CVEN90044

Site Investigation Techniques

AN OVERVIEW OF HOW TO APPROACH SITE INVESTIGATION

8 March 2022

SLIDES PREPARED BY DARREN PAUL @ GOLDER ASSOCIATES

PRESENTED BY MAHDI DISFANI @ THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE

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AGENDA
What we learn will this week
• The importance of investing in site investigation early in a project.

• Typical stages of site investigation – Desk study through to construction and monitoring.

• Geological map interpretation.

• Basic geophysical techniques and the information that can be obtained.

• Types of boreholes and the information that can be obtained from them.

• Test pits and the information that can be obtained.

• Sampling from boreholes and test pits.

• In situ testing

• Some site investigation case studies.

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 Revision - a framework for
approaching geotechnical
engineering
1. What do you want to do to the ground?

2. What ground have you got?

3. How could the ground respond?

4. What could the ground do to you?

5. What has been done before (case studies)?

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Site Investigation Objectives

• What ground do we have and how will it respond to

what we want to do to it?
• Define the vertical and horizontal extent the mass,
material and environmental properties of the ground
at a scale relevant to the project.
• Provide information to allow confident and economic
design to manage geotechnical risk.

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Stages of Site Investigation

Project Stage Desk Study Geophysics Drilling / Construction Instrumentatio

Test Pits Supervision n
Feasibility
Concept Design
Schematic Design
Detailed Design
Construction
Post Construction
Time.

Far field to near field.

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Economics of Site Investigation
Total
Project $

Optimu
m
Challenging site

Optimu
m

Benign site

Site Investigation $

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 Geotechnical Risk – UK 1991

Of 5,000 surveyed industrial projects, 37%

experienced delays due to unforseen ground
conditions.
Of 8,000 commercial projects, 33% suffered delays.
Cost of overrun on 200 road projects was $100 mil.
Of ten major highway works, final cost was 35% over
tendered sum due to unforseen ground conditions.

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 Economics of Site Investigation

You pay for a site

investigation whether you
have one or not.

Typically 0.5% to 1.0% of total project cost, but could be up to 3% for

challenging geotechnical projects or sites, for example tunnels.

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Objectives of the desk study
• To get a far field appreciation of the ground conditions
without undertaking expensive intrusive investigation.
• To allow a basic conceptual ground model of the site to
be developed.
• To identify key geotechnical risks and geohazards to
be identified.
• To allow design of an efficient targeted investigation.

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Clayton, C.R.I., Matthews, M.C., Simons, N.E. (1995) Site Investigation, Chapter 3, Blackwell
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Key Categories of Information
Geology (material and mass properties)
Geomorphology and Topography (geomorphological properties)
Climatic conditions
Anthropogenic conditions
Groundwater conditions
Geological hazards (Geohazards)

But really, its unlimited – any information can be good

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information.
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Geology
Geological maps and memoirs
Geological publications
Soil survey maps and records
Aerial photography
Remote sensing information
Well records
Past geotechnical reports and studies
Record of geological sites of
significance

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The geological map

Show Rock and soil material at the

surface of the earth.

Some details of mass properties if we

interpret

Some detail of geomorphological

properties, if we interpret

Objective data - information seen at any

point should be the same for all observers.

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How geological maps are compiled

Field observation and mapping

Limited borehole information
Extrapolation of data from limited field sampling to a
wider area.
Aerial photo, geophysics interpretation.

There is always error associated with geological

map indications!
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 Map Name Stratigraphic Key

Topographic Key

Scale

Cross Section Map Identification

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 Proposal Stage

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Information on geological maps
MATERIAL PROPERTIES:
Boundary of rock types at the earth’s surface; (broad area)

MASS PROPERTIES:
Faults, bedding planes, joints, folds (anticlines, synclines,
monoclines),

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Material Properties – Use Legend
Information in the legend:
• Ages Quaternary, Miocene.
• Origin (sedimentary / Igneous / Alluvial)
• Names - Groups, formations e.g. Brighton Group
• Symbol / colour - Tpr, (bright yellow for Brighton Group).
• Description (component materials) Sand and silt, minor
interbedded gravel.
• Unconformities – relationship to adjacent materials.

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 Fold Axes

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Mass Properties – Structural Symbols
on Map

Folds Anticline
Syncline
Faults
Bedding Orientation

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Contour Lines
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Geomorphology and Topography

Topographical maps
Aerial photography
LiDAR data and digital
elevation models
Hydrological (rainfall and
runoff) records
Tide charts and records
Previous reports and
publications

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Geomorphology and Topography

Topographical maps
Aerial photography
LiDAR data and digital elevation
models
Hydrological (rainfall and runoff)
records
Tide charts and records
Previous reports and publications

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 Climatic Conditions
Meteorological records

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Anthropogenic Conditions
Historical aerial photographs
Historical maps
Titles
Archaeological authorities
Anecdotal evidence

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Groundwater

Previous
investigations.
Groundwater
database.
Topographic maps
– look for springs.
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Geohazards

Old media reports.

Anecdotal evidence.

Landscape and
geomorphological
mapping - LiDAR
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Geohazards

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In Situ testing

§ Destructive

§ Non-destructive
e.g., Geophysical testing
§ Non-invasive

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 Geophysics
§ The distance to the centre of earth: ~6400 km

§ Crust thickness: ~30 km

§ Deepest borehole on earth: ~12 km

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§ Only 0.2% of the distance to the
earth has been studied with

30 km

12 km
invasive methods!

6400 km

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Methods and Applications

§ Using waves to characterise the subsurface:

§ Mechanical Waves

§ Electromagnetic Waves

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 Seismic Refraction (SR)

Applications
§Measuring P wave velocity (primary wave or compression wave)

§Mapping top of GW table

§Measuring depth to bedrock i.e. foundation levels, settlement analysis and bearing capacity
§Delineating buried channels Key Limitations
• Cannot detect a weak layer below
§Estimating rock rippability a stiffer layer
• Cannot be done over pavements
§Identifying weathered zones, landslipped masses • Affected by external noise
- traffic, rigs, rain, wind
§Mapping geological contacts
- electrical radiation HV powerline

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Seismic Refraction (SR)

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Seismic Refraction: Rippability Assessment

Objectives
Obtain general
bedrock depth

P wave velocity for

rippability estimates

Rock type - breccia Cat D9 Rippability Chart

Lower Upper
Marginal D9 Marginal D9

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Seismic Reflection

Applications
Key Limitations
§ Mapping stratigraphy • Commonly used for offshore surveys
§ Mapping geological structure • Onshore surveys suffer from poor near
surface data due to “ground roll”
§ Identifying weathered zones • Onshore surveys are expensive due to
§ Mapping buried channels labour intensive acquisition and
processing

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Multichannel Analysis of Surface
Waves (MASW)

Applications
§Obtain 1-D S wave (shear wave) velocity profiles of soil and bedrock

§Map and locate low velocity weak zones and voids in bedrock /soil
§Assess soil liquefaction potential
§Evaluating site response to earthquake ground motion (e.g. Vs30 - site classification)

§Small strain shear modulus

§Better characterisation of soils than SR

Key Limitations
• 2D sections are created from ___
interpolation of 1D data
• Reliability of 2D data depends 39
spacing of the 1D profiles
Resistivity
1. Resistivity Sounding (“Wenner”) – 4 electrode – 1D data

Applications
§ corrosion protection
§ coatings
§ cathodic protection
§ electrical earthing design

2. Resistivity Imaging – Multi-electrode – 2D data

Applications
Limitation § clay and sand layers
Conductors such as fences, pipes, § subsurface void detection
§ mapping fractures and weak zones § GW and aquifer mapping
rails and current sources interfere with
§ bedrock depth § mapping seepage zones
measurements

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Resistivity: Mine Void Detection
Objectives
Map extent of historical
mine workings

Equipment
Syscal Pro 120

Survey Design
Schlumberger
Reciprocal array
2 m electrode spacing

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EM (Electromagnetic)
EM
Induces EM fields in the ground to
determine structures and properties
of the subsurface

Applications
§ Buried metallic objects
§ Anomalous subsurface zones
§ Locating sand and gravel
deposits
§ Mapping bedrock structure
§ Near surface plumes

Advantages
§ Terrain conductivity mapping Key Limitations
§ One person operated § Conductors such as fences, pipes,
rails and current sources interfere
§ Rapid acquisition
with measurements
§ Minimal processing time § Map view results – spatial variability
§ Low cost compared to other § Limited depth penetration and poor
methods depth control
§ Non intrusive (walk over survey)
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EM: Landfill Plume
Objectives
Map distribution of
leachate affected GW
around landfill

Equipment
Geonics EM31

BH Verification

Geonics EM 31

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GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar)
GPR
Uses high frequency EM pulses to
image features below the subsurface
based on difference in dielectric
permittivity
Applications
§ High resolution mapping of near
subsurface (< 2 to 10 m)
§ Pavement assessment/thickness
§ Utility detection (service locators)
§ Shallow geology – stratigraphy
and structure
§ Water table detection
§ Subsurface void detection
Key Limitations
§ Ineffective in clay rich soils
§ Ineffective below GW
§ Max depth ~ 7 to 10 m
§ Metal structures and radio
transmitters can cause
interference

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GPR: void detection in karstic
limestone
Objectives
Detect potential voids
due to karstic
limestone

Equipment
Mala 250 MHz
antenna
GPR Cart Voids at GL Calibration lines

Survey Design
1 and 5 m line spacing

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GPR: other applications

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Downhole Techniques
Surface to Borehole Method
• VSP

Borehole to Borehole Method

• Cross Hole Seismic

Wireline Methods
• Televiewers – defect classification and orientation
• FWS – strength assessment
• Density - stratigraphy
• Gamma - stratigraphy
• Conductivity- GW
• Flowmeter – GW permeability

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 Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP)

Setup S wave source

P wave source

Applications Dynamic elastic moduli of soil and rock

§ Earthquake engineering site
classification
§ Soil liquefaction assessment
§ Dynamic elastic moduli
§ Provides measurements in rock
(SCPT soils only)

Key Limitation
§ Hole prep - grouting outside of ___
casing
§ Hole verticality survey 48
Televiewer Logging (TV)

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Televiewer Logging (TV)
Applications
§ Strike and dip of fractures and bedding plane
§ Secondary porosity
§ Borehole deviation
§ Casing depth

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Benefits of geophysical
techniques:
§Explore large subsurface volumes
§Characterise in-situ bulk properties of soil and rock
§Supply continuous data, opposed to discrete “point” data
§Non-invasive and environmentally friendly method
§Cheaper and faster – economical to explore larger areas than with direct
methods
§Can be used for more efficient borehole placement
§Portable - under bridges, powerlines, forested areas, urban areas, steep
slopes, marshes, over water etc
§Greater operator safety than with intrusive methods
§Less risk with utility encounters

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Limitations of geophysical
techniques
§ No samples or direct physical penetration
§ Models assumed for interpretation
§ Affected by cemented layers or inclusions
§ Results influenced by water, clay, & depth

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In-Situ Geocharacterisation through time

Paul W. MAYNE, 2016. In-Situ Geocharacterisation of Soils in the Year 2016 and Beyond
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Questions