark fringes ( ) ( ) &
For minima .
1.2.2 Difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction

Fresnel diffraction Fraunhoffer diffraction

1. Source and screen are at finite distances 1. Source and screen are at infinite distances
from slit. from slit.

2. Incident wavefront on the aperture is 2. Incident wavefront on the aperture is plane

either spherical or cylindrical. wavefront .

3. The diffracted wavefront is either spherical

or cylindrical. 3. The diffracted wavefront is plane wavefront
.
4. No lens are required to study this
diffraction 4. lenses are required to study this diffraction

5. Mathematical treatment is complicated. 5. Mathematical treatment is easy.

1.2.3 Fraunhoffer diffraction due to single slit

Let a parallel beam produced by lens L1 of monochromatic light of wavelength l be

incident normally upon a narrow slit of width AB = e, placed perpendicular to
the plane of paper. Let the diffracted light be focused by a convex lens L2 on a
screen XY placed in the focal plane of lens. The diffraction pattern obtained on the
screen consists of a central bright band, having alternate dark and weak bright bands
of decreasingintensity on both sides.
Explanation:
In terms of wave theory, a plane wave front is incident normally on the slit AB.
According to Huygens' principle, each point in AB sends over secondary wavelets in all
directions. The rays proceeding in the same directions as the incident rays are focused
at O; while those diffracted through an angle are focused at P. Let us find out the
resultant intensity at P.
 Let AN be perpendicular to BN. As the optical paths from plane AN to P are equal, the
path difference between the wavelets from A to B in the direction p is BN = AB sinθ = e
sinθ
Wkt the relation between path difference & phase difference is

Let the width AB of the slit be divided into n equal parts. The amplitude of the
waves from each part will be same, say equal to a. Thus, phase difference between the

waves from any two consecutive parts is = (say) -------- (1)

The resultant amplitude (using the method of vector addition ofamplitudes) at P is given
by
( )
R= ( )

Substitute equ (1) in above equation then

( )
R=
( )

R=a
( )

If n is large then ( ) small

( ) ( )
 R= a =A ( )
( )

Resultant amplitude is

Intensity (I) = R2 = A2( )2

Cases

(1) Central maxima : At central maxima , the intensity is maximum hence , resultant
amplitude will also maximum

Let R = A  ( )

Applying sin expansion then

R= ( ------)

R = A (1 -------)

The resultant amplitude is maximum if

Since λ, are constants

(2) minima : Here, the intensity is minimum so resultant amplitude is also minimum
( )
i.e; R = A this is minimum when the term ( ) is zero but ( )

sin

where n = 1,2,3,…..except 0

e .

(3) Secondary maxima : In addition to principle maxima at = 0. There are weak

secondary maxima betweenequally spaced minima. The points of secondary maxima
obtained as I = Iₒ( )

to find the position of secondary maxima differentiate above equation

 by solving then we get tan

1.2.4 Fraunhofer diffraction due to double slit

Let a parallel beam of monochromatic light of be incident normally upon to the

two slits separated by a distance ( e+d)

According to the theory of diffraction at a single slit. The amplitude R due to all thewavelets
diffracted from each slit in a dissection  is given by
( )
R=A where

The path difference between the wavelets from S1 and S2 is S2K = (e+d)sin

( )

For 2 slits ; Phase diiference ( ) ( )

The resultant amplitude at p1 is (using vector addition method )

 R2 = 4A2( ) cos2

Resultant intensity I = R2 = 4A2( ) cos2

Here A2( ) represents diffraction due to single slit

cos2 represents the interference pattern due to secondary wavelets from 2 slits .

Diffraction effect

A2( ) gives
1. Central maxima at
2. Minima at sin

e sin
3. Secondary maxima at
Interference effect
The term cos2 gives bright & dark fringes
Cond for maxima is cos2
where n = 0,1,2,3…..
( )

( )
2
Cond for minima is cos
( )
where n = 0,1,2,3…..
( )
( )
(e + d) sin ( ) .
Diffraction at N slits

An arrangement consists of large no. of parallel slits of same width and separated by
equalopaque spaces is known as diffraction grating.

If there are N slits.

The path difference between any two consecutive slits is (e d )

(e+d)sin =2

By method of vector addition ,

Resultant amplitude is R = A( )( )

Intensity I = R2 =( ) ( )

Here, the term ( ) represents intensity due to single slit

While ( ) represents intensity due to combined effects of all slits

(1) Principal maxima

When

where n =0,1,2,3….

(e+d)sin =

(e+d)sin

n =0 represents zero order maximum . For n= 1,2,3…we get first ,second, third …principal
maxima respectively .

sign represents two principle maximas of same order lying on either side of zero order
maximum.

Minima ; Minima occurs when but sin

N (e+d)sin =
N(e+d)sin θ= where m=1,2,3….(N-1).

1.2.5 Diffraction Grating Spectra

width “e” (e+d) – gratting element

Grating is defined as ,An arrangement which contains large no of slits of equal width (e) and
separated by equi distance (d) on a plane glass plate .
Generally, these gratting lines are constructed on a plane glass plate by using diamond sharp
edge .

We know that the principle maxima in a grating are formed in a direction is given by

(e + d ) sin =

Where n = order of maxima

θ = angle of diffraction

λ = wavelength of light

from above equation we conclude that

1. For a particular wavelength λ, the angle of diffraction θ is different for different orders.

2.In case of white light different wavelengths(colours) will be diffracted in different directions.

3. Longer the wavelength , greater the angle of diffraction .hence, the violet colour lies in inner
most position while red colour lies in outer most position.

4. Most of the intensity goes to zero order and rest is distributed among other orders.

5. Spectra of different orders (violet to red) are situated symmetrically on either sides of zero
order.

Maximum no of orders availablein grating

Wkt cond for principal maxima (e + d ) sin =

( )

nmax ( )

nmax ( )

1.2.6 Dispersive power of grating

The dispersive power of grating is defined as the rate of variation of angle of diffraction with
wavelength I.e; is called dispersive power

Wkt the condition for principal maximum for a wavelength λ is

( )

Differentiating above equation wrt λ then

( )

( )

Conclusions ;

1. Dispersive power is proportional to order n

2. Dispersive power is inversely proportional to grating element (e+d).

3. Dispersive power is inversely proportional to cos .

Resolving power of grating

The resolving power of a grating is defined as the capacity to form separate diffraction
maxima of twowave lengths which are very close to each other

Let A B be a plane grating having grating element (e + d ) and N be the total no of slits.

let a beam of wavelengths λ and ( λ + dλ) is normally incident on the grating let P1 is the nth
primary maximum of wavelength λ at an angle of diffraction θn and P2 is the nth primary
maximum of wavelength

λ+dλ at an angle of diffraction (θn+dθn)

According to Rayleigh’s criterion, the two wave lengths will be resolved if the
principlemaximum of one falls on the first minimum of the other.

The principle maximum of λ in the direction θn is (e + d ) sin θn = nλ --------(1)

 The wave length (λ + dλ) form its nth primary maxima in the direction (θn + dθn ) is

(e + d ) sin(θn + dθn ) = n(λ + dλ ) -------------(2)

The first minimum of wave length λ from in the direction (θn + dθn ) is

N (e + d ) sin(θn + dθn ) = (nN +1)λ -------(3)

Multiply equation (2) with N then

N (e + d ) sin(θn + dθn ) = nN (λ + dλ) -----------(4)

From (3) &(4)

Nn(λ + dλ) = (nN +1)λ

nNλ + nNdλ = nNλ + λ

nNdλ = λ

( ) θ
From (1)

( )

1.3.1 Introduction

Interference and diffraction are the phenomenon which confirmed the wave nature of
light. Butthe phenomenon could not establish whether light waves are longitudinal (or)
transverse.
When the phenomenon of polarization was discovered it was established that light
waves are transverse in nature.
Polarization is a property of waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations. In
a transverse wave , if all the vibrations are confined in a single direction, it is said to be
polarized.
Polarization: It is the process of converting ordinary light into polarized light.

Polarized light: The light which has acquired the property of one sidedness is called
polarizedlight.
 When a ordinary light is passed through a pair of tourmaline crystal plates with their
planes parallel to each other, then the maximum intensity is obtained. When their
planes perpendicular to each other, the intensity is zero. This shows that light is a
transverse wave.
Plane polarized light: When the vibrations of light are confined along a single direction, the
light is said to be plane polarized light. (Eighter in the direction along the plane of the paper
(or)in the direction along the perpendicular to the plane of the paper)

Unpolarized light : Unpolarized light (or) ordinary light has vibrations both parallel and

perpendicularto the plane of the paper

Partially polarized light : If the linearly polarized light contains small additional component of
unpolarisedlight it becomes partially plane polarized light

1.3.2 Types of polarization of light

Plane of polarization ;

Light is an electromagnetic wave, i.e. a transverse sinusoidally varying electric field

whose direction, represented by vector E, is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
the wave. If the orientation of E (q in Fig 1) remains fixed as the wave moves forward, the
light is plane-polarized. The plane of polarization is the plane containing E and the direction
of propagation.

Natural or unpolarized light from an ordinary source such as a discharge lamp

consists of the total output from a very large number of randomly oriented atomic emitters.
Each excited atom radiates a linearly polarized wave train for ~ 10 -8 s and new wave trains
are constantly emitted so that the overall polarization changes in a completely random
fashion, equivalent to q in Fig 1 varying randomly on a 10 -8 s timescale.

Circular polarization.
The plane polarized light represented in Fig 1 can be described by the equation
E = Eo sin ꞷt
where ω = angular frequency, t = time, Eo = amplitude. E can be resolved into perpendicular
components along y and x:

Ex  E0 sin t  cos ; E y  E0 sin t  sin

Conversely, if we originally had two separate beams polarized along x and y, we could add
them to produce a resultant:
( )1/2
= [ (Eo cos θ)2 + (Eo sin θ)2]1/2 sin ꞷt
= Eo sin ꞷt
Suppose we have two plane polarized beams of equal amplitudes, with electric vectors along
y and x, and differing in phase by π/2 then
 Ex  E0 sin t.....

Ex  E0 sin (t + π/2) = Eo cos ꞷt

Resultant E ( )1/2
= [ (Eo cos θ)2 + (Eo sin θ)2]1/2 sin ꞷt
= Eo sin ꞷt
The resultant light is said to be circularly polarized. Note that two plane polarized beams
represented by Ex  E0 sin t and Ey = Eo cos wt
Would add to produce a circularly polarized beam with E vector rotating in a anti clock wise
direction . By convention the two senses of circular polarization are called right handed. If Eo
rotates clockwise when viewed against the direction of propogation and left handed if E o
rotates anti clock wise .

Elliptical polarization
Two beams plane polarized In perpendicular directions are π/2 out of phase but unequal in
amplitude i.e; ( Ex Ey) can be represented as and
When these are combined then

[ ] [ ]

Which is equation of ellipse whose major and minor axis are coincide with OX and OY

Here both magnitude and directions are vary with time

Two perpendicular plane polarized beams out of phase by an orbitary angle δ can be written as
Ex=Ea sin ꞷt and Ey = Eb sin (ꞷt + δ)
Eliminating ‘t’ from these equations shows the resultant vibrations traces out of an ellipse
whose major and minor axis doesnot coincidence .
Production of polarization by plane polarized light is discussed below. Polarization by Reflection
(Brewster’s law)

Brewster observed that For a particular angle of incidence (known as angle of polarization θB) the
reflected light is completely polarized while refracted light is partially polarized.

Brewster proved that “The tangent of angle of polarization is equal to refractive index µ of that
medium”.

θB

This law is known as Brewster’s law

Brewster also proved that “ The reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other” .

Proof: From snell’s law ------- (1)

From Brewster’s law µ ------(2)

From (1) &(2)

Sin r = cos θB = sin (90ᵒ- θB )

r = 90ᵒ- θB  r + θB = 90ᵒ

Polarization by refraction (pile of plates)

 We know that when unpolarized light is incident at polarizing angle the reflected light is
completely plane polarized and transmitted light contains a greater proportion of light vibrating
parallel to the plane of incidence. if the process of reflection at polarizing angle is repeated using
no. of plates all inclined at polarizing angle, finally the transmitted light become s purely plane
polarized. Such an arrangement is known as pile of plates.

Polarization by Double refraction (Birefringence)

When a beam of ordinary un polarized light is passed through a calcite crystal, the
refracted light split into two refracted rays .this phenomenon is called double refraction.

Among the two rays one which always obey the ordinary laws of refraction and havingvibrations
perpendicular to the principle section is known as ordinary ray and The other whichdo not obey

general laws of refraction and having vibrations in the principle section is called extraordinary
ray . The crystals showing this phenomenon are known as doubly refracting crystals or
Birefringentcrystals.

 Nicol’s Prism

Nicol’s prism works on the principal of “Double refraction”

When the ordinary light is transmitted through a calcite crystal, it splits into ordinary and
extraordinary rays. Nicol eliminated the ordinary ray by utilizing the phenomenon of total internal
reflection at Canada balsam layer.Hence the emergent ray is E-ray only .

Construction

A calcite crystal whose length is three times of its width is taken .The end facesof this crystal are
grounded in such a way that the angle in the principle section becomes 68 0 and 1120 .Then
calcite crystal cut into two pieces . The cut surfaces are grounded and polished optically flat and
then cemented together by Canada balsam. The refractive index of Canada balsam lies between
 refractive indices of O-ray and E-ray.

µo = 1.65
µcb = 1.55
µe = 1.48
Working : When an ordinary beam of light incident on the Nicol prism, it split into ordinary
plane polarized light and extraordinary plane polarized light. From the values of refractive indices
the Canada balsam acts as a rarer medium for ordinary ray and denser medium for extraordinary
ray. Moreover the dimensions of the crystal are so chosen that the angle of incidence of ordinary
ray at the calcite-Canada balsam surface become grater than the corresponding critical angle (69 o)
.Under these conditions the ordinary ray under go total internal reflection and is eliminated. Only
extraordinary transmitted.

( )

In order to produce and analyse the plane polarised light, we arrange two nicol prisms
1. When a beam of unpolarised light is incident on the nicol prism, emergent beam from the prism is
obtained as plane polarised, and which has vibrations parallel to the principal section.
This prism is therefore known as polariser.
2. If this polarised beam falls on another parallel nicol prism P2, whose principal section is parallel to
that of P1, then the incident beam will behave as E-ray inside the nicol prism P2 and gets completely
transmitted through it which has maximum intensity.
3. Now the nicol’s prism P2 is rotated about its axis then emergent light decreases and becomes
zero at 90ᵒ rotation.
4. In this position, the E-ray becomes perpendicular to principal section of Nicol’s prism P2.
5. Hence this E-ray behaves as a O-ray for prism P2 and it is total internal reflected by Canada
balsam layer so that no light is emitted by prism P2.
Thus , the prism P2 analysis the polarized light by rotating about an axis.
6. If the nicol prism P2 is further rotated about its axis, the intensity of the light emerging from it
increases and becomes maximum when prism P2 is parallel to prism P1.
Hence, the nicol prisms P1 and P2 acts as a Polariser and Analyser respectively.
1.3.4 Quarter wave & Half wave plates
Wave plates
A waveplate works by shifting the phase between two perpendicular polarization components of
the light wave. A typical waveplate is simply a birefringent crystal with a carefully chosen orientation
and thickness. The crystal is cut into a plate, with the orientation of the cut chosen so that the optic
axis of the crystal is parallel to the surfaces of the plate. This results in two axes in the plane of the
cut: the ordinary axis, with index of refraction no, and the extraordinary axis, with index of
refraction ne. The ordinary axis is perpendicular to the optic axis. The extraordinary axis is parallel to
the optic axis. For a light wave normally incident upon the plate, the polarization component along
the ordinary axis travels through the crystal with a speed vo = c/no, while the polarization
component along the extraordinary axis travels with a speed ve = c/ne. This leads to a phase
difference between the two components as they exit the crystal. When ne < no, as in calcite, the
extraordinary axis is called the fast axis and the ordinary axis is called the slow axis. For ne > no the
situation is reversed.
Half wave plate :

The half wave plate can be used to rotate the polarization state of a plane polarized light as shown in
Figure 1.
Suppose a plane-polarized wave is normally incident on a wave plate, and
the plane of polarization is at an angle q with respect to the fast axis, as
shown. After passing through the plate, the original plane wave has been
rotated through an angle 2q.

A half-wave plate is very handy in rotating the plane of polarization from

a polarized laser to any other desired plane (especially if the laser is too large to rotate). Most large
ion lasers are vertically polarized. To obtain horizontal polarization, simply place a half-wave plate
in the beam with its fast (or slow) axis 45° to the vertical. The l/2 plates can also change left
circularly polarized light into right circularly polarized light or vice versa. The thickness of half
waveplate is such that the phase difference is π/2.

Quarter wave plate :

Quarter wave plate are used to turn plane-polarized light into

circularly polarized light and vice versa. To do this, we must orient the
wave plate so that equal amounts of fast and slow waves are excited. We
may do this by orienting an incident plane-polarized wave at 45° to the
fast (or slow) axis, as shown in Figure 2. When a l/4 plate is double
passed, i.e., by mirror reflection, it acts as a l/2 plate and rotates the plane of polarization to a certain
angle, i.e., 90°. This scheme is widely used in isolators, Q-switches, etc.

The thickness of the quarter waveplate is such that the phase difference is 1/4 wavelength (l/4, Zero
order) or certain multiple of 1/4-wavelength [(2n+1)l/4, multiple order].
1.4 Question bank

1.4.1 Problems
1. The ratio of intensity of maxima and minima of interference fringes is 25:9. Determine the ratio
between the amplitudes of two interference beams
Ans ; 4:1
2. In young’s double slit experiment , the screen is placed at a distance of 1m from slits. The slits are
2mm apart and are illuminated by the light of wavelength 589nm. Calculate the fringe width.
Ans ; 0.2945mm
3. In young’s double slit experiment ,the distance between the slits is 0.5mm and the distance of the
screen from coherent sources is 50cm .if the fringe width is 0.05cm then find the λ of light.
Ans ; 500 nm
4. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 5890 Ao is incident on a glass plate of refractive index 1.5
such that the angle of refraction into the plate is 600. Calculate the smallest thickness of the plate
which will make it appear dark by reflection. Ans ; 392.6
nm
5. Calculate the smallest thickness of a soap film ( =1.463) that will result in constructive
Interference in the reflected light, if the film is illuminated normally with light whose wavelength is
6000 Ao Ans ; 102.5nm
6. In Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of 15th ring was found to be 0.59 cm and that of 5th ring
0.336 cm. The radius of curvature of the lens is 100 cm. Find the wavelength of light.
Ans ; (588nm)
7. In Newton’s rings experiment, the diameter of the 10th ring changes from 1.40 cm to 1.27cm when
a liquid is introduced between the lens and the plate. Calculate the refractive index of the liquid.
Ans ; 1.2152
8. A parallel beam of sodium light is incident on a plane transmission grating having 4250 lines per cm
and a second order spectral line is observed at an angle of 300. Calculate the λ of light .
Ans ; 588.2nm
9. How many orders will be visible, if the wavelength of light is 5000 A0. Given that the number of
lines per cm on grating is 6655. Ans ; 3
10. A diffraction grating having 4000 lines/cm is illuminated normally by light of wave length 5000A 0.
Calculate its resolving power in the third order spectrum.
Ans ; 12000
11. A grating of width 2inches is ruled width 15000 lines per inch. Find the smallest wavelength
separation that can be resolved in the second order at a mean wavelength of 500nm
Ans ; 0.083Aᵒ
12. Calculate the thickness of a quarter wave plate for a monochromatic light of wave length 600 nm,
if the refractive indices of ordinary and extraordinary rays in the medium are 1.5442 and 1.5533
respectively
Ans ; 0.0165mm
13. Find the minimum thickness of half wave and quarter wave plates for a light beam ( = 589.3nm)
if =1.65833 and =1.48640. Ans ; 0.001713mm
14. The refractive index of calcite is 1.658 for ordinary ray and 1.486 for extraordinary ray. A slice
having thickness of 0.9 x 10-4cm is cut from this crystal. For what wave lengths, this slice acts as (a)
quarter wave plate (b) half wave plate? Ans ; 619.2nm, 309.6nm.
15. A glass plate with refractive index 1.54 is used as a polariser. find the angle of polarization. Also
find the angle of refraction. Ans ; r=33,Ip=57
16. For a flint glass, the angle of polarization is 62ᵒ21’. Calculate the refractive index of flint glass .
Ans ; µ=1.9128.

1.4.2 Short answer questions

1. What is superposition principal?

2. How can newton rings experiment be used to determine refractive index of liquid?

3. Write a few applications of interference?

4. Give the conditions for producing good interference fringes?

5. Explain why dark ring is formed at center in newton ring experiment?

6. Define interference of light. what are the types of interference?

7.What is mean by coherent? why two independent sources can not produce an interference.

8. What is mean by diffraction? what are the types of the diffraction?

9.Give the conditions for path difference and phase difference in interference and diffraction?

10.Define dispersive power of grating?

11. Define a quarter wave plate? Deduce its thickness for given wavelength in terms of refractive
indices.

12. Define half wave plate? Deduce its thickness for given wavelength in terms of refractive indices.

13.Explain o-ray and e-ray?

14.Explain polarization by double refraction?

15.State Brewster’s law ?

16. What is meant by polarization?

1.4.3 Essay questions

1. Explain with neat sketch how the interference formed in thin film.
2. Explain the formation of newtons rings with suitable theory.
3. Determine the wavelength of the light source and refractive index of liquid using Newtons rings.
4. Explain the formation of colours in thin films.
5. Obtain the conditions for Interference of light
6. Describe the fraunhofer diffraction due to a single slit and deduce the positions of maxima and
minima .
7. Explain with neat diagram, how fraunhofer diffraction and interference effect takes place in
double slit.
8. Discuss the fraunhofer diffraction due to N-slit and obtain the intensity distribution.
9. Give the construction and theory for diffraction grating and explain the formation of spectra.
10.Obtain the formula for the resolving power of grating.
11. Define dispersive power of grating and obtain an expression for it.
12. How is diffraction different from interference .
13. Describe the construction and working of Nicol prism. Mention its uses.