French HEP community input to the European Strategy for Particle Physics

This document sumarizes the French community input to ESPP 2026 and was edited by:
Yasmine Amhis1 , Jeremy Andrea2, Etienne Augé1 , Sara Bolognesi3, Maarten Boonekamp3, Samuel Calvet4 , Emilien
Chapon3, Didier Contardo5, Fabrice Couderc3, Sabine Crépé-Renaudin6, Louis D’Eramo4, Cristinel Diaconu7, Giulio
Dujany2, Federico Ferri3 , Marie-Hélène Genest6 , Stéphane Lavignac8, Jessica Levêque9, Cyrille Marquet10, Anselmo
Meregaglia11, Stephane Monteil4 , Carlos Muñoz Camacho1, Louis Portales3 , Philippe Schwemling12, Christopher Smith6 ,
Ana M. Teixeira4 , and Michael Winn13
1 Université Paris Saclay, CNRS/IN2P3, IJCLab 8 Université Paris Saclay, CNRS/INP, CEA/DRF, IPhT
2 Université de Strasbourg, CNRS/IN2P3, IPHC 9 Université Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS/IN2P3, LAPP
3 Université Paris Saclay, CEA/IRFU, DPhP 10 Institut Polytechnique de Paris, CNRS/INP, CPHT
4 11
Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS/IN2P3, LPCA Université de Bordeaux, CNRS/IN2P3, LP2I
5 Université Claude Bernard Lyon, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I 12 Université Paris Cité, CEA/IRFU, DPhP
6 Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS/IN2P3, LPSC 13 Université Paris Saclay, CEA/IRFU, DPhN
7 Aix Marseille Université, CNRS/IN2P3, CPPM
arXiv:2504.08759v1 [hep-ex] 30 Mar 2025

April 15, 2025

Abstract
In view of the European Strategy for Particle Physics process, the French HEP community has organized a national pro-
cess of collecting written contributions and has pursued a series of workshops culminating with a national symposium held
in Paris on January 20-21, 2025 that involved over 280 scientists1 . The present document summarises the main conclusions
of this bottom-up approach centred on the physics and technology motivations2 .

1 Context 1

2 Physics Motivation 1
2.1 The energy frontier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 The intensity frontier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3 Neutrino Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Strong Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5 Particle physics and the larger landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Further relevant considerations 7

3.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Computing, software and data handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 R&D activties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.5 The role of Early Career Researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Executive Summary: Scenarios for flagship projects in Europe 9

4.1 Preferred option for the next collider at CERN: FCCee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Fall-back options in case the FCCee is not feasible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1 https://indico.in2p3.fr/event/34662/
2A document summarizing the viewpoint of the national funding agencies will be submitted in addition.
1 Context
The present document summarises the priorities of the French particle physics community, which have been expressed
within the process of the European Strategy for Particle Physics. The community followed a bottom-up approach to discuss
the future experimental scenarios in Europe, with a focus on major facilities3 (Table 1). The approach is centred on scientific
and technical excellence, and does not consider in depth other relevant aspects such as human resources or financial planning.
It addresses transverse aspects relevant for a solid and diverse research programme, and concludes on scenarios for the long
term future of particle physics in Europe.

Facility Type Collision energy Inst. luminosity [cm−2 s−1 ] Timeline

LHC pp, pA, AA ≤ 14 TeV 2 × 1034 2010–2026
HL-LHC pp, pA, AA ≤ 14 TeV 7.5 × 1034 2030–2041
Belle II e+ e− 10.58 GeV 6 × 1035 2018–2042
Hyper-K νµ , ν̄µ Eν < 1 GeV 2027–
DUNE νµ , ν̄µ Eν ∼1-5 GeV 2032–
EIC ep, eA 20–140 GeV 1033 – 1034 2032–
FCCee e+ e− 91–365 GeV 2 × 1036 – 2 × 1034 2045–
ILC e+ e− 91–250–550 GeV 5.4 × 1034 – 7.7 × 1034 2043–
CLIC e+ e− 0.4–3 TeV 2 × 1034 – 6 × 1034 2042–
LEP3 e+ e− 91–240 GeV 5 × 1035 – 1 × 1034 2048–
LHeC ep, eA 1.3 TeV 2 × 1034 2044–
FCChh pp, pA, AA 100 TeV 3 × 1035 >2070
HE-LHC pp, pA, AA 25 TeV 2 × 1035 2048–
Muon collider µ+µ− 3–14 TeV 2 × 1034 – 4 × 1035 >2055

Table 1: Overview of present, approved and proposed facilities discussed in this document.

2 Physics Motivation
The physics motivation is discussed along four thematic axes related to the particle physics research. The larger landscape,
emphasising the scientific interest and related facilities relevant in nuclear physics and astrophysics, is addressed in a dedi-
cated section.

2.1 The energy frontier

The past decades have witnessed the success of the Standard Model (SM) in describing particle physics phenomena. Other
than the discovery of the Higgs boson, numerous other measurements as well as further relations between observables
have strengthened the SM description of strong and electroweak interactions, and its intrinsic mechanism of spontaneous
symmetry breaking. Nevertheless, new physics (NP) beyond the SM is clearly needed, to address experimental observations
that are not explained within the SM, such as the neutrino mass generation, the baryon asymmetry of the Universe, and dark
matter (DM), as well as to resolve several theoretical shortcomings of the SM itself, including the origin of the electroweak
(EW) symmetry breaking or the hierarchy problem. In spite of a large number of searches and precise measurements, no NP
has so far been discovered. The path ahead is two-fold: discovery of new states, and tests of the SM through precision and
consistency.
In this context, the Higgs/scalar sector is commonly seen as a potential portal for NP signals. Currently, several Higgs-boson
couplings have been determined to a 5-10% precision, while its mass is known to the per mille level. Determining the Higgs
boson self-coupling gHHH (and hence the shape of the SM scalar potential) will constitute the ultimate test of the SM’s
mechanism of EW symmetry breaking, further shedding light on the stability of the vacuum, and on the possible presence
of NP. Precise determinations of scalar couplings to other fields (and relations between self-couplings) are also sensitive
probes of extended scalar sectors, which are a feature of many well-motivated NP models (multi-Higgs doublet models, CP
violating scenarios, compositeness, supersymmetry...).
The full exploitation of the HL-LHC data should allow for a determination of gHHH with an accuracy better than 50%. Any
indirect sensitivity to gHHH is not only limited by the statistical and systematic experimental uncertainties in the observables,
but also by the available precision on other SM EW and strong parameters, and finally by theoretical uncertainties. Histori-
cally, EW precision tests have played an instrumental role in constructing and testing the SM. The HL-LHC is expected to
improve upon many EW precision measurements (and carry out new ones). Other than indirectly suggesting the presence
of NP (and possibly its scale), precision measurements at the Z−pole and at the WW -threshold are critical to our capacity
to precisely determine Higgs and EW couplings. In view of its uniquely large coupling to the Higgs, precise determinations
3 Thelist of projects and the corresponding parameters presented in Table 1 reflect the current understanding of the future proposals as discussed during
the national symposium https://indico.in2p3.fr/event/34662/

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of the top quark mass, couplings and production cross sections constitute essential tests of the EWSB mechanism, with the
potential to reveal new deviations.
The HL-LHC will be the last high-energy hadron collider for several decades, and the only means of directly searching
for heavy NP states in the near future. Exploiting its full physics potential through the realisation of the planned detector
upgrades – Higgs-boson properties, top-quark physics, QCD and EW studies, NP searches (including DM and long-lived
particles) – is of the utmost importance. The full exploitation of the (HL-)LHC legacy requires ensuring that the data (and
results) are preserved, and can be (re)used and (re)interpreted by the whole community. Effort should be put in enforcing
systematic guidelines allowing to do so, and in ensuring that publicly released material follow the FAIR principles (Findable,
Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable data and data products).
As recommended by the previous European strategy process, the precise measurement of the Higgs boson properties and in
particular its couplings is a priority. In addition, studies of the top quark (especially its mass) are also extremely important.
With this in mind, the following facilities have been considered based on their R&D and design maturity: the FCCee project
which is a 91 km-long e+ e− collider, an e+ e− linear collider facility (LCF) à la CLIC or ILC, both of which could be hosted at
CERN. With such machines, the precision on the Higgs boson couplings can be typically improved by a factor 10 compared
to the ones which will be obtained at the HL-LHC. The FCCee provides larger statistics compared to an LCF (typically a
factor 5-10) thanks to a higher planned luminosity and multiple interaction points which can operate at the same time. The
energy in the centre of mass ranges from 90 GeV to 365 GeV, i.e. from the Z−pole √ to the t t¯ threshold which allows for a
theoretically clean measurement of the top quark mass. With data collected at s = 125 GeV, it could also potentially probe
the electron Yukawa coupling. In addition, on a longer term, such a tunnel could host a high-energy proton-proton collider
(at 100 TeV). An LCF presents the advantage of being able to probe energies up to 500-1000 GeV (with an upgraded version
and new technology) which allows direct di-Higgs production and hence to measure the Higgs-boson trilinear coupling.
The possibility of doing high precision Higgs boson measurements (especially probing the trilinear coupling) with a high
energy proton-proton collider has also been evoked, even with a relatively low energy machine (27 TeV) with a precision
comparable to an LCF. The community also acknowledges the importance of an ep collider programme to ensure the success
of a potential high-energy proton-proton program. The importance of building the next machine at CERN in a timely fashion
was stressed, in order to maintain the expertise and attractiveness of the field for future physicists.
In addition to the short-term need for a Higgs factory, the community agrees upon the necessity to engage on longer term
developments. It has been stressed that a muon collider able to reach a centre-of-mass energy O(3 − 14) TeV is one of the
most promising projects with a physics scope ranging from Higgs boson precision measurements, to probing the longitudinal
vector boson scattering, with a strong potential to explore new energy scales, possibly leading to NP discoveries. All the
limitations for such a project are technical, one of the dominant ones being muon cooling. The (growing) participation from
French groups is now organised within the international muon collider collaboration.
The effort towards precision measurements can be complemented by non-collider approaches such as the measurements of
sin 2θW at different energy scales, or (new) experimental setups to achieve a relative uncertainty on αQED at the level of 10−11 .
Among these, PAX at ELENA opens a new avenue for strong-field QED tests with exotic atoms, and for high-precision QED
theory tests using accurate spectroscopy of highly-charged ions.

In summary, exploiting the full physics potential of the HL-LHC is of the utmost importance, in particular in view of its
unique potential to unravel the present energy frontier and the scalar sector of the SM. The FCCee programme, owing to its
high integrated luminosity delivered in a short amount of time, is the ideal programme for a significant and timely progress
in the understanding of the Higgs boson properties and of EW symmetry breaking. Moreover, FCCee provides a large amount
of data at the Z pole (O(1012) bosons) allowing for a large variety of stringent electroweak tests of the SM, and possibly
paves the way to a future hadron collider. If such an ambitious project is not deemed feasible, an LCF at CERN (operating
up to at least 500 GeV) is a noteworthy fallback approach. In particular, its high energy programme directly addresses the
Higgs boson trilinear coupling and the top-quark properties.

2.2 The intensity frontier

Research at the intensity frontier allows the detection and interpretation of signs of NP. If new particles are discovered
directly, indirect tests are needed to study their structure and couplings, and if not, experiments at the intensity frontier can
explore higher scales and smaller couplings. The community supports an experimental strategy based on two complementary
pillars: experiments with a wide physics program, and smaller dedicated experiments, as detailed below.

2.2.1 Experiments with a wide physics program

The major players in flavour physics in the upcoming years will be LHCb and Belle II: the former exploiting the unprece-
dented number of b hadrons produced at the LHC, the latter profiting from the clean e+ e− environment of SuperKEKB and
a nearly hermetic detector. These two experiments will improve our understanding of the flavour picture, and probe NP in a
complementary way to that of high precision measurements of a plethora of observables, part of a well-recognized physics
program. French physicists have strongly contributed to flavour physics in the past and are now playing a major role in LHCb

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and Belle II. Our community emphasises the need to exploit the data from LHCb and Belle II in the next years. In addition,
we strongly support the proposal of the LHCb collaboration for an “Upgrade II” of the experiment during the fourth long
shutdown of the LHC in 2034, as well as the proposal for a Belle II upgrade around 2032. LHCb Upgrade II will allow
operations at a factor 10 higher instantaneous luminosity, fully exploiting the large luminosity of the accelerator, to reach
unprecedented precision in key measurements, e.g. for the study of CP violation and the unitarity triangle (in particular the
angle γ ), b → (s, d)ℓ+ ℓ− and b → cτν observables. The recent discoveries of new exotic hadrons have revitalized the field
of heavy-flavour spectroscopy. The large statistics that will be obtained with the LHCb Upgrade II will enable the study of
these states in hadronic environments of very high multiplicity, allowing the exploration of their structures dominated by
non-perturbative QCD at the femtoscopic scale. The Belle II upgrade will allow reaching a higher instantaneous luminosity
while increasing the detector performance. This will allow world-leading results mainly for final states fully-inclusive or
with final states particles with little or no direct signature in the detector, e.g. NP searches in b → ℓν , b → sνν , b → sτ + τ − ,
and the most precise determination of the quark-mixing parameters |Vub | and |Vcb |. It will also provide unique capabilities in
τ physics, including the measurement of its electric dipole moment (EDM) and tests of lepton-flavour violation (LFV) and
lepton-flavour universality involving the third generation. An additional possibility is to introduce electron beam polarisation
to allow precision measurements of electroweak and τ lepton parameters. Belle II and its upgrade will bring key inputs to
develop the technology of the future Higgs factory.
On a longer term, the best opportunity would come from an e+ e− collider running at the Z pole accumulating several
1012 Z events. This will constitute an ideal laboratory for flavour physics: a large sample of all b-hadrons, c hadrons
and τ leptons produced in an clean e+ e− environment with a large boost. Direct searches for heavy neutral leptons (as
right-handed neutrinos) will also be made possible. A further run at the W +W − threshold collecting several 109 W +W −
would allow direct access to several parameters of the Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa (CKM) matrix. To fully exploit these
opportunities at least one suitable detector with excellent vertexing, good momentum reconstruction down to low momentum,
good particle identification over the full kinematic range, good energy and direction resolution for neutrals and good KS0 and
Λ reconstruction efficiency would be needed. These conditions would be met at the FCCee , the first phase of the FCC
project.

2.2.2 Experiments designed for specific measurements or searches

French physicists are involved in experiments dedicated to the search for permanent EDM, which are CP-violating observ-
ables predicted to be tiny in the SM, but large in many NP scenarios, in particular those aiming at a viable EW baryogengesis.
The present experimental sensitivities for various systems (e.g. neutron, electron) probe scenarios of NP up to energy scales
around 100 TeV. In particular, the neutron EDM offers the most sensitive probe for the θQCD term. Its search is led by the
n2EDM experiment at the Paul Scherrer Institute, expected to reach the 10−28 ecm region in its second phase in 2030. For-
bidden in the SM, LFV could also be within reach in some NP scenarios. In this context, French physicists are involved in the
COMET experiment (COherent Muon to Electron Transition) at JPARC. It will improve the current single event sensitivity
on µ → e conversion by two (four) orders of magnitude in a first (second) phase. This will have a strong impact on models
predicting LFV and is complementary to the insights from other experiments, e.g., MEGII, Mu3e, as well as LHCb and
Belle II. French physicists have also expressed an interest in the PIONEER experiment aiming at the precise measurements
of the ratio of pion leptonic decays, which would provide one of the most precise tests of lepton flavour universality. Finally,
in a different context, unique tests can be performed using low energy antiprotons, like the Weak Equivalence principle at
the Gbar experiment.
Precision experiments not only constrain the existence of new heavy states with sizeable couplings to known particles, but
also that of new light states with very suppressed interactions with normal matter. Those could directly make up the elusive
dark matter, or more generally be part of a richer dark sector. An area of intense activity concerns a specific Dark Matter
candidate, the axion, whose existence is motivated by the strong CP problem. Many experiments are currently running or
planned in the near future, two of which with French involvements, GRAHAL and MADMAX. Both plan to build haloscopes
with unprecedented and complementary sensitivities in the search for axion DM, using the new hybrid magnet at LNCMI in
Grenoble for GrAHal, and a new dielectric design for the latter.
Finally, experiments at the boundary between particle and nuclear physics can also provide precise tests of the SM or de-
termine some of its key parameters. For the former, nuclear beta decays provide probes for new sources of CP-violation,
complementary to EDM searches, and of hypothetical new particles and interactions, while baryon-number violating dinu-
cleon transitions can search for NP up to very high scales. For the latter, superallowed Fermi transitions currently provide
the most precise determination of the CKM matrix element Vud (which will also be the target of the PIONEER experiment in
its second phase). In view of these examples, the synergy with NuPECC should thus be strongly pursued. French physicists
already play a leading role in these studies; in the next decades the radioactive ion beam facility DESIR at GANIL will be
uniquely suited for conducting experiments aimed at precision tests of the SM.

In summary, the experimental strategy in flavour physics at the intensity frontier is based on two complementary pillars:
large facilities with a wide physics program and smaller experiments dedicated to specific measurements or searches. A
strong support is expressed for the proposed upgrades of LHCb and Belle II. In the long term, the best opportunity is
provided by an e+ e− collider accumulating important O(1012 ) samples of Z and O(109 ) W +W − events. In addition,

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dedicated experiments have an important potential for high-impact discoveries, such as long-lived dark particles, as well as
for searches for new physics based on observables suppressed or forbidden in the SM, such as EDMs, LFV processes, proton
decay, and neutrino-less double beta decay.

2.3 Neutrino Physics

Neutrinos remain the least known elementary particles: we do not know the absolute value of their masses, whether their or-
dering is normal or inverted, whether the charge-parity (CP) symmetry is violated in the lepton sector, and whether neutrinos
are Dirac or Majorana fermions. Neutrino experiments aim to answer these questions, which are of fundamental relevance
for particle physics, astrophysics and cosmology. In particular, the precise study of oscillations with long baselines (LBL) is
a privileged tool to investigate standard and non-standard neutrino properties.

2.3.1 Long baseline oscillation experiments and beyond

The advent of LBL experiments pushed the study of neutrino oscillations into the precision era. The availability of controlled
sources of neutrinos and antineutrinos, combined with precise flux and cross section measurements before oscillation at near
detectors, has allowed the present generation of experiments (T2K and NOVA) to provide accurate measurements of neutrino
oscillations, first hints of CP-symmetry violation and new tests of the PMNS oscillation paradigm.
The next generation experiments, Hyper-Kamiokande (HK) in Japan and the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment
(DUNE) in the US, will provide unprecedented sensitivity to CP-violation, determine the mass ordering, and precisely
measure oscillation parameters. HK will exploit a new water Cherenkov detector, and the recently upgraded neutrino beam
and T2K near detectors of T2K, whereas DUNE will rely on liquid argon time projection chambers, and a new neutrino beam
and near detector complex at Fermilab. These experiments will enable a deeper understanding of neutrino properties and
provide powerful tests of New Physics scenarios. Moreover, the far detectors of LBL experiments have the best sensitivity
to proton decay and can detect neutrinos from the Sun, from supernovae and from other astrophysical sources.
In the longer term, the ESSnuSB/ESSnuSB+ projects, funded by Europe, investigate a unique possibility of creating a
LBL experiment with unprecedented beam power in Europe, also fostering R&D for future neutrino factories and moni-
tored/tagged neutrino beams.
Beyond LBL, French physicists are engaged in an ambitious and diverse neutrino physics program. JUNO and ORCA, study-
ing oscillations at reactors and from atmospheric neutrinos, will provide improved precision in the oscillation parameters and
strongly contribute to the determination of mass ordering. KM3NeT is a European-hosted project aimed at becoming a major
future player in the blooming domain of multi-messenger astronomy. Europe is also hosting world leading bolometric ex-
periments for the search of neutrinoless double-beta decay: CUORE, and its successor CUPID. Finally, the French neutrino
community is engaged in innovative R&D efforts for low energy detectors that could enable new tests of the Standard Model.

2.3.2 Role and opportunities for the CERN Neutrino Platform

The CERN Neutrino Platform is a cornerstone of the European contribution to the worldwide neutrino physics program,
supporting the design, testing, and validation of cutting-edge detectors for T2K, HK, and DUNE. It provides invaluable
infrastructure for detector assembly, cryogenic tests, and beam line studies, offering facilities unmatched in Europe, thus
enabling European institutions to play key roles in global neutrino collaborations. In order for Europe to achieve a critical
mass for overseas projects, a coherent European strategy and a centralized hub are needed to share and mutualize resources
and expertise. The availability of a fully functional environment at CERN, easily accessible from Europe, is a unique way to
enable a strong European participation in experiments overseas.
Continued support of the Neutrino Platform will be crucial for further detector developments envisaged for DUNE, with the
module of opportunity, and for HK, with the second upgrade of the ND280 near detector. A future platform expansion to
support detector development for a variety of neutrino experiments (e.g. photo-detection technology for neutrino telescopes,
radio-purity studies for low energy solar neutrinos measurements and 0νβ β ) would be a major asset to further optimize
resources and share expertise.
The precision measurements of neutrino oscillations will ultimately be limited by uncertainties due to nuclear physics
effects in hadro-production in the beamline and in neutrino-nucleus interactions. Measurements of hadro-production (in
NA61/SHINE) and of hadron and electron scattering on nuclei are of paramount importance to ensure the accuracy of neu-
trino oscillation measurements. With its proton, pion and electron beams, CERN is a unique environment for such crucial
measurements. Promoting CERN as the worldwide platform for such a program is a compelling opportunity to build a unique
and distinct role for the European community in the neutrino physics field.
A neutrino beam at CERN, as currently discussed at SBN@PBC (Short Baseline Neutrinos at Physics Beyond Colliders),
would provide essential insights into neutrino interactions, offering precision measurements and an ideal platform to test new
detector concepts. Initiatives like ENUBET, which aims to deliver a monitored neutrino beam for precision cross-section
measurements and NuTAG, focused on detecting neutrino interactions with unprecedented detail, demonstrate the potential
of these experimental efforts to boost the physics return of LBL projects. Such a beam could be directed at existing detectors,

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such as the ProtoDUNE modules and Water Cherenkov Test Experiment (WCTE), adding value to previous investments.
These projects will enable new technological solutions for the long term future of the LBL domain.
The continuation and strengthening of the Neutrino Platform will be crucial to maintain Europe’s critical role in neutrino
physics. As a centralized resource, the platform exemplifies the benefits of collaboration and shared expertise.

2.3.3 CERN as a hub for analysis and for theory

Theory is a crucial part of the general effort by the neutrino community to understand the fundamental properties of neutrinos
and identify the physics at the origin of their masses. Sustained activity in neutrino theory is mandatory to fully exploit and
interpret the experimental results, and to guide experimental searches.
CERN serves as a hub for collaboration and exchange in neutrino physics, bringing together experimentalists and theorists
from across Europe and beyond. Initiatives such as the annual CERN Neutrino Platform Pheno Week and the Physics
Beyond Collider efforts foster dialogue between the communities, enabling the development of theoretical models that inform
experimental designs and interpretations. CERN also provides a powerful infrastructure for shared software platforms, Monte
Carlo simulations, and computational resources, facilitating consistent data analysis across multiple experiments.
The advent of HK and DUNE raises the challenge of comparing and combining their results. Due to strongly correlated
systematic uncertainties, close collaboration will be essential to ensure a consistent interpretation. CERN can play a key
role as a promoter and host of such joint efforts, leveraging the strong involvement of the European community in both
experiments, benefiting both the LBL science goals and the visibility of European neutrino research.

In summary, the variety and importance of the neutrino physics program in Europe is a great asset for the community and
is expected to play a major role in the overall physics landscape in the next decade. It is therefore important that the next
collider project at CERN be affordable in a way that preserves the support to neutrino physics. In particular, a centralised
European approach to neutrino physics at CERN, relying on the Neutrino Platform infrastructure and using CERN as a
hub for analysis and theory, is necessary to ensure that the European physics community remains at the forefront of future
scientific discoveries in the neutrino field.

2.4 Strong Interactions

The study of the strong interactions is essential for the understanding of the universe. Complementary and precise mea-
surements are provided from many different areas: from accelerator-based facilities and lattice QCD, to atomic physics and
gravitational waves. Moreover, strong interactions effects are present in observables and often limit the precision of other
measurements (e.g. electroweak parameters) or the searches for new physics.
High-energy collisions of nuclei offer unique tests of the high-temperature thermodynamics of the SM in laboratory-based
experiments, at energy densities where partonic degrees of freedom dominate the equilibration processes, and determine
the properties of the high temperature phase of QCD, the quark–gluon plasma (QGP). LHC experiments will pursue the
exploration of the QCD phase diagram with better precision, new observables, and exploiting a range of initial states. Run 5
will be crucial in understanding the evolution of collectivity from small to large systems, in collisions of protons and nuclei
of increasing size.
The LHC Run 5 will include the full exploitation of a fixed-target programme led by the LHCb collaboration, with precise
measurements of heavy-flavour and quarkonium production in pp, pA and AA collisions over a broad rapidity range. More-
over, instrumentation up to high rapidities will enable unique measurements for hadron structure. The LHCb-U2 project
offers the opportunity to study heavy-ion collisions up to the most central collisions with the LHCb detector. The emphasis
of the programme will be on heavy-flavour and muonic final states, but will not be limited to these, since the acceptance, res-
olutions, trigger and particle-identification capabilities offer measurement opportunities for a variety of/ final states including
photon-induced reactions.
The scientific program with heavy ions will address two different and complementary physics quests. First, the origin of
the collective-like phenomena observed in very light systems such as high-multiplicity pp collisions can be studied in detail
with LHCb, through measurements of intermediate systems between pp and Pb-Pb collisions, involving protons as well as
Oxygen, Xenon and possibly other nuclei. In addition, LHCb is a unique experiment for proton-nucleus and nucleus-nucleus
fixed-target physics at the LHC, at centre-of-mass energies close to those of RHIC and under very different experimental
conditions.
The centre-of mass energy and rapidity coverage, in collider and fixed-target modes, and including ultra-peripheral and
polarised fixed-target collisions, will play a decisive role in the characterisation of the QCD equation of state, and the mech-
anisms of deconfinement, thermalisation and hadronisation. As a next-generation dedicated heavy-ion detector at the LHC,
ALICE 3 is designed to span a broad and ambitious physics program involving both precision and exploratory measure-
ments, from pp to Pb-Pb collisions, with the final goal of improving our understanding of the mechanisms responsible for
the formation and the behaviour of complex hadronic systems and phases, and how the properties of these systems connect
to the fundamental parameters of QCD.

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Lepton-hadron collisions at the GeV scale and above offer the unique possibility of probing the structure of hadrons at
the partonic level with the well-understood electromagnetic interaction in the initial state. The EIC will collide polarized
electrons with a large variety of ions and deliver large luminosity, allowing the study of the structure of matter at very small
momentum fraction x and investigating the prominent role of gluons in QCD. In conjunction with measurements at the HL-
LHC, EIC can shed light on gluon saturation effects, a new state of matter predicted by QCD but so far not unambiguously
observed. It will enable the multidimensional tomography of nucleons. In the QGP research domain, a fruitful synergy
relates the EIC and the LHC heavy-ion programmes, including proton-ion and photon-ion reactions. Therefore, the EIC
science program plays a strategic role in the landscape of nuclear and particle physics in Europe and worldwide: from
low-energy nuclear physics to high-energy particle physics, including QCD theory and phenomenology.
The FCC, in its electron-positron and hadron-hadron running modes, will be an outstanding facility for new and precise
QCD measurements. The FCCee will produce extraordinarily large samples of electroweak boson decays in hadronic fi-
nal states. High-precision QCD measurements (the coupling constant αS , parton shower and hadronisation studies, hadron
spectroscopy) are interesting per se, but also crucial for indirect searches of physics beyond the SM. Collisions of virtual pho-
tons, γ ∗ γ ∗ → X, will allow a new type of high-energy QCD measurements to be performed over a wide range of momentum
transfers.
Pb-Pb collisions at the FCChh will produce a deconfined state of QCD matter at unprecedented energy densities. At these
energies, charm quarks become an active degree of freedom. The large collision energies and integrated luminosities will
allow new types of “tomographic” plasma probes. The high density and high energy of the photon field in ultraperipheral
heavy-ion collisions will provide novel searches for new physics using photon-photon collisions. Very low gluon fractional
momenta (down to x ≈ 10−7 ) in the nuclear parton densities will be explored with perturbative probes in proton-lead colli-
sions. Furthermore, FCChh will study the QGP at unprecedented energy densities.
In the perspective of the FCChh , a high-energy electron-proton collider, the LHeC, would be able to provide the parton
distribution measurements required for the exploitation of the FCChh data and has a unique potential for gluon saturation
physics. Opportunities to explore the high-net-baryon density region of the QCD phase diagram at fixed-target energies with
dedicated experiments at CERN complementary to other facilities should be explored in parallel to the next CERN flagship
project after the LHC. This has to be put in perspective with gravitational waves projects.
Understanding measurements in lepton-hadron, hadron-hadron collisions and low-energy tests of the standard model requires
a sustained support to developments in the theory of strong interactions. These developments follow a wide range of ap-
proaches, from formal theory up to the full description of exclusive events through event generators, and prominently include
methods addressing the non-perturbative regime of QCD. A current highlight is the theoretical determination of (g − 2)µ ,
where France plays a key role in the determination of the QCD-related vacuum polarisation and its uncertainties.

In summary, the priorities for strong interaction physics are: the physics program with ions during the full lifetime of the
HL-LHC for the understanding of QCD processes, the LHCb upgrade for the Run 5 and ALICE 3 experimental program with
their high potential for exploring new territories in heavy ions physics, the strong complementarity between the heavy-ion
program at LHC Run 5 and the EIC project in the US and the importance of both projects on the European future roadmap,
the next generations facilities FCCee and FCChh with a very broad, different and complementary QCD physics programs.

2.5 Particle physics and the larger landscape

Besides the flagship projects such as LHC, the particle physics ecosystem includes low-energy infrastructures at CERN,
like the SPS for fixed-target experiments, and unique facilities like ELENA, as well as infrastructures elsewhere in Europe,
such as the Modane and Gran Sasso underground laboratories, the Mainz and PSI accelerators for low-energy physics (with
high-intensity electron and proton beams), the Ganil DESIR facility, and the DESY laboratory. These infrastructures are the
core of a diversified and fruitful European particle physics strategy and must be supported.
Besides the experimental lines of research and experiments beyond colliders already mentioned in Section 2, direct searches
for WIMPs (e.g. DarkSide, XENON, or TESSERACT) should also continue to be pursued, as they offer a unique opportunity
to address open questions on DM. With the growing size of these experiments, creating a new European network fostering the
collaboration of the involved institutions on technical, scientific, organisational and funding aspects could become interesting.
The community also notes the growing importance of gravitational-wave (GW) experiments whose physics program has
deep connections with particle physics. CERN holds a unique technological expertise of critical value for the design and
construction of ground-based GW telescopes. An increased role of CERN in this domain would be a great asset for the
European community and would bring to the CERN portfolio an additional high-profile physics case with a large and ensured
physics return. The third-generation projects such as the Einstein Telescope could also bring new cutting-edge technologies
to CERN, the development of which will benefit future particle physics projects.
The strong connections between particles physics and atomic physics, nuclear physics and astrophysics calls for enhanced
coordination, like in the JENAS initiative: this is especially important for projects at the interface between these domains
and to ensure the most effective cross-fertilization between them.

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Europe should also continue to invest on lines of physics research with direct societal applications, like imaging techniques
for biomedical applications, as well as on interdisciplinary efforts which could serve the study of our natural environment,
like the ’Laboratoire sous-marin Provence Méditerranée’.

In summary, the present status of investigations into the SM requires a diversified approach: in particular, it is important
to keep investing in smaller dedicated experiments with potential high-impact discoveries. To this aim, the diversity of the
CERN and of the larger European particle physics research ecosystem must be preserved as a strategic source of scientific
and technological innovation.

3 Further relevant considerations

3.1 Theory
Theory is a crucial part of the general effort to understand the fundamental laws of nature and to identify the NP required
to address the shortcomings of the SM. In the quest for NP, precision tests of the SM play a crucial role, especially in view
of the preparation of future leptonic Higgs factories (also offering the Tera-Z run): theory uncertainties must be strongly
reduced to be on par with the expected experimental accuracy. Likewise, precision calculations of flavour observables and
of neutrino cross sections are also very important. The assessment of the theory errors requires massive developments of
both analytical and numerical integration techniques: this includes EW and QCD higher order contributions (2 to 4-loops),
as well as innovative multi-purpose event generators; such developments can strongly benefit from Machine Learning (ML)
methods. Lattice QCD is also critical to access new observables (in particular in flavour physics), and is central to the study
of QCD collective effects. At the crossroads of theoretical and experimental particle physics ultimately lies the interpretation
of data, which can be pursued through model-independent characterisations of NP (via an effective approach) and dedicated
studies of specific NP models. These can be complemented by new approaches, for instance relying on proto-model builders.
Model building approaches offer complete high-energy theoretical constructions; tests of the latter can then inspire dedicated
experimental searches. The reconstruction of the NP model will call upon input from all experimental frontiers: high-energy,
flavour and EW precision, neutrino physics, QCD, dark matter searches and cosmology.
Any strategy on the future of experimental particle physics must thus be accompanied by a vision concerning the support
that must be provided to theoretical particle physics, and by efforts to further foster European initiatives promoting theory-
experiment collaborations.

3.2 Computing, software and data handling

Computing, software and data handling are essential elements to exploit the collected HEP samples and achieve outstanding
physics results. The HEP data volume is continually increasing, already reaching the exascale. The increased granularity
and timing precision of upgraded and future detectors, along with larger samples of real and simulated data, will further
enhance this and HEP will stay one of the largest provider of scientific data. Moreover, data should be preserved at long
term and the Open Science tools, methods and policies need to be deployed to ensure data availability and to maximize the
scientific return. At the same time, the industry and academia develop, in an ever rapid pace, technologies such as Artificial
Intelligence and heterogeneous hardware architectures opening both opportunities and complexities for HEP, while facing
simultaneously compelling demands to reduce their environmental impact.
In this context, it is crucial to keep a dedicated infrastructure at the core of our computing systems to provide reliable and
efficient resources, adapted to our needs but also sufficiently agile and flexible to fully leverage advancements in hardware
and data analysis methods. The utilization of external resources, such as HPC and cloud services, must be evaluated meticu-
lously in terms of their advantages and the preservation of technical know-how of our community. Bringing computing very
close to the data acquisition system, with the quality necessary for immediate physics analyses is also a fast-developing field.
Highly efficient and energy-saving heterogeneous data intensive computing and data distributed systems are a niche where
HEP collaborations have a chance to create solutions that will have a broader impact.
Equally important is the continuous development of the software tools needed at all levels: middleware, databases, data
transfers, event generation and simulation, data reconstruction and analysis. Strong, dedicated software development teams
are needed to maintain, develop, and adapt these tools, making the best use of the new technologies, which is even more
challenging in an heterogeneous technical landscape.
Large investments in software and infrastructure, together with important and well coordinated R&D efforts are mandatory,
including trans-disciplinary initiatives such as the HEP Software Foundation, or the joint ECFA-NuPECC-APPEC working
groups. Open Science projects like ESCAPE related to the construction of EOSC are also place where developments across
discipline can be pooled, benefiting all parties involved. To facilitate an efficient organization in HEP, models similar to those
used for Detector R&D Collaborations should be considered for–or integrated with–software and computing. Experiments
must be designed considering the interplay between instrumentation, data analysis and computing requirements.
Addressing those challenges requires the commitment of dedicated computing teams and of the whole HEP community with
the need to enhance its computing expertise. Providing training to reach that goal and hiring young scientists with strong

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IT skills are essential. Promoting new technologies, ambitious goals and attractive research environment is crucial amid
competition from other fields and private companies.

3.3 R&D activties

3.3.1 Detector R&D
A strong R&D development program is vital to prepare the next generation of experiments. It also plays an important role in
attracting talented students and engineers to our field, and should offer them opportunities for bright careers.
In the past two years, CERN and ECFA have started to structure detector and instrumentation R&D through the DRD
collaborations. The French community is very supportive and largely involved with a dozen of laboratories participating in
the different DRD areas.
Most activities target the strategic collider projects identified by the previous ESPP. They concern the upgrade programs of
existing experiments (Alice-3, LHCb-II, Belle-3, ATLAS, CMS), the preparation of the EPIC detector at EIC to be completed
around 2035, or the longer term e+ e− collider projects. An initial R&D period of 3-4 years should deliver technical solutions
for the earlier projects. The expertise gathered in this first phase will be pushed further to match technical requirements for
a FCCee completion around 2045. Continuous R&D activity is required to follow the fast technological evolutions.
Mainstream areas being explored towards FCCee are reflected by EoI contributions to the ESPP for High Granularity
calorimetry in an ILD/CLD detector concept, Liquified Noble Gas calorimetry in the Allegro detector concept, and use
of Monolithic CMOS sensors in vertex and tracking systems.
Intense R&D activities are also targeting the domain of Neutrino, Dark Matter and rare decays physics, with the specific
challenges of aiming for extremely low thresholds, the reduction of radioactive backgrounds and the mastering of complex
nuclear effects for proper detector calibration.
R&D activities will need to ramp up during the first short term phase, requiring a substantial increase in the allocated
resources. Projects need to be supported in the area of sustainability and towards the minimisation of the detector environ-
mental impact. Sufficient access to test-beam facilities will be important, in a context where running machines and beam
lines will be less accessible than today, with the planned long shutdown of the CERN accelerator complex.

3.3.2 Accelerator R&D

Accelerator R&D has an intrinsic value and should be pursued along a well structured and balanced program in order to
maintain Europe’s leadership in this area. Research and development in energy recovery, through projects like PERLE and
the LHeC, is a key focus, particularly in the context of the sustainability requirements discussed below. High-field dipole
technology remains a crucial area of R&D and should be actively pursued to maximize the energy reach of future collid-
ers. Similarly, the SCRF technology is important for the development of future particle accelerators, as it enables higher
acceleration gradients and improved energy efficiency compared to conventional technologies. Innovative developments in
accelerator technology, such as plasma acceleration (e.g., AWAKE), hold great potential. These innovations could enable
more compact accelerators with applications ranging from particle physics to broader societal benefits. A muon collider
presents significant challenges, including the need for advancements in high-temperature superconductors (HTS). Its real-
ization requires long-term R&D beyond the scope of the present discussion.

3.4 Sustainability
Sustainability considerations in HEP are pivotal, to respect the planetary boundaries, to comply with the rapidly evolving
regulation, and to align with the global effort demanded on society. The HEP community should lead by example by
addressing these issues from the earliest stages of future projects, thereby increasing their acceptance by civil society and
strengthening the staff’s engagement.
Maximizing the scientific return of HEP projects must be balanced against costs, efficiency, and environmental footprint, with
the ambition to reach an overall environmental impact compatible with global decarbonization goals. The environmental
factors, including life cycle analysis and socio-economic impact studies, must be among the core evaluation criteria to
be scrutinized in-depth. The quantification and mitigation of environmental footprints across laboratories, institutes, and
collaborations must be generalized. Sustainable procurement practices and building construction, energy mix considerations
and the promotion of new research practices also require special attention. The new infrastructures should be eco-designed,
prioritising the use of low-carbon material, reducing negative impacts on biodiversity and ideally offering it a haven. The
minimization of the impacts should be seen as an opportunity to explore new R&D paths rather than a constraint limiting
the scientific goals. The integration of a life cycle assessment in the future accelerator project proposals is considered as a
positive first step.
To go beyond aspirations, significant investments in R&D for sustainable detector technologies, energy-efficient computing
powered on low-carbon electricity, and innovative acceleration methods are crucial. Priorities encompass phasing out high-
GWP gases for cooling or particle detection, and energy efficiency in operations. France’s expertise in areas such as energy

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recovery accelerators and klystron efficiency offers opportunities to contribute to an European leadership in sustainable tech-
nologies. Committing to a sustainable trajectory is also an opportunity to bring new expertise on cutting-edge technologies
in HEP.
Finally, communicating the efforts to minimize the environmental footprint to the rest of the scientific community, decision-
makers and the general public is crucial for greater societal acceptance, particularly for large-scale projects. France, as host
state, has a leading role to play in this respect. The communication strategy would benefit from the definition of transparent
and unbiased key quantitative indicators and a clear carbon footprint reduction trajectory, with long-term planning.

3.5 The role of Early Career Researchers

The Early Career Researchers (ECR) should continue to play a central role in the field of high-energy physics. By the start
of next-generation particle collider operation, the ECR of today will in all likelihood be the main drivers and leaders of the
projects, and all possible means should be taken now so that they can succeed in these roles. An important aspect in this
direction is an effective transfer of expertise. This includes already, the hands-on experience acquired through the analysis
of physics data from the ongoing experiments. The expertise in electronics, information technology, instrumentation, and
mechanics are considered as crucial skills, which should be handed over by involving as much as possible the younger
colleagues in the R&D and design of the future experiments. A carefully planned guidance should be pursued, especially
for students, on how to balance their implication between current experiments and the future-oriented projects. The survey
of emerging research fields and of new technologies, as well as the training in project management should be encouraged as
well.
A clear an prompt decision on the investment plans is requested, in particular on the sequence of the major projects at
CERN, in order to improve the confidence in successful career in HEP. In this context, the sustainability is considered as a
cornerstone of the decision-making process. Finally, efforts should be made to better communicate on the relevance of the
various future colliders to ECRs not directly involved in these projects.

4 Executive Summary: Scenarios for flagship projects in Europe

The ongoing ESPP process is expected to lead to a clear decision on the preferred next large scale facility at CERN, as a
successor of the High-Luminosity LHC. Indeed, the Standard Model has been verified with a high precision and the knowl-
edge frontiers are constantly overpassed by the intense investigations and precise measurements at the LHC and elsewhere.
Consequently, the particle physics landscape calls for a significant step in precision and the community’s sense of priority for
an e+ e− collider reached at the former ESPP is still valid. Together with the specific physics axes described above, transverse
and global aspects have been addressed as ingredients of projecting the best possible experimental scenarios for the particle
physics in Europe. Among the consensual views that have been expressed, one can cite the need to determine the energy
scale of new physics, through a new body of high-precision data as stated above; the need for a flagship project at CERN that
would start seamlessly after the completion of HL-LHC; the need for ensuring experimental diversity; the need for sustained
R&D in support of energy-frontier facilities; the attention to be paid from an early stage of the future next flagship project to
ensure its sustainability while emphasizing its positive societal impact.

4.1 Preferred option for the next collider at CERN: FCCee

The French community expressed a strong support for the e+ e− Future Circular Collider project, FCCee , as the next Flagship
facility at CERN. The FCCee project has a compelling physics program, addressing a broad range of physics questions. It will
provide great advances in the knowledge of the couplings of the Higgs bosons, the electroweak and strong gauge couplings,
prominent electroweak observables (mW , mZ , mt and the corresponding widths), flavour physics (the b, c, τ fermions), as well
as searches for dark- or light-sector particles. The operation at the Z pole and the related wealth of electroweak Flavour and
QCD measurements is considered as a unique opportunity, improving many fundamental measurements by factors 10–100
compared to the legacy from LEP1.
In a later stage, this option allows for a 100 TeV hadron collider re-using the FCCee tunnel, providing a unique opportunity
to explore the energy frontier, and to determine the Higgs-boson trilinear coupling with percent-level precision. Together
with a possible electron-hadron collider, this complex would form a major tool for the study of strong interactions.
CERN is the best place worldwide to host a project of FCCee ’s size and category, in terms of expertise, connections,
international practices, infrastructure and sustainability - including a favourable energy mix availability. In particular, the
requirement of sustainability in the design and construction of the facility is considered as a necessity.

4.2 Fall-back options in case the FCCee is not feasible

This section examines the available scenarios in case the FCCee is deemed not feasible. Possible reasons include insufficient
funding, insufficient societal support, environmental cost, or the confirmed construction of a competitive project outside
of Europe and ahead of the European project (for instance ILC in Japan, or CEPC in China). It is not the purpose of

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this document to define the criteria driving these decisions, but to put forward, in accordance with the ECFA guidelines, a
sequence of fall-back projects in case such a decision is made by the appropriate bodies after a careful optimisation of cost,
scope and schedule.

If the construction of an e+ e− collider comparable to the FCCee is not firmly established outside of Europe:
In absence of FCCee , a linear e+ e− collider facility (LCF) at CERN would be the next best option for a Higgs factory.
Somewhat limited statistics at the HZ√cross-section peak and a much smaller luminosity at the Z-pole are in part compensated
by the possibility to reach at least s = 500 GeV, allowing a clean observation of the e+ e− → √νν H process, of the t t
¯
threshold, and providing an improved determination of the Higgs-boson self coupling. Energies of s = 1–3 TeV, as enabled
by CLIC technology, would significantly improve these measurements and allow detailed studies of vector-boson scattering.
The LCF program could be complemented by a dedicated, high-luminosity Z factory, possibly re-using existing infrastructure
at CERN.
As a last-resort
√ fall-back, LEP3 offers an instantaneous luminosity five times less than FCCee and an energy range limited
to about s = 240 GeV. This still matches the purpose of an electroweak, flavour and Higgs factory in line with the 2020
ESPP, but does not allow a complete test of the electroweak theory. LEP3 could be followed by a hadron collider, benefitting
of high-field magnets which would be developed at the horizon of the completion of HL-LHC, to address the missing issues
on a much longer timescale.

If the construction of an e+ e− collider comparable to the FCCee is firmly established outside of Europe, and ahead of the
European project:
The LCF would provide sufficient scientific complementarity only if it covers the entire energy range between the t t¯ produc-
tion threshold and the TeV scale on a reasonable timespan.
Alternatively, the strategy could shift towards the earlier development of a high-energy hh/eh program, ideally implemented
in a new tunnel as in the case
√ of FCC. Given the shorter time available for magnet development, the energy reach would
likely be reduced to about s = 85 TeV.
If a new tunnel is not feasible, a collider such as the HE-LHC could be a fallback alternative with comparable scientific
breadth. Due to its limited size, the HE-LHC energy reach would be limited to O(25 TeV). However, it would serve as
a natural extension of the HL-LHC, reaching similar precision as a TeV-scale LCF. Dedicated flavour and HI experiments
could improve on LHC’s respective legacies.
Both the FCChh and the HE-LHC should be complemented by an electron-hadron collider such as the LHeC to resolve the
uncertainties stemming from the proton and nuclear structure in these uncharted energy regimes. The LHeC also has a rich
physics program of its own, with fundamental measurements in the strong and electroweak sectors, and a non negligible
potential for NP searches. It could run in the mid 2040’s and use improved acceleration techniques based on ERL that will
help achieve the sustainability requirements and benefit to future e+ e− colliders.
While the fall-back scenarios presented above are clearly sub-optimal compared to the FCC program, the scientific loss is in
part compensated by the faster scientific return and increased complementarity offered by a program including ee, pp and
ep collisions in different regions and on similar timescales.

In summary, the huge progress from all areas and experiments in the past five years, in particular from the LHC, sets a
solid base for the future of particle physics in Europe. The rapidly evolving scientific landscape demonstrates the rele-
vance of probing the intimate structure of matter on the energy, precision and complexity frontiers, in particular by a full
exploitation of the LHC potential. The observed robustness of the Standard Model calls to keep a diversified ecosystem of
physics research, including major experiments probing the neutrino- and the dark-sector and small-scale experiments for
specific physics cases with potential for high-impact discoveries. The important societal and transverse items, in particular
sustainability and ECRs career perspectives, should be incorporated as optimization constraints for the future programs. A
strong support is expressed for a circular electron-positron collider at CERN, since it offers the most complete and attrac-
tive physics program after the completion of LHC. The FCCee will be at the forefront of the fundamental physics and will
stimulate cutting edge technology developments in detectors and data analysis, thereby contributing to Europe’s strategic
leadership.

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