Industrial Chemistry Notes; BS-III & M.

Sc(Pass)Final; Course # CHEM-508/508 P

Industrial
Chemistry
Chapter-1

Fundamentals of Chemical Industry

DEFINITION OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

 “Industrial chemistry as the branch of chemistry which applies physical and chemical
procedures towards the transformation of natural raw materials and their derivatives to
products that are of benefit to humanity”.
 Industrial chemistry: Manufacture of Chemical Compounds on commercial scale
 Industrial chemistry started when a need to know how various chemicals are produced in much
more than the laboratory scale, arose.
 Chemistry is the backbone of all industries
 N2 + 3H2  2NH3 (Ammonia used for manufacture of Fertilizer)
(Fertilizer is added to soil to makeup deficiency of essential elements N,P,K,S,Mg,Ca)
 Chemical Industry produces 70000 different types of products that are used by individuals as
well as other industries
 Classical chemistry: classical analysis also termed wet chemical analysis consist of those
analytical techniques that use no mechanical instrument.
 A FACTORY is defined as a building, or a group of buildings wherein goods are manufactured
through a machine.
 INDUSTRY is defined as the branch of economics wherein raw materials, goods, and services are
produced. or collection of similar kinds of factories or manufacturers
 A COMPANY is always a part of an industry which comprises many other companies that are
involved in manufacture of similar products and services.

 IMPORTANCE OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

Chemical Industries are the prime factors to convert the raw materials into desired products
that we use in our day-to-day life. This has brought a tremendous change in the way the things
operate. It is very important for us to understand the importance of the chemical industry which
has touched all our facets of life like Agriculture, Environment, Food, Hygiene, Décor, and
Transportation …etc. It has also significantly used in re-cycling industries to curb the usage of
virgin products. Re-cycling helps a lot in utilizing the waste materials, and gives one more life-
cycle for the products.

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Chemicals play a major role in our food. The preservatives, taste enhancers and flavours helps
the food to be palatable and increase the shelf life. Food Industry thrives for the reason, that the
preservatives not only help them to maintain the quality of the food, but also helps them to
import food to different parts of the world. Due to these advancements, we are able to enjoy
fruits, canned food products, and ready-to-eat food products across the world.
In polymer and plastics: More than 80% of the chemical industry concentrates on producing
polymers, and plastics. They are not only used in packing, but also in numerous other things, like
wiring, furniture, clothing, home décor, prosthesis and electronics. PVC piping, water tanks,
huge storage containers are made out of plastics.
Fertilizers, and pesticides aids in the agriculture and development. The green revolution has
happened only due to the advancement of chemical industry in India. The fertilizers and
pesticides, not only increase the yield of the crop, but prevent from pest attacks. Apart from in-
house usage of food products within our country, we are also exporting a lot of grains, fruits,
flowers and ornamental stem to various parts of the world. The GDP of the country drastically
increases with the industry.
Pharma industries and life saving drugs are the fastest growing industry in Pakistan. Our
country invites a lot of people for medical tour. Numerous laboratories are also set-up to study
various drug for the endemic and epidemic diseases. Before these laboratories in our country,
we have been exporting a lot of chemicals, which was expensive and mostly unaffordable for a
large sector of people.
Toiletries like soaps, scents, perfumes, deodorant are personnel products that we use every
day, and w do not compromise on it. From the status of luxury products , it has come to a level
of essentials. Other products like mosquito repeller, detergents, cleaning agents have been
tremendously increased.
Advanced researches like bio-engineering, mutation, artificial human organ production and
genetic-reengineering are made possible in India, only with the help of the proper chemical
industries. India is taking a giant leap in research in these sectors.
Chemicals and Automobile Industry: Car manufacturing consumes a significant amount of
chemical products in the form of plastics, rubber, fibers, and paint. Every automobile contains
over $2,000 worth of chemical processing and products. Most of the major Diversified chemical
firms serve the automotive sector in the areas of specialized coatings and plastics.

Major Industries of Pakistan

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Classification of the Manufacturing Industry

 The manufacturing industry is the area of focus in the study of this module. Manufacturing
produces manufactured goods. This makes it distinct from other sectors like agriculture which
also produce goods. In manufacturing, materials are transformed into other more valuable
materials.

We define manufacturing industry as follows:

Manufacturing industry is a compartment of industry or economy which is concerned with the

production or making of goods out of raw materials by means of a system of organized labour.

Manufacturing industry can be classified into two major categories namely,

1. Heavy industry 2. Light industry

 Capital-intensive industries are classified as heavy while labour intensive industries are classified
as light industries.
 Light industries are easier to relocate than heavy industries and require less capital investment
to build.
 Using the above classification criteria, examples of heavy industries include those that produce
industrial machinery, vehicles and basic chemicals.
 Other measures used to classify industries include the weight or volume of products handled
and weight per cost of production. For example the weight of steel produced per dollar is more

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than the weight per dollar of a drug. In this case, steel industry is a heavy industry whereas drug
manufacture is a light industry.
 Sometimes governments define heavy industry in terms of its impact on the environment. Many
pollution control laws target heavy industries which in most cases pollute more than light
industries. Therefore, pulp and paper industry is a heavy industry since its contribution to
pollution is enormous.
 Both inorganic and organic chemical industry can be either heavy or light industry. For example
the pharmaceutical industry which is basically organic is light industry. Petroleum refining is
organic but heavy industry. Iron and steel industry is inorganic and heavy industry.


Heavy Industry Light Industry

Manufactures heavy products Manufactures light products

Sells to businesses or governments Sells to consumers directly

Heavy capital investments required Require less capital investment

Specialized workforce Skilled labor

Normally, located far off from crowded Operate near residential areas and public
places places

High barriers to entry Low barriers to entry

More pollutive More pollutive

Business oriented Consumer oriented

High cost Less cost

Big Equipments Small Equipments

Examples: Petroleum Refining, Steel

Industry, oil refining, Chemicals, Examples: Electrical goods, Clothing, food
Engineering, Ship building, Iron Industry, processing, toys, drugs
Paper Industry

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THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

 The chemical industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals. Central to
the modern world economy, it converts raw materials (oil, natural gas, air, water, metals, and
minerals) into more than 70,000 different products.
 The plastics industry contains some overlap, as most chemical companies produce plastic as well
as other chemicals.
 The chemical industry can also be classified according to the type of main raw materials used
and/or type of principal products made. We therefore have industrial inorganic chemical
industries and industrial organic chemical industries. Industrial inorganic chemical Industries
extract inorganic chemical substances, make composites of the same and also synthesize
inorganic chemicals.
 Heavy industrial organic chemical industries produce petroleum fuels, polymers, petrochemicals
and other synthetic materials, mostly from petroleum.
 Light organic industries produce specialty chemicals which include pharmaceuticals, dyes,
pigments and paints, pesticides, soaps and detergents, cosmetic products and miscellaneous
products.

Industrial Revolution
 One of the first chemicals to be produced in large amounts through industrial process was
sulfuric acid
 In the early 18th century, cloth was bleached by treating it with stale urine or sour milk and
exposing it to sunlight for long periods of time, which created a severe bottleneck in production.
 Soda ash was used since ancient times in the production of glass, textile, soap, and paper, and
the source of the potash had traditionally been wood ashes in Western Europe.

Industrial plant location

 The establishment of an industry at a particular place

 The geographical location of any industrial plant has strong influence on the success
of project
 Plant should be located where the minimum cost of production and distributation can
be obtained
 Plant location refers to choice of a region and the selection of a particular site for
setting up a business or factory.
 Alfred Weber – German – during 1940's -Least-Cost Theory (industry is located
where the transportation costs of raw materials and final product)

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Factors affecting location & site decisions

• Availability of raw material
• Nearness to the potential market
• Near to the source of operating requirements like electricity, disposal of waste, drainage
facilities.
• Supply of labor (Non-Union Labor)
• Transport & communication facilities
• Integration with other group of companies
• Suitability of land & climate
• Availability of housing, other amenities & services
• Local building & planning regulations
• Safety requirements
• Others like low interest on loans, special grants, living standards

CHEMICAL PROCESSES
 Every industrial process is designed to produce a desired product from a variety of starting raw
materials using energy through a succession of treatment steps integrated in a rational fashion.
The treatments steps are either physical or chemical in nature.

Energy is an input to or output in chemical processes. The layout of a chemical process indicates areas
where:

 raw materials are pre-treated

 conversion takes place
 separation of products from by-products is carried out
 refining/purification of products takes place
 entry and exit points of services such as cooling water and steam

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Units that make up a chemical process

 A chemical process consists of a combination of chemical reactions such as synthesis,
calcination, ion exchange, electrolysis, oxidation, hydration and operations based on physical
phenomena such as evaporation, crystallization, distillation and extraction
 A chemical process is therefore any single processing unit or a combination of processing units
used for the conversion of raw materials through any combination of chemical and physical
treatment changes into finished products.

Difference between unit operation and unit process

 In unit operations there where changing in physical state or in unit operations there are changes
in phase and in the unit process there where changing in chemical formula.
 Suppose we evaporate the water, the liquid state converted into the vapour phase. No change
in molecular structure. it's H2O. Is known as unit operations.
 Suppose in chemical reaction the row material converting in to the product. There where
changes in the molecular structure, changes in chemical formula. Reaction over in one step. it's
known as unit process…
 Unit operation is a physical changes while unit process is a chemical changes. Unit operation is
just primary while unit process is secondary. Both the process is transformatory activities.
 Unit operation involves in physical changes only and unit process involves in both physical and
chemical changes
 Unit process provide basic information regarding the reaction temperature, pressure, exact of
chemical conversion, yield of product, nature of reactant, whether the reaction endothermic or
exothermic, type of catalyst

UNIT OPERATION

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The term “unit operation” has been used in the chemical industry and chemical engineering textbooks
for a long time to refer to the various separation processes for the recovery and purification of products.
So named is because that these separation processes can be viewed as separate and distinct steps or
units in a production process, and a given unit operation will have the same principles and basic
operations in different production processes. Nowadays, separation processes are more widely used
than unit operations, especially in biotechnology. Among the common separation processes are
evaporation, distillation, absorption, crystallization, filtration, centrifugation, drying and membrane
processes. Separation processes are primarily based on physical means and some on physico-chemical
means. This chapter is to introduce the general concepts of separation technology and some common
separation processes in chemical and bioprocess technology.

General concepts and characteristics of separation processes

Separation of components in a mixture is always based on the difference in a physical property among
the mixture components. Based on the nature or physical mechanism of separation, various separation
processes can be classified into,

1) Mechanical separations: separations based on size and/or density differences of different

components in a mixture, for separation of solid from liquid (e.g. filtration and centrifugation).

2) Diffusional separations (mass transfer operations): separations based on molecular movement

toward a favorable phase, for separation of dissolved components (e.g. distillation, absorption,
extraction). (Note: Mass transfer is the transfer of solute molecules from one point to anther or from
one phase to another.)

3) Membrane separations: use of a semipermeable membrane to separate molecules with difference in

size or some other properties.

Some common examples of unit operation or separation processes

Agitation Dispersion Heat transfer

Atomization Distillation Humidification
Centrifuging Evaporation Mixing
Classification Filtration Pumping
Crushing Flotation Settling
Decanting Gas absorption Size reduction

EVAPORATION

Definition: Evaporation, process by which an element or compound transitions from its liquid state to its
gaseous state below the temperature at which it boils

 The general definition of evaporation is the loss or disappearance of a liquid due to vaporization.
 In the process industry, evaporation process is to concentrate a solution (of a non-volatile
solute).
 To separate a volatile solvent from a non-volatile solute, by vaporizing and removing part of the
solvent (mostly water).
 In an evaporation process, the liquid solution is usually heated to boiling by steam.

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 The rate of evaporation is proportional to the rate of heat transfer. Therefore, the major part of
most evaporators is similar to a heat exchanger.
 Evaporation decrease the temperature of liquid
 Evaporation is cooling processes
 Evaporation happens below a liquid’s boiling point

Example applications of evaporation:

The concentration of aqueous solutions of sodium hydroxide, sodium chloride, glycerol, sugar and glue
and milk. In these cases, the concentrated solution is the desired product and the vaporized water is
discarded.

In a few cases such as the production of solids-free water for boiler and drinking water from sea water,
the vaporized water is condensed as the product.

Evaporation is often connected to, or combined with crystallization to attain a solid product.

CRYSTALLIZATION

Crystallization is the process by which solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly organized
into a structure known as a crystal.

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Crystallization is the formation of solid particles within a homogenous phase, usually a liquid solution.

(The crystallization process in a gas phase is known as sublimation.)

It is a solid-liquid separation process, which usually occurs at late stage of product processing. After the
process, the crystals are usually dried as the final product for packaging.

An important application of crystallization is in the production of sucrose (cane sugar) from sugar cane.

Crystallization is a process of mass transfer of the solute from the liquid phase to the surface of crystal
particles.

Crystallization is the reverse process of solution, to dissolve a solid in a liquid.

To crystallize the solute in a liquid solution, the solution needs to be concentrated to supersaturation.

FILTRATION AND CENTRIFUGATION (solid-liquid separation)

FILTRATION Definition: the process in which solid particles in a liquid or gaseous fluid are removed by
the use of a filter medium that permits the fluid to pass through but retains the solid particles.

CENTRIFUGATION Definition: Centrifugation is a method of separating molecules having different

densities by spinning them in solution around an axis (in a centrifuge rotor) at high speed.

Filtration versus centrifugation:

1) Both belong to mechanical separation, solid from liquid.

2) Filtration, based on particle size.

3) Centrifugation, based on density difference (can be used for liquid-liquid separation).

4) Filters are usually simpler and cheaper than centrifuges.

5) Centrifuges can be used for particles which are difficult to filter, e.g., very small and compressible
ones.

FILTRATION CENTRIFUGATION
The act or process of removing something The process of separating lighter portions of a
unwanted from a liquid. solution or a mixture.
The gravitational force is used in filtration. The centrifugal force is used in centrifugation.
Sieves or perforated layer or strainer or media or Centrifuge machine and centrifuge tubes are
physical membrane or filter funnel or their used.
combinations can be used.
Large particles in the mixture cannot pass The solution mixture is centrifuged to force the
through the mesh/perforated structure of the heavier/denser solid to the bottom, where it
filter while fluid and small particles pass under
frequently creates a firm cake The liquid above
the force of gravity becoming filtrate this cake can be removed or decanted. This
method is particularly useful for separating
solids which do not filter well
Simple filtration techniques may need a lot of Separation occurs very quickly compared to
time to separate desired material and as a filtration techniques. Therefore, centrifugation is

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result, filtration is less efficient than more efficient than filtration.

centrifugation.

Distillation (fractional distillation)

Distillation (fractional distillation) is the separation of components in a liquid mixture by a process

involving partial vaporization. Separation of the constituents is based on differences in volatility (or
vapor pressure, boiling point

Distillation refers to the selective boiling and subsequent condensation of a component in a liquid
mixture.

Distillation is one of the most important separation processes in chemical and other process
industries. For example, oil refining: petroleum into several fractions such as light gases, naphtham,
gasoline, kerosene, fuel oils, lubricating oils and asphalt); Distillation of liquid air to produce pure
oxygen for use in steel-making, in rockets, and medical applications; Ethanol (alcohol and beer)
separation from fermentation medium.

Simple Distillation
 Simple distillation involves heating the liquid mixture to the boiling point and immediately
condensing the resulting vapors.
 This method is only effective for mixtures wherein the boiling points of the liquids are
considerably different (a minimum difference of 25oC).
 The purity of the distillate (the purified liquid) is governed by Raoult’s law.

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Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation is often used to separate mixtures of liquids that have similar boiling points. It
involves several vaporization-condensation steps (which takes place in a fractioning column). This
process is also known as rectification.

Steam Distillation
 Steam distillation is often used to separate heat-sensitive components in a mixture.
 This is done by passing steam through the mixture (which is slightly heated) to vaporize
some of it. The process establishes a high heat-transfer rate without the need for high
temperatures.
 The resulting vapor is condensed to afford the required distillate.
 The process of steam distillation is used to obtain essential oils and herbal distillates from
several aromatic flowers/herbs.

Vacuum Distillation
 Vacuum distillation is ideal for separating mixtures of liquids with very high boiling points.
 In order to boil these compounds, heating to high temperatures is an inefficient method.
Therefore, the pressure of the surroundings is lowered instead.
 The lowering of the pressure enables the component to boil at lower temperatures. Once the
vapor pressure of the component is equal to the surrounding pressure, it is converted into a
vapor.
 These vapors are then condensed and collected as the distillate. The vacuum distillation
method is also used to obtain high-purity samples of compounds that decompose at high
temperatures.

Important Applications of distillation

The method of distillation has a considerable history, dating back to 3000 BC. Evidence suggests
that the distillation of alcohol was developed as far back as the 9th century. Some important
applications of distillation are listed below.

 Distillation plays an important role in many water purification techniques. Many desalination
plants incorporate this method in order to obtain drinking water from seawater.
 Distilled water has numerous applications, such as in lead-acid batteries and low-volume
humidifiers.
 Many fermented products such as alcoholic beverages are purified with the help of this
method.
 Many perfumes and food flavorings are obtained from herbs and plants via distillation.
 Oil stabilization is an important type of distillation that reduces the vapor pressure of the
crude oil, enabling safe storage and transportation.
 Air can be separated into nitrogen, oxygen, and argon by employing the process of cryogenic
distillation.
 Distillation is also employed on an industrial scale to purify the liquid products obtained from
chemical synthesis.

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Absorption

Absorption is a physical or chemical phenomenon or a process in which atoms, molecules or ions

enter some bulk phase – liquid or solid material.

Absorption (or gas absorption) is the removal of a solute (component) from its gaseous mixture by
means of a liquid which dissolves the solute gas. In most cases, the gas solute being absorbed is the
less abundant component or has a very low content in the gas phase. Absorption is more commonly
carried out in packed towers than in plate towers.

Extraction

Extraction is the process of selectively removing a compound of interest from a mixture using a
solvent.

OR

Extraction is a separation process consisting of the separation of a substance from a matrix.

Extractions are a way to separate a desired substance when it is mixed with others.

Extraction is the use of a liquid to separate a component from either a solid or a liquid solution. Here
we only consider liquid-liquid extraction (also called liquid extraction or solvent extraction).
Extraction separation of a solute from a solution is based on the difference in the solubility of solute
in two solvents.

Extraction versus distillation

 When either distillation or extraction may be used, the choice is usually distillation. In
extraction, the solvent must be recovered for reuse (usually by distillation).
 Extraction utilizes chemical difference instead of vapor pressure difference.

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 When distillation is ineffective, such as substances that cannot withstand high temperature of
distillation (e.g., penicillin).
 Extraction can separate petroleum products that have different molecular structures but about
the same boiling range.

Size Reduction

Size reduction refers to all the ways in which particles are cut or broken into smaller pieces. The
objective is to produce small particles from big ones for any of the following reasons:

1. To reduce chunks of raw materials to workable sizes e.g. crushing of mineral ore.
2. To increase the reactivity of materials by increasing the surface area.
3. To release valuable substances so that they can be separated from unwanted material.
4. To reduce the bulk of fibrous materials for easier handling.
5. To meet standard specifications on size and shape.
6. To increase particles in number for the purpose of selling.
7. To improve blending efficiency of formulations, composites e.g. insecticides, dyes, paints

Size Enlargement (Agglomeration)

Size enlargement, also referred to as agglomeration, is carried out when particles are too small for
use in a later stage of the process. For example in metal extraction, some particles may be too fine
to be fed into a blast furnace.

Purposes of size enlargement: The following are some of the purposes of size enlargement in
various industries:
1. Reduce dusting losses 2. Render particles free flowing. 3. Densify materials.
4. Prevent caking and lump formation 5. Improve appearance of products 6. Produce useful structural forms
7. Reduce handling hazards particularly with respect to irritating and obnoxious powders.
8. Provide definite quantity of units suitable for metering, dispensing and administering
9. Create uniform blends of solids which do not segregate
10. Permit control over properties of finely divided solids e.g. solubility, porosity, surface volume ratio, heat transfer
11. Separate multicomponent particle size mixtures by selective wetting and agglomeration
Mixing

Mixing is a unit operation that involves manipulation of a heterogeneous physical system with
the intent to make it more homogeneous

Classification

Chemical classification systems attempt to classify as elements or compounds according to

certain chemical functional or structural properties.

Drying of solid

Drying is the removal of the moisture content in a material. In most cases, the material being dried
is a solid and the moisture is water. Drying usually occurs at the end of a production process (for
product polishing or finishing), the dried product is ready for packaging.

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Common drying method/process: the solid to be dried is brought into contact with a stream of hot
air (drying air), which vaporizes the water in the solid and carries away the water vapor. The rate of
drying mainly depends on the humidity and flow rate of drying air, the state and content of moisture
in the solid, the drying temperature and the drying area.

Other Unit operations

Unit Operation Purpose Application

Electrostatic separation Separation of solids on the basis of the difference in electrical Mineral ore dressing
conductivity of components
Sedimentation Separation of solids from liquids mostly by gravitational Water treatment plants
forces
Crystallization Separation of solid particles from their saturated solutions Sugar manufacture
Solid–liquid extraction or Extraction of a soluble solid from its mixture with an inert Mineral ore processing
leaching solid, by use of liquid solvent in which it is soluble.
Spray drying A liquid containing a dissolved solid is sprayed and contacted Production of pigments,
with hot air which evaporates the sol- vent yielding a detergent powder, powdered
powdered product milk, synthetic resins and
Liquid – liquid or sol Separation of a liquid sol- ute from its mixture with another inorganic salts removal of
Solvent recovery,
vent extraction ‘’inert’ liquid by means of another liquid in which it is soluble naphthenic and aromatic com-
pounds from lubricating oil
Absorption Removal of a component from a gas mixture by dissolving it removal of hydrogen sulphide
in a liquid
(H2S) from hydrocarbon gases
using alkaline solutions.

UNIT PROCESSES
 Unit processes are the chemical transformations or conversions that are performed in a process.
some unit processes are given.
Examples of unit processes

Acylation Calcinations Dehydrogenation Hydrolysis

Alcoholysis Carboxylation Decomposition Ion Exchange
Alkylation Causitization Electrolysis Isomerization
Amination Combustion Esterification Neutralization
Ammonolysis Condensation Fermentation Oxidation
Aromatization Dehydration Hydrogenation Pyrolysis
Some common examples of unit processes

Acylation

Acylation is the process of adding an acyl group to a compound. The compound providing the acyl group
is called the acylating agent

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Calcinations calcination, the heating of solids to a high temperature for the purpose of removing volatile
substances, oxidizing a portion of mass, or rendering them friable. Calcination, therefore, is sometimes
considered a process of purification.

Calcination is a process of heating a substance under controlled temperature and in a controlled

environment

The process of heating a substance to a high temperature but below the melting or fusing point, causing
loss of moisture, reduction or oxidation, and dissociation into simpler substances. The term was
originally applied to the method of driving off carbon dioxide from limestone to obtain lime (calcium
oxide). Calcination is also used to extract metals from ores.

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2(g)

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction in which water is used to break down a compound; this is achieved by
breaking a covalent bond in the compound by inserting a water molecule across the bond. The
opposite of this is a dehydration-condensation reaction.

Alcoholysis

A reaction in which a chemical bond is broken by the addition of alcohol

Carboxylation

Carboxylation is a chemical reaction where a carboxylic acid functional group is introduced into a
substrate.

Decomposition

A decomposition reaction is a type of chemical reaction where one reactant yields two or more
products.

2 H2O → 2 H2 + O2

Electrolysis: Decomposing ionic compounds into their elements by passing a direct electric current
through the compound in a fluid form.

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Electro-chemical process in which current is passed between two electrodes through an ionized solution
(electrolyte) to deposit positive ions (anions) on the negative electrode (cathode) and negative ions
(cations) on the positive electrode (anode).

Ion Exchange

Process in which ions of one substance are replaced by similarly charged ions of another substance

Alkylation: Alkylation is the transfer of an alkyl group from one molecule to another

Isomerization

It is the process by which one molecule is transformed into another molecule which has exactly the
same atoms, but the atoms have a different arrangement

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Amination

Amination is the process by which an amine group is introduced into an organic molecule

Combustion

Combustion is a chemical reaction chemical that occurs between a fuel and an oxidizing agent that
produces energy, usually in the form of heat and light.

Neutralization

The reaction of an acid with a base to form a salt and water

Esterification

Carboxylic acid and an alcohol to form ester, and water is formed as a side product

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Ammonolysis

The breaking of a chemical bond with the addition of the elements of ammonia (NH2 and H) at the point
of breakage

Condensation

The act or process of condensing: such as a: a chemical reaction involving union between molecules
often with elimination of a simple molecule (as water) to form a new more complex compound of often
greater molecular weight

Fermentation

Fermentation is an enzyme catalysed process that is used to make alcohol

Oxidation

Substance that gives away electrons is oxidized. When iron reacts with oxygen it forms chemical called
rust because it has been oxidized

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Industrial Chemistry Notes; BS-III & M.Sc(Pass)Final; Course # CHEM-508/508 P

Aromatization

The conversion of aliphatic or alicyclic compounds to aromatic hydrocarbons

Dehydration

A chemical reaction in which two molecules join to form a larger one, at the same time forming a
molecule of water

Hydrogenation

The reaction in which hydrogen adds across a double or triple bond

Pyrolysis

Decomposition brought about by high temperatures. or Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition of

organic material at elevated temperatures in the absence of oxygen (or any halogen).

Polymerization reactions

For polymerisation to yield polymers with long chain (high polymers), the monomers must:

• Be polyfunctional i.e. contain at least two reactive groups

• Not give cyclic products by intramolecular ring closure because this will terminate
polymerisation. Polymerization reactions fall into two general classes:

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Industrial Chemistry Notes; BS-III & M.Sc(Pass)Final; Course # CHEM-508/508 P

1. Addition or chain polymerization involving successive stages of reaction initiation, propagation and
termination. Examples of addition polymers include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride and
polystyrene.

2. Condensation or step-reaction polymerization. This involves condensation reaction between two

polyfunctional molecules, sometimes with the elimination of a small molecule such as water. Nylon is a
condensation polymer of hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid as shown in the equation below:

H2N-(CH2)6-NH2 + HOOC-(CH2)4-COOH ----------------> H2O + -(NH-(CH2)6-NH-CO- (CH2)4)-

Fermentation is a process used to produce wine, beer, yogurt and other products. Here's a look at the
chemical process that occurs during fermentation.

Fermentation is a metabolic process in which an organism converts a carbohydrate, such as starch or

a sugar, into an alcohol or an acid. For example, yeast performs fermentation to obtain energy by
converting sugar into alcohol. Bacteria perform fermentation, converting carbohydrates into lactic acid.
The study of fermentation is called zymology.

History of Fermentation

The term "ferment" comes from the Latin word fervere, which means "to boil." Fermentation was
described by late 14th century alchemists, but not in the modern sense. The chemical process of
fermentation became a subject of scientific investigation about the year 1600.
Fermentation is a natural process. People applied fermentation to make products such as wine, mead,
cheese, and beer long before the biochemical process was understood. In the 1850s and 1860s, Louis
Pasteur became the first zymurgist or scientist to study fermentation when he demonstrated
fermentation was caused by living cells. However, Pasteur was unsuccessful in his attempts to extract
the enzyme responsible for fermentation from yeast cells. In 1897, German chemist Eduard Buechner
ground yeast, extracted fluid from them, and found the liquid could ferment a sugar solution.
Buechner's experiment is considered the beginning of the science of biochemistry, earning him the
1907 Nobel Prize in chemistry.

Examples of Products Formed by Fermentation

Most people are aware of food and beverages that are fermentation products, but may not realize many
important industrial products results from fermentation.
Beer, Wine, Yogurt, Cheese, Certain sour foods containing lactic acid, including sauerkraut, kimchi, and
pepperoni, Bread leavening by yeast, Sewage treatment, Some industrial alcohol production, such as for
biofuels, Hydrogen gas
Ethanol Fermentation: Ethanol fermentation has used the production of beer, wine, and bread. It's
worth noting that fermentation in the presence of high levels of pectin results in the production of small
amounts of methanol, which is toxic when consumed.
Yeast and certain bacteria perform ethanol fermentation where pyruvate (from glucose metabolism) is
broken into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The net chemical equation for the production of ethanol from
glucose is:

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Fermentation Facts
Fermentation is an anaerobic process, meaning it does not require oxygen in order to occur. However,
even when oxygen is abundant, yeast cells prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration, provided a
sufficient supply of sugar is available.
Fermentation occurs in the digestive system of humans and other animals.
In a rare medical condition called gut fermentation syndrome or auto-brewery syndrome, fermentation
in the human digestive tract leads to intoxication by ethanol production.
Fermentation occurs in human muscle cells. Muscles can expend ATP faster than oxygen can be
supplied. In this situation, ATP is produced by glycolysis, which does not use oxygen.
Although fermentation is a common pathway, it is not the only method used by organisms to obtain
energy anaerobically. Some systems use sulfate as the final electron acceptor in the electron transpor
Other Unit Processes
Unit process Brief description Industrial applications
Sulphonation A chemical process that in- volves introduction of Intermediates in manufacture of phenol,
sul- phonic acid group (SO2OH) or its corresponding xylene, dodecyl benzene sulphonic acid
salt or sulphonyl halide (=SO2Cl) detergent, polystyrene, naphthalene
into an organic molecule. The sulphonating agents derivatives and aliphatic sulphonated
include sulphuric acid (98%), sulphur trioxide in compounds.
water (oleum) and fuming sulphuric acid.
Esterification A chemical process in which an ester and water are Production of synthetic fibres like po-
formed when an organic radical is substituted for in a lyethylene terephthalate, manufacture of
molecule by an ionisable hydrogen of an acid. alkyl resins and polyvinyl acetate,
preparation of terpene and cellulose esters
Hydrogenation A chemical reaction of molecular hydrogen with Manufacture ammonia (see details in
another substance in the presence of a catalyst. learning activity two), manufacture of
liquid fuels, hydrogenated vegetable fats,
hydrogenation of carbohydrates to
propylene, glycol and sorbitol and many
others.
Halogenation Involves addition of one or more halogen atoms to an Chlorinated compounds are used in the
(chlorination, organic compound chlorohydrocarbons such as chloroform,
bromination ethylene chlorohydrin (freon), DDT,
and iodination) carbon tetrachloride, olefinic acids, acid
chlorides, etc.
This is the introduction of one or more nitro groups Industrial solvents, dyestuffs, explo-
Nitration (-NO2 ) into an organic compound. Monovalent sives, pharmaceuticals and as inter-
atoms or groups of atoms are replaced by the nitro mediates in the production of amines
group

THE END

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