Chemical Bonding and Interatomic Bonds

Chemical bonding is essential because atoms combine to achieve stability by completing

their outermost electron shells. There are two major types of chemical bonds: interatomic
bonds, which hold atoms together to form molecules, and intermolecular bonds, which are
weaker forces that exist between molecules.

Interatomic Bonding
Interatomic bonds are the strong interactions that hold atoms together in molecules or
compounds. The main types include electrovalent (ionic), covalent (including dative), and
metallic bonding.

Electrovalent (Ionic) Bond

An ionic bond forms when one atom donates an electron to another, creating positively and
negatively charged ions that are held together by electrostatic attraction. This occurs when
one atom has a low electronegativity (metal) and the other has a high electronegativity
(non-metal).

For example, in sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium (Na) donates one electron to chlorine (Cl),
forming Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions that attract each other. The strength of the bond depends on the
charge magnitude and ionic radii.

Covalent Bond
Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share electrons to achieve stability. A covalent bond is
formed when two atoms share electron pairs to achieve stability. This occurs mainly
between non-metallic elements with similar electronegativities. Covalent bonds can be
single, double, or triple, depending on the number of shared electron pairs.This type of
bonding is prevalent in molecules like water (H₂O), where oxygen shares electrons with
hydrogen atoms. Covalent bonds can be polar or non-polar, depending on the
electronegativity difference between atoms.

Dative (Coordinate) Bond

A dative or coordinate covalent bond is a type of covalent bond where both electrons in the
bond come from a single donor atom. The acceptor atom must have an empty orbital to
accommodate the electron pair.

An example is the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺), where a lone pair from nitrogen donates to a
hydrogen ion (H⁺), forming an N-H bond. Despite the unique formation, dative bonds
behave similarly to regular covalent bonds once formed.

Metallic Bond
Metallic bonding occurs in metals, where atoms lose their valence electrons, forming a 'sea
of delocalized electrons' around positively charged ions. These free-moving electrons
enable metals to conduct electricity and heat. For instance, in copper (Cu), the metal ions
(Cu⁺) are surrounded by delocalized electrons that allow conductivity and malleability.

The positive ions in a metal arise because metal atoms lose their outer electrons, forming a
regular structure of cations surrounded by freely moving electrons. These delocalized
electrons are responsible for the unique properties of metals, such as electrical conductivity
and ductility.

Metallic bonding occurs in metals, where atoms release their valence electrons to form a
"sea of delocalized electrons." These free-moving electrons create strong electrostatic
attractions between positive metal ions and contribute to properties like electrical
conductivity, malleability, and luster.

For instance, in aluminum (Al), the strong metallic bonding accounts for its high melting
point and excellent conductivity.

Intermolecular Bonding
Intermolecular bonds are weaker forces that exist between molecules, influencing their
physical properties, such as boiling and melting points. These forces include van der Waals
forces and hydrogen bonding.Intermolecular forces are weaker than interatomic bonds but
crucial for determining physical properties like boiling points. Van der Waals forces arise
from temporary or permanent dipoles in molecules, affecting non-polar and polar
compounds.

Van der Waals Forces

Van der Waals forces are weak intermolecular attractions that occur due to temporary or
permanent dipoles in molecules. They are categorized into London dispersion forces and
dipole-dipole interactions.

London Dispersion Forces

London dispersion forces arise due to temporary shifts in electron distribution, creating
instantaneous dipoles. These forces are present in all molecules but dominate in non-polar
substances like oxygen (O₂) and methane (CH₄).London forces (induced dipole-dipole
interactions) are the weakest intermolecular forces, occurring due to temporary electron
fluctuations. Even non-polar molecules like nitrogen (N₂) or noble gases experience these
forces. These forces increase with molecular size and mass, affecting the boiling points of
elements in Group 18.
Dipole-Dipole Interactions

Dipole-dipole forces occur between polar molecules with permanent dipoles. Molecules
align so that partially positive and partially negative regions attract each other.

For example, hydrogen chloride (HCl) molecules exhibit dipole-dipole interactions due to
the electronegativity difference between H and Cl. where the partially positive hydrogen of
one molecule attracts the partially negative chlorine of another.

Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen bonding is a strong type of dipole interaction that occurs when hydrogen is
bonded to highly electronegative atoms like nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), or fluorine (F). For
instance, in water (H₂O), hydrogen bonds form between the hydrogen of one molecule and
the oxygen of another, leading to high boiling points.Hydrogen bonding is a strong dipole-
dipole attraction occurring when hydrogen is bonded to highly electronegative atoms like
oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine. In water (H₂O), extensive hydrogen bonding results in high
boiling points. Similarly, in hydrofluoric acid (HF), hydrogen bonding leads to the formation
of dimers, increasing its boiling point.

Dimer Formation Due to Hydrogen Bonding

Dimer formation occurs when two molecules associate due to hydrogen bonding. In
ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH), two molecules form a dimer in the vapor phase by hydrogen
bonding between their hydroxyl (-OH) and carbonyl (C=O) groups. This increases the
boiling point. Other examples of dimerization include benzoic acid (C₆H₅COOH) and formic
acid (HCOOH)