STRUCTURE AND

WRITTEN EXPRESSION
 SESSION ONE
TENSES

MODALS

PREPOSITION

CONJUCTION

CLAUSE

2
 OVERVIEW TENSES

PRESENT PAST FUTURE PAST FUTURE

(MASA DEPAN DENGAN PERSPEKTIF
(MASA KINI) (MASA LALU) (MASA DEPAN) MASA LALU)

SIMPLE FUTURE
(akan terjadi di masa depan) PAST FUTURE
SIMPLE SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE PAST (akan terjadi di masa depan, tapi sudah lalu)
(rutinitas/kebiasaan) (terjadi di masa lalu) S + will/shall + V-inf + O + AoT, or
S + would/should + V-inf + O + AoT, or S +
S + P + O + AoT S + P + O + AoT S + is/am/are + going to + V-inf + O + AoT
was/were+ going to + V-inf + O + AoT

CONTINUOUS/ PRESENT CONTINUOUS

PAST CONTINUOUS
(sedang terjadi di masa lalu) FUTURE CONTINUOUS PAST FUTURE CONTINUOUS
PROGRESSIVE (sedang terjadi)
S + was/were + V-ing (akan sedang terjadi di masa depan) (akan sedang terjadi di masa depan, tapi sudah lalu)
(sedang) S + to be + V-ing + O +
+ O + AoT S + will/shall + be + V-ing + O + AoT S + would/should + be + V-ing + O + AoT
AoT

PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT PAST PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT PAST FUTURE PERFECT
(telah) (telah selesai) (telah selesai di masa lalu) (akan telah selesai masa depan) (akan telah selesai masa depan, tapi sudah lalu)
S + have/has+ V3+ O + AoT S + had + V3 + O + AoT S + will/shall + have + V3 + O + AoT S + would/should + have + V3 + O + AoT

PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT PAST PERFECT PAST FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
CONTINUOUS/ CONTINUOUS CONTINUOUS (akan telah berlangsung beberapa saat di masa (akan telah berlangsung beberapa saat di masa depan, tapi
(telah dilakukan, tapi belum tentu (telah berlangsung selesai di
PROGRESSIVE sudah selesai) masa lalu)
depan) sudah lalu)

(telah, tapi sedang) S + have/has been+ V-ing S + had been + V-ing +

S + will/shall + have been + V-ing + O S + would/should + have been + V-ing +
+ AoT O + AoT
+ O + AoT O + AoT

3
TENSES
 FUNCTIONS
PRESENT PAST FUTURE

(MASA KINI) (MASA LALU) (MASA DEPAN)

SIMPLE HABIT/FACTS (V1) SUDAH PASTI LAMPAU (V2) MASA DEPAN (WILL/BE GOING TO)

Today/These days Yesterday Tonight/tomorrow morning

Often/frequently/occasionally Last night/week/day/ month/year Tomorrow/the day after tomorrow
Every day/always …….years/months/days ago Next month/year/week

She didn’t bring your bag Nina will eat ice cream tomorrow
I take a bath every single day
yesterday

CONTINUOUS/ BERLANGSUNG MASA DEPAN (WILL BE)

BERLANGSUNG SEKARANG (TO BE ING)
PROGRESSIVE BERLANGSUNG LAMPAU (TO BE)
at the moment
(sedang) right now
at the moment Waktu spesifik
right now • Tomorrow at 5 am
at this time • In July next year
at this time
I am eating now
I was eating at the cafeteria this morning
Nina will be eating ice cream tomorrow at 3 am

PERFECT TELAH TERJADI (HAVE/HAS + V3) BIASANYA DIGUNAKAN UNTUK 2 KEJADIAN BIASANYA DIGUNAKAN UNTUK KEJADIAN YANG SELESAI
(telah) for/since When…. DI SATU TITIK TERTENTU DI MASA DEPAN
Before….
He have waited you since 3 pm • By this time tomorrow…./next…
They had talked this twice before they went home • By the end of this day/month…

Nina will have eaten ice cream by the time her friends do
the final exam

PERFECT CONTINUOUS/ ADA DURASI DAN MASIH BERLANGSUNG SAAT BIASANYA DIGUNAKAN UNTUK DURASI DI SATU
BIASANYA DIGUNAKAN UNTUK 2 KEJADIAN
PROGRESSIVE INI JUGA (HAVE/HAS + BEEN) TITIK TERTENTU DI MASA DEPAN
When/while
(telah, tapi sedang) for/since My sister was terrified when she had been walking in
the dark night Nina will have been eating ice cream for 30
I have been eating since 10 minutes by the time her friends do the final exam
minutes ago (until now)

5
 EXERCISE
5. Mom…… when we got home last night.
1. We would ...... been driving from Bandung to A. Cooking
Sumatera for three days if the car had repaired by B. Is cooking
the end of last month. C. Was cooking
A. Have D. Has been cooking
B. Had
C.Has 6. By December this year, we for two.
D. Is A. Will have been married
B. Will had married
2. He always study hard when he was a C. Will marrying
student. D. Will be marrying
A. Did not
B. Does not
C.Do not 7.The news had been so much that it was difficult to know
D. Did the truth.
3. My brother rides a bike to school A. Blow up
… B. Blows up
a. everyday C. Blown up
b. last day D. Blowing up
c.next week
d. next time 8. His mother questioned why home last night.
4. Gina cooks fried rice. It … A. He does not came
amazing. B. He do not come
a. does C. He did not came
b. do D. He did not come
c.are
d. is

6
MODALS OVERVIEW
Modal Fungsi Contoh Kalimat

Can Kemampuan, kemungkinan, izin I can swim. / Can I leave now?

Could Kemampuan lampau, kemungkinan, izin sopan I could ride a bike when I was five. / Could you help me?

May Kemungkinan, izin sopan It may rain today. / May I sit here?

Might Kemungkinan (lebih lemah dari "may") He might be at home now.

Must Kewajiban, kesimpulan logis You must wear a seatbelt. / He must be tired.

Shall Saran, tawaran (formal) Shall we go now?

Should Saran, kewajiban ringan You should eat more vegetables.

Will Janji, keputusan spontan, masa depan I will call you later.

Would Kebiasaan lampau, permintaan sopan, kondisi hipotetis When I was a child, I would play outside. / Would you help me?

Ought to Kewajiban, saran You ought to apologize.

Have to Kewajiban, saran You have to read many books.

Had better Saran kuat (ancaman implisit) You had better study, or you'll fail.
 EXERCISE
1. The x-rays at the airport ______ the unprocessed 1. Every student ______ wear uniform in the
film since the photos were foggy. flag ceremony
a. Must damage a. Will
b. Must have been b. Should
damaged c. Must
c. Must have damaged d. May
d. Must be damaged
2. Charles ______ the car regularly; otherwise 5. She went to the office by taxi, but she ______ by
his car would have functioned well. the bus.
a. Cannot have serviced a. Might of gone
b. Should not have serviced b. Should gone
c. Must not have serviced c. Could have gone
d. Should not serviced d. Ought have gone

3. He had better ______ to the airport by five 6. The house was very clean. Somebody ______ it.
or else he may miss the flight. a. Must have cleaned
a. To get b. Ought have cleaned
b. Get c. Should have cleaned
c. Getting d. Might cleaned
d. Got
 PREPOSITION
Kategori In On At

Tempat Ruangan, Area luas (in a room, in Permukaan, Lantai (on the table, on the Titik spesifik (at the door, at the
(Place) a city, in a country) wall, on the floor) bus stop, at the office)

Bulan, Tahun, Periode lama (in Hari, Tanggal, Periode pendek (on Jam, Momen spesifik (at 7 AM,
Waktu (Time)
July, in 2024, in the morning) Monday, on my birthday, on April 5th) at noon, at night)

Transportasi Di dalam kendaraan besar (in a Di atas permukaan kendaraan besar (on Lokasi tertentu (at the airport,
(Transport) car, in a taxi) a bus, on a plane, on a bike) at the station)

Ekspresi
in a hurry, in love, in the end on time, on the phone, on TV at home, at work, at school
Umum

9
 PREPOSITION LAINNYA
- To = untuk, kepada - Above = di atas
- For = untuk - Below = di bawah
- By = oleh - Under = di bawah
- From = dari - Beneath = di bawah
- Since = sejak - Over = melewati
- During = selama - Beyond = melampaui
- Until = sampai - Between = di antara
- Before = sebelum - Behind = di belakang
- After = setelah - In front of = di depan
- Into = ke dalam - Opposite = di seberang
- Onto = ke luar - Beside = di sebelah
- Off = lepas - Besides = di samping itu,
- Out = keluar - Among = di antara
- Inside = di dalam - With = dengan
- Outside = di luar - Near = di dekat
- Toward = menuju - Through = melalui
- Forward = ke depan - Next to = di sebelah

10
EXERCISES (1-6)
1. Many people in that hotel were frightened the 4. The girl is fond because she wants to follow her
bombing threat issued by the terrorists. (soal usm 2010) mother’s step as a professor.
a. Off a.on reading
b. By b.to read
c. At c. of reading
d. With d.at reading
2. The loud music from his neighbor’s house distracts him 5. A developed country is usually very independent
completing his thesis. (soal usm 2014) other countries.
a. For a. In
b. From b. On
c. Of c. From
d. In d. With
3. The committee suspected him bribery after 6. You need to stop being dependent your parents
some amount of money had been found in his account. once you become an adult.
(soal usm 2013) a. On
a. For b. In
b. Of c. At
c. About d. From
d. On
CONJUCTIONS
Jenis Fungsi Conjunctions Contoh Kalimat

Coordinating Conjunctions Menghubungkan kata, frasa, For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So She loves coffee, but she doesn't like
(Kata Hubung Koordinatif) atau klausa yang setara (FANBOYS) tea.

Menghubungkan klausa
Because, Although, Since, If, I stayed home because it was raining.
Subordinating Conjunctions utama dengan klausa
While, Until, Unless, Though, As, / Although he was tired, he kept
(Kata Hubung Subordinatif) subordinat (dependent
When, After, Before working.
clause)

Menghubungkan dua elemen Both...and, Either...or, Neither John nor Sarah attended the
Correlative Conjunctions
dengan pasangan kata Neither...nor, Not only...but also, meeting. / She is not only smart but
(Kata Hubung Korelatif)
hubung Whether...or also hardworking.

However, Therefore, Moreover,

Menghubungkan dua klausa He was sick; therefore, he didn't go to
Conjunctive Adverbs (Kata Consequently, Furthermore,
independen dengan transisi work. / I love coffee; however, I can't
Hubung Adverbial) Nevertheless, Meanwhile,
logis drink too much.
Instead

12
EXERCISES FOR CONJUNCTION (7-12)
7. The farmers exterminate rodents in their farmland .. they
10. I was scared, .. I was also curious about the old lady. (USM
damage the crops. (USM STAN 2009: 131) STAN 2006 : 161)
A. although A. but
B. though B. owing to
C.even though C.before
D.As D. Thus

8. She is .. rich that she needs more room to keep all of her
11. He always revises his lesson at home, … he still fails in the test.
books. (USM STAN 2010:144)
a) Since
A.such a b) When
B.such c) Although
C.so a d) Yet
D.So
12. … moving to this town, I and my boyfriend can see each other
9. Inwan: “Why did Ina buy an iPod?” regularly.
Agus: “She bought one .. show it to all her friends.” (USM Pro a) After
D3 Keuangan 2009:147) b) Nevertheless
A.so c) furthermore
B.so that d) Because
C.due to
D.in order to
CLAUSE
Jenis Clause Fungsi Ciri-ciri & Kata Kunci Contoh Kalimat
- Untuk manusia: who, whom, whose The man who helped me is very kind.
Adjective Clause
Menjelaskan noun (kata benda) - Untuk benda: which, of which, that The book, which I borrowed, is interesting.
(Klausa
dalam kalimat - Bisa restrictive (tanpa koma) atau non-
Adjektiva) The girl whose phone was stolen is crying.
restrictive (dengan koma)
She stayed at home because she was sick.
1. Reason (Sebab): because, since, as
(Reason)
He was so tired that he couldn't keep his eyes
2. Result (Hasil): so...that, such...that
open. (Result)
She left early so that she could catch the train.
3. Purpose (Tujuan): so that, in order that
(Purpose)
4. Contrast (Pertentangan): although, Although it was raining, they went outside.
Adverbial Menjelaskan verb, adjective, even though, while (Contrast)
Clause (Klausa atau adverb dalam klausa 5. Comparison (Perbandingan): as...as, This book is more interesting than that one.
Adverbial) utama than, the more...the more (Comparison)
6. Place (Tempat): where, wherever I will go wherever you go. (Place)
7. Time (Waktu): when, before, after,
He called me when he arrived. (Time)
while, until
You can choose whether to stay or leave.
8. Choice (Pilihan): whether...or
(Choice)
9. Additional Information (Tambahan): Besides being a great student, he is also a
besides, moreover, furthermore talented musician. (Additional Information)
- Question word + positive sentence I don’t know what she wants.
Noun Clause Berfungsi sebagai subjek,
- Diawali what, that, whether, who,
(Klausa objek, atau pelengkap dalam That he passed the exam is surprising.
which, how, why
Nomina) kalimat
She asked why he was late.
14
EXERCISE CLAUSE

13. Many bowlers build an arsenal of bowling balls 16. Lintang does not know the lawn mower after they
keep them prepared for any shot they make. (soal had finished using it. (soal usm 2015)
usm 2015) a.Where they put
a. Since b. Where did they put
b.So as to c. Where have they put
c. In the term of d. Where they did put
d.As 17. There are many good people in the world you can
14. Nina’s flight from Amsterdam to London was delayed trust to take care of your children. (soal usm 2014)
the heavy fog. (soal usm 2015) a.Whom
a.Owing to b. Which
b.Instead of c. Of which
c.As result d. Whose
d. Because 18. Tommy met many beautiful girls at the dinner party last
15. there is a form of life in other planets or not is night; the most beautiful was Tania. (soal usm
still debate. (soal usm 2013) 2014)
a. That a. Of which
b. Which b. Of that
c. Whether c. Of whom
d. If d. Of them
 SESSION TWO
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

GERUND-INFINITIVE

PARTICIPLE-APPOSITIVE

CONCORDANCE, PARALLISM, INVERSION

SUBJUCTIVE

16
 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Type Structure Usage Example

If + Present Simple, Used for general truths, If you heat water to
Zero Conditional
Present Simple facts, or scientific laws. 100°C, it boils.

Used for real and possible If it rains tomorrow, I will

First Conditional If + V1, Will
situations in the future. stay at home.

Used for hypothetical or

If I were rich, I would
Second Conditional If + V2, Would unreal situations in the
travel the world.
present or future.
Used for hypothetical If I had studied harder, I
Third Conditional If + Had V3, Would Have situations in the past would have passed the
(unreal or impossible). exam.

17
 GERUND AND INFINITIVES
Form Structure Usage Example
Used as a noun (subject, object, or Swimming is good exercise.
Gerund Verb + -ing (e.g., swimming)
complement). (Subject)

After prepositions. She is interested in learning French.

After certain verbs (e.g., enjoy, avoid, suggest). I enjoy reading books.

to + Base Verb (e.g., to

Infinitive Used to express purpose or intention. I went to the store to buy groceries.
swim)

After certain verbs (e.g., want, decide, hope). She wants to travel the world.

After adjectives. It’s important to study regularly.

Bare Infinitive Base Verb (e.g., swim) After modal verbs (e.g., can, should, must). You should exercise daily.

After verbs+O like let, make, and help. She let him borrow her car.

18
 GERUND AND INFINITIVE
KEY DIFFERENCES AND RULES
Aspect Gerund Infinitive
Acts as a noun, adjective,
Function Acts as a noun.
or adverb.
Always used after Never used after
After Prepositions
prepositions. prepositions.
Follows verbs Follows verbs
After Certain Verbs
like enjoy, avoid, suggest. like want, decide, hope.
Not + Gerund (e.g., not Not + Infinitive (e.g., not
Negative Form
going). to go).

19
 PARTICIPLE
Type Structure Usage Example
Present Used as an adjective to describe an The barking dog kept me
Verb + -ing (e.g., running)
Participle ongoing action or state. awake. (Describes the dog)
Used in continuous tenses. She is reading a book.
Used in participle phrases to add Holding the umbrella, she
detail. walked in the rain.
Past Verb + -ed (regular) or Used as an adjective to describe a The broken vase lay on the
Participle irregular form (e.g., eaten) completed action or state. floor. (Describes the vase)
They have finished their
Used in perfect tenses.
homework.
Used in participle phrases to add Exhausted from the trip, he
detail. went straight to bed.

20
 APPOSITIVES
Type Structure Usage Example
Noun or noun Used to rename or explain another My friend, a talented artist, painted
Appositive
phrase noun or pronoun. this. (Explains "my friend")
Provides additional information Paris, the capital of France, is
about the noun. beautiful. (Explains "Paris")
Can be essential (no commas) or non- The book "1984" is a classic.
essential (with commas). (Essential)
My brother, a doctor, lives in New
York. (Non-essential)

21
 Concordance (Subject-Verb Agreement)
Rule Explanation Example
Singular Subject + Singular
A singular subject takes a singular verb. The cat is sleeping.
Verb

Plural Subject + Plural Verb A plural subject takes a plural verb. The cats are sleeping.

Compound Subjects with

Use a plural verb when subjects are joined by "and." Tom and Jerry are friends.
"and"

Compound Subjects with Neither the teacher nor

The verb agrees with the subject closest to it.
"or/nor" the students are here.

Use a singular verb if the group acts as one unit; plural if The team is winning. (Unit) /
Collective Nouns
individuals act separately. The team are arguing. (Individuals)

Singular indefinite pronouns (e.g., everyone, nobody)

Indefinite Pronouns Everyone has a role to play.
take singular verbs.

Titles of books, movies, or names of countries take

Titles and Names The Lord of the Rings is a great movie.
singular verbs.

22
 PARALLELISM

Rule Explanation Example

Use the same grammatical form for She likes reading, writing,
Parallel Structure
items in a list or series. and painting. (All gerunds)

Maintain parallelism with pairs like "not

With Correlative Conjunctions He is not only intelligent but also kind.
only...but also," "either...or," etc.

Use parallel structure when comparing

In Comparisons She prefers to walk rather than to drive.
two things.

I enjoy running, swimming, and cycling.

With Infinitives/Gerunds Be consistent with verb forms.
(All gerunds)

23
 INVERSION
Rule Explanation Example
Invert subject and verb after negative adverbs Never have I seen such a
After Negative Adverbs
(e.g., never, seldom, rarely). beautiful sight.
In Questions Inversion is standard in questions. Are you coming to the party?
Invert subject and verb in conditional sentences Were I rich, I would travel the
Conditional Sentences
without "if." world.
After "So," "Neither," Invert subject and verb after these words for
She loves pizza, and so do I.
"Nor" agreement.
Invert subject and verb when sentences begin with
With "Here" and "There" Here comes the bus.
"here" or "there."
Inversion can be used for dramatic or literary Little did they know about the
For Emphasis
effect. surprise.

24
 SUBJUNCTIVE

Category Examples Subjunctive Structure Explanation

Verbs expressing demand, insist, recommend, suggest, "The manager insisted

Subject + verb + that +
demands, suggestions, request, urge, require, propose, that the team work
subject + base verb
and recommendations advise, ask overtime." (Not "works")

"It is crucial that he be

Adjectives expressing crucial, essential, important, It + be + adjective + that +
present at the meeting."
importance or necessity imperative, necessary, vital subject + base verb
(Not "is")

It is best that, It is recommended "It is recommended that

Expressions emphasizing It + is + expression + that
that, It is advised that, It is suggested she take the test soon."
urgency or importance + subject + base verb
that (Not "takes")

25
 EXERCISE
1. ______ to finish the project on time, they would have secured the contract. 5. The new policy aims to increase employee satisfaction by ______ flexible work arrangements.
a. If they worked harder a. Offering
b. Had they worked harder b. Offer
c. If they have worked harder c. To offer
d. Were they work harder d. Offered
6. The minister, ______ by reporters, refused to comment on the issue.
2. The manager requested that all employees ______ the meeting promptly.
a. To surround
a. Attend
b. Surrounded
b. Attended
c. Surrounding
c. Attends
d. Having surround
d. Will attend
7. If he ______ more time, he would complete the task perfectly.
3. She enjoys ______ in the library rather than studying at home. a. Had
a. To read b. Has
b. Reading c. Would have
c. Read d. Have had
d. Having read 8. Not only ______ a talented musician, but she is also a skilled writer.
a. She is
4. No sooner ______ the results than the students cheered in excitement. b. Is she
a. Had the professor announced c. She was
b. The professor had announced d. Was she
c. Did the professor announced
d. Have the professor announced

26
 EXERCISE
9. ______ careful, he wouldn’t have made such a mistake. 13. If he ______ the consequences, he wouldn’t have taken such a risk.
a. Were he a. Knew
b. Had he been b. Knows
c. If he be c. Had known
d. If he was d. Has known
10. Having finished his degree, ______. 14. The athlete was disqualified, ______ for using banned substances.
a. He looked for a job a. To test positive
b. The job was found b. Having tested positive
c. A company hired him c. Tested positive
d. It was time for a break d. To have tested positive
11. The lecturer suggested ______ a detailed report on the research findings. 15. It is crucial that every student ______ the instructions carefully.
a. To write a. Follow
b. Writing b. Follows
c. Write c. Following
d. Be writing d. Followed
12. Scarcely ______ the meeting when the CEO made an urgent announcement. 16. Hardly ______ the bus stop when the rain started pouring.
a. We started a. Had I reached
b. Had we started b. I had reached
c. We had started c. Did I reach
d. Did we started d. I reached

27
 EXERCISE
17. His habit of ______ late caused his boss to lose patience. 21. If the weather ______ better, we could have held the event outdoors.
a. Arriving a. Was
b. To arrive b. Had been
c. Arrived c. Were
d. Having arrive d. Would be
18. Should you ______ any further issues, please contact customer support. 22. Her experience, ______ in various international companies, made her an
a. Have excellent candidate.
b. Had a. Work
c. Having b. Working
d. Be having c. Worked
19. We insisted on ______ the contract terms before signing. d. Having worked
a. Reviewing 23. The research requires that every participant ______ at the same time.
b. Review a. Arrives
c. To review b. Arrived
d. Have reviewed c. Arrive
20. Never ______ such an inspiring leader in our company. d. Is arriving
a. We had 24. No sooner ______ the alarm than everyone evacuated the building.
b. Have we had a. Did we hear
c. We have b. We heard
d. Had we c. Had we heard
d. Have we heard
28
 EXERCISE
25. If she ______ earlier, she wouldn’t have missed the interview. 29. The CEO decided ______ the company’s vision statement.
a. Left a. Revising
b. Had left b. To revise
c. Leaves c. Revise
d. Has left d. Being revised
26. The professor, ______ multiple research papers, is highly respected. 30. ______ more funding, the project would have been completed on time.
a. Writing a. If they receive
b. Wrote b. Had they received
c. Having written c. If they would have received
d. Written d. Were they receive
27. It is important that she ______ to the meeting without delay. 31. They postponed ______ the new product until next year.
a. Come a. Launch
b. Comes b. Launching
c. Came c. To launch
d. Has come d. Launched
28. Seldom ______ such a talented performer in our local theater. 32. Little ______ that his idea would revolutionize the industry.
a. We have seen a. Did he know
b. Have we seen b. He did know
c. We see c. Had he known
d. We had seen d. He had known

29
 SESSION THREE
REPORTED SPEECH

COMPARISON

PREFERENCE

ELIPTICAL CONSTRUCTION

PHRASAL VERB

30
 REPORTED SPEECH
Direct Speech Reported Speech Changes in Tense & Words
Simple Present: "I eat breakfast early." She said (that) she ate breakfast early. Present → Past

Present Continuous: "I am studying for TOEFL." He said (that) he was studying for TOEFL. Present Continuous → Past Continuous

Present Perfect: "I have finished my homework." She said (that) she had finished her homework. Present Perfect → Past Perfect

Past Simple: "I visited New York last year." He said (that) he had visited New York last year. Past Simple → Past Perfect

Past Continuous: "I was watching a movie." She said (that) she had been watching a movie. Past Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous

Future (will): "I will call you tomorrow." He said (that) he would call me tomorrow. Will → Would

Future (going to): "I am going to travel." She said (that) she was going to travel. No tense change, but pronoun shift

Modals (can/may/must): "I can swim." He said (that) he could swim. Can → Could, May → Might, Must → Had to

Commands & Requests: "Close the door!" She told me to close the door. Use told/asked + to + verb

Yes/No Questions: "Do you like coffee?" He asked if/whether I liked coffee. Use asked + if/whether + subject + verb

Wh- Questions: "Where do you live?" She asked me where I lived. No do/does/did in reported speech

31
REPORTED SPEECH – KEY RULES
1. Tense shifts back in reported speech (except when reporting general truths).
2. Pronouns change depending on the subject.
3. Time expressions change:
• Now → Then
• Today → That day
• Yesterday → The day before
• Tomorrow → The next day
• Last week → The previous week
 Comparison in English

Type of Comparison Structure Examples

Positive Degree (No Comparison) as + adjective + as This test is as easy as the last one.

Comparative (Two things/people) adjective + -er + than (short adjectives) This book is cheaper than that one.

more + adjective + than (long adjectives) This test is more difficult than the previous one.
Superlative (Three or more
the + adjective + -est (short adjectives) This is the coldest winter ever.
things/people)
the most + adjective (long adjectives) He is the most intelligent student in the class.

Irregular Comparisons Good → Better → Best This is the best option.

Bad → Worse → Worst His score is worse than mine.

Far → Farther/Further → Farthest/Furthest New York is farther than Boston.

Double Comparatives (Continuous
The + comparative, the + comparative The more you practice, the better you get.
change)
Comparing Quantities More / Less + uncountable noun I have more time than you.

Fewer + countable noun She has fewer books than him.

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COMPARISON – KEY RULES
1. Short adjectives (one syllable) → Add "-er" for comparative and "-est" for
superlative (e.g., fast → faster → fastest).

2. Long adjectives (two+ syllables) → Use "more" for comparative and "most"
for superlative (e.g., beautiful → more beautiful → most beautiful).

3. Irregular adjectives must be memorized (e.g., good → better → best).

4. Use "than" in comparisons but "the" in superlatives.

 Expressing Preference in English
Structure Example Sentences Notes
Prefer + noun/gerund (+ to + I prefer tea to coffee.
Use "to" to compare two things.
noun/gerund) She prefers reading to watching TV.
Prefer + to-infinitive (+ rather than +
I prefer to walk rather than drive. Use "rather than" for actions.
base verb)

Would prefer + noun/infinitive (+ rather I would prefer coffee rather than tea.
More polite or specific than "prefer."
than + base verb) I would prefer to stay rather than leave.

Would rather + base verb (+ than + base

I would rather stay than leave. No "to" before verbs.
verb)
Expresses a present/future
Would rather + subject + past verb I would rather you studied more. preference for someone else (similar
to the second conditional).
Similar to "would rather," but
Would sooner + base verb I would sooner quit than work overtime.
stronger.

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PREFERENCE COMPARISON – KEY RULES

1. "Prefer" vs. "Would prefer“

Prefer = General preference (I prefer tea to coffee.)
Would prefer = Specific situation (I would prefer tea right now.)
2. "Would rather" vs. "Would prefer“
Would rather is more casual.
Would prefer is more formal.
 Elliptical Construction

Type Structure Example Sentences Explanation

Subject + verb + auxiliary + too / so She likes coffee, and I do too. The main verb is omitted in the
Ellipsis with 'So' & 'Too'
+ auxiliary + subject She likes coffee, and so do I. second clause.

Subject + verb + object, (omitted She bought apples, and (bought)

Ellipsis in Parallel Structures The second "bought" is omitted.
subject + verb) + object oranges.

He can't swim, and neither can I. The verb is omitted after "neither"
Ellipsis with 'Nor' & 'Neither' Neither/Nor + auxiliary + subject
She doesn’t like it, and nor do I. and "nor."

If + subject + verb, (omitted subject The auxiliary verb is omitted in the

Ellipsis in Conditional Sentences If you need help, (you can) call me.
+ auxiliary + verb) second clause.

She is a person (who is) always

Ellipsis in Clauses The relative pronoun and auxiliary
Full clause → Reduced clause ready to help.
(Relative/Adverbial) verb are omitted.
While (I was) walking, I saw a bird.

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ELLIPTICAL– KEY RULES
1. Remove repeated words that can be understood from context.
2. Use auxiliary verbs (do, does, did, can, will, etc.) when necessary.
3. Be mindful of meaning—the sentence must remain clear even with omitted
words.
 Types of Phrasal Verbs

Type Definition Example Sentence

Requires an object to complete

Transitive (Needs an Object) She turned off the lights.
its meaning.

Intransitive (No Object) Does not require an object. He woke up early.

The object can be placed

Separable between the verb and She turned the lights off.
preposition/adverb.

The verb and preposition/adverb

Inseparable I ran into an old friend.
must stay together.

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 Common Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal Verb Meaning Example Sentence
Break down Stop working (machine) / Lose control emotionally My car broke down on the way to work.
Bring up Mention a topic / Raise a child She brought up an interesting point in class.
Call off Cancel They called off the meeting due to bad weather.
Come across Find by chance I came across an old diary in the attic.
Figure out Understand / Solve I finally figured out how to fix the problem.
Give up Quit / Surrender He gave up smoking last year.
Look after Take care of She looks after her younger brother.
Look forward to Be excited about something in the future I look forward to my vacation.
Put off Postpone The event was put off until next month.
Run out of Have no more of something We've run out of milk.
Take after Resemble a family member She takes after her mother in personality.
Turn down Reject They turned down my job application.
Wake up Stop sleeping I wake up at 6 AM every day.
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 EXERCISE
1. He said he ______ to the meeting, but he never arrived. 5. He suggested that the meeting ______ postponed until next week.
a. would come a. was
b. will come b. be
c. comes c. had been
d. had come d. were
2. The more experience you gain, ______ you become. 6. You should back ______ from that argument before it gets worse.
a. the more confident a. out
b. more confidently b. up
c. the most confident c. down
d. most confidently d. away
3. I’d rather you ______ me before making such an important decision. 7. No sooner ______ than the alarm went off.
a. consult a. did he enter
b. had consulted b. he entered
c. consulted c. had he entered
d. will consult d. was he entering
4. She prefers reading novels ______ watching TV. 8. He denied ______ the package yesterday.
a. rather than a. receiving
b. to b. to receive
c. than c. had received
d. instead d. have received

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 EXERCISE
9. The teacher said, “You must submit your assignments by Friday.” → The 13. She would rather ______ alone than in a group.
teacher said that we ______ our assignments by Friday. a. works
a. must submit b. work
b. had to submit c. to work
c. should submit d. worked
d. have to submit
14. We were about to leave when she suddenly ______.
10. My laptop is far ______ than yours, but it works perfectly. a. turned up
a. older
b. turned out
b. the oldest
c. turned in
c. more older
d. old d. turned off
11. If only I ______ what you meant, I wouldn’t have made that mistake. 15. His performance was ______ impressive than expected.
a. knew a. much
b. know b. more
c. had known c. too
d. have known d. as
12. He told me that he ______ the document before the deadline. 16. I’d rather you ______ so loudly.
a. has submitted a. didn’t talk
b. had submitted b. don’t talk
c. submits c. won’t talk
d. would submit d. not talk

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 EXERCISE
17. “I will finish the report by tomorrow,” he said. → He said that he ______ the report 21. She told me she ______ a new car.
by tomorrow. a. bought
a. would finish b. has bought
b. will finish c. had bought
c. finishes d. was buying
d. has finished 22. My house is twice ______ as his.
18. The faster you drive, ______ it becomes. a. big
a. the more dangerous b. bigger
b. more dangerously c. as big
c. the most dangerous d. the biggest
d. most dangerously 23. It’s important that she ______ present at the meeting.
19. He wishes he ______ the job offer when he had the chance. a. be
a. accepted b. is
b. had accepted c. was
c. accepts d. were
d. has accepted 24. I ______ at 6 AM, but today I woke up late.
20. They didn’t enjoy the concert, and ______ did we. a. used to wake up
a. neither b. used to waking up
b. either c. am used to wake up
c. too d. was used to wake up
d. so
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 EXERCISE
25. If I ______ more money, I would travel the world. 29. You had better ______ the truth before it’s too late.
a. have a. tell
b. had b. to tell
c. will have c. telling
d. has d. told
26. I’m looking ______ to meeting my old friends. 30. She is ______ intelligent as her sister.
a. back a. more
b. up b. as
c. forward c. much
d. after d. less
27. He speaks English ______ fluently as a native speaker. 31. I can’t put ______ with his rude behavior anymore.
a. so a. up
b. as b. down
c. more c. out
d. less d. on
28. He asked me where ______. 32. He said that he ______ me at the airport.
a. I had been a. meets
b. had I been b. will meet
c. was I c. would meet
d. I was d. has met

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