B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P.

Unit 02 - Relativity

Unit – 02; Relativity

Syllabus: Relativity: Newtonian principle of relativity. Non-Inertial Systems: Non-inertial
frames and fictitious forces. Uniformly rotating frame-Expression for Coriolis force.
Special Theory of Relativity: Michelson-Morley Experiment and its outcome. Postulates of
Special Theory of Relativity. Lorentz Transformation equations (Quantitative). Relativity of
Simultaneity. Lorentz contraction. Time dilation. Relativistic addition of velocities. Variation of
mass with velocity. Massless Particles. Mass energy Equivalence. Transformation of Energy and
Momentum. Relativistic Doppler Effect. Relativistic Kinematics. [15 hour]

Introduction:
Since the motion is always relative, we observe and describe the motion of an object
relative to a co-ordinate system. A passenger moves relative to an airplane, the airplane moves
relative to earth; the earth moves relative to the sun; the sun moves relative to the galaxy of
stars (the Milky Way) of which it is a member; and so on. The motion of the same object appears
to be different for different observers. Therefore, we must have a system relative to which the
motion of the object may be described.

“A system relative to which the motion of any object is described is called a frame of
reference”.

“Frame of reference is a coordinate system relative to which the position and motion of
a body may be describe”.
The simple frame of reference is the cartesian coordinate system in which every point in
space may be described by three numbers (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) – the three coordinates of the point.
If 𝑟⃗ is the position vector of point P relative to the origin O of a cartesian frame of
reference then 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ .
In order to specify the exact time of knowing the position of the given particle, we must
assign one more coordinate 𝑡 the time coordinate. Such a reference frame is called space-time
reference frame and consists of four coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
The motion of the objects on the surface of earth is described relative to some point on
it. Thus, earth is itself a frame of reference. The other examples of the frame of reference may
be considered to the walls of the room, the position of stars along the plumb line, the sun etc.
Thus, a frame of reference is an integral part of the description of motion of an object.

Inertial and Non-Inertial Frames:

There are two types of reference frames viz.,
1) Inertial Frames and
2) Non-Inertial Frame

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

“The reference frame in which Newton’s first law is applicable is known as inertial frame.
The frames which move with uniform velocities are also called inertial frames. So, a frame of
reference without acceleration is inertial frame”.
But some specific problems, such as motion of simple pendulum in a carriage moving with
acceleration, motion of satellite relative to Earth surface, etc. can not be solved in inertial frame
of reference. Such problems can be solved in non-inertial frame of reference.

“A frame of reference moving with acceleration is known as non-inertial frame. In non-

inertial reference frames, the fundamental equations of dynamics do not hold true. Uniformly
accelerated frame in translational motion and uniformly accelerated frame in rotational motion
are examples of non-inertial frames.

Uniformly rotating frame-Expression for Coriolis force:

Let 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍 represents the cartesian coordinate axes of an
inertial frame of reference and 𝑋′, 𝑌′, 𝑍′ represents cartesian
coordinate axes of a non-inertial frame of reference rotating with
angular velocity of 𝜔⃗⃗ about an axis passing through common origin O.
The position vector of particle at point P w.r.t. frame S is given by
𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ (01)
The position vector of same particle at position P w.r.t. frame S’ is
𝑟⃗ = 𝑥 ′ 𝑖̂′ + 𝑦 ′ 𝑗̂′ + 𝑧 ′ 𝑘̂ ′ (02)
Differentiating both sides of equation (02) w.r.t. 𝑡, we get
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑥 ′ ′ 𝑑𝑖̂′ 𝑑𝑦 ′ ′ 𝑑𝑗̂ ′ 𝑑𝑧 ′ ̂′
𝑑𝑘
=( 𝑖̂ + 𝑥′ )+( 𝑗 + 𝑦 ′ ) + ( 𝑘̂ ′ + 𝑧′ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑦 ′ ′ 𝑑𝑧 ′ ′ 𝑑𝑖̂′ 𝑑𝑗̂ ′ ̂′
𝑑𝑘
= ( 𝑖̂′ + 𝑗 + 𝑘̂ ) + (𝑥 ′
+𝑦 ′
+ 𝑧′ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖̂ ′ 𝑑𝑗̂ ′ ̂
𝑑𝑘 ′
⃗⃗𝑠 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗⃗𝑠′ + (𝑥 ′ + 𝑦 ′ + 𝑧′ ) (03)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
where ⃗⃗𝑠 = 𝑑𝑟⃗ is velocity of particle P w.r.t. frame S and
𝑉
𝑑𝑡
′ ′ ′
𝑉⃗⃗𝑠′ = (𝑑𝑥 𝑖̂′ + 𝑑𝑦 𝑗 ′ + 𝑑𝑧 𝑘̂ ′ ) is velocity of particle P w.r.t. frame S’
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗
We know that 𝑉 = 𝜔 ⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗, then
𝑑𝑟⃗
=𝜔 ⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗ (04)
𝑑𝑡
Equation (04) is true for all similar vector quantities.
Replacing 𝑟⃗ by 𝑖̂′ in equation (04), we get
𝑑𝑖̂′ 𝑑𝑗̂ ′ 𝑑𝑘 ′
=𝜔 ⃗⃗ × 𝑖̂′ , similarly, =𝜔 ⃗⃗ × 𝑗̂′ and ⃗⃗ × 𝑘̂ ′
=𝜔 (05)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Using equations (05) in equation (03), we get
⃗⃗𝑠 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗⃗𝑠′ + (𝑥 ′ 𝜔 ⃗⃗ × 𝑖̂′ + 𝑦 ′ 𝜔 ⃗⃗ × 𝑘̂ ′ )
⃗⃗ × 𝑗̂′ + 𝑧 ′ 𝜔
⃗⃗𝑠 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗⃗𝑠′ + 𝜔 ⃗⃗(𝑥 ′ × 𝑖̂′ + 𝑦 ′ × 𝑗̂′ + 𝑧 ′ × 𝑘̂ ′ )
⃗⃗⃗𝒔 = 𝑽
𝑽 ⃗⃗⃗𝒔′ + 𝝎⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒓
⃗⃗ (06)
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗
( ) = ( ) ′ +𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗ (07)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝑆

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

Equation (07) is true for other similar vector quantities, so,

⃗⃗𝑠 in equation (07), we get
Replace 𝑟⃗ by 𝑉
𝑑𝑉⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉⃗⃗
( 𝑠) = ( 𝑠) + 𝜔 ⃗⃗𝑠
⃗⃗ × 𝑉 (08)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝑆 ′
Substituting equation (06) in R.H.S. of equation (08), we get
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑉 𝑑
( 𝑠 ) = [ (𝑉 ⃗⃗𝑠′ + 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗)] + 𝜔 ⃗⃗𝑠 ′ + 𝜔
⃗⃗ × (𝑉 ⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗) (09)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝑆′
⃗⃗𝑠
𝑑𝑉 ⃗⃗
𝑑𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑠′ ⃗⃗𝑠′ + 𝜔
( ) =[ +( × 𝑟⃗) ′ + (𝜔
⃗⃗ × ) ]+𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑉 ⃗⃗ × (𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝑆 ′
𝑑𝜔⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎⃗𝑠 = 𝑎⃗𝑠′ + ( × 𝑟⃗) ′ + 𝜔 ⃗⃗𝑠′ + 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑉 ⃗⃗𝑠′ + 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑉 ⃗⃗ × (𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝜔
𝑎⃗𝑠 = 𝑎⃗𝑠′ + ( × 𝑟⃗) ′ + 2𝜔 ⃗⃗𝑠′ + 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑉 ⃗⃗ × (𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆
Multiplying both sides by 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝜔
𝑚𝑎⃗𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎⃗𝑠′ + 𝑚 ( × 𝑟⃗) ′ + 2𝑚𝜔 ⃗⃗𝑠′ + 𝑚𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑉 ⃗⃗ × (𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗𝑭⃗𝒔′ = ⃗𝑭⃗𝒔 − 𝒎 (𝒅𝝎 ⃗⃗) ′ − 𝟐𝒎𝝎
×𝒓 ⃗⃗⃗𝒔′ − 𝒎𝝎
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑽 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × (𝝎
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒓
⃗⃗) (10)
𝒅𝒕 𝑺
⃗𝑭⃗𝒔′ = ⃗𝑭⃗𝒔 + ⃗𝑭⃗𝟎 (11)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝜔
where 𝐹⃗0 = −𝑚 ( × 𝑟⃗) ′ − 2𝑚𝜔 ⃗⃗𝑠′ − 𝑚𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑉 ⃗⃗ × (𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗) (12)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆
is the fictitious force.
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝜔
If 𝜔
⃗⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, then = 0, then equation (12) is rewritten as
𝑑𝑡
𝐹⃗0 = −2𝑚𝜔 ⃗⃗𝑠′ − 𝑚𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑉 ⃗⃗ × (𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗)
𝑭𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒍𝒊′ 𝒔 𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒖𝒈𝒂𝒍
{ }={ }+{ }
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
where Coriolis force = −2𝑚𝜔 ⃗⃗𝑠′ (Coriolis force is an inertial (or fictitious) force that acts
⃗⃗ × 𝑉
on objects in motion within a frame of reference that rotates with respect to an inertial frame)
𝑚𝑣 2
and 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟 = .
𝑟

Michelson – Morley Experiment:

To prove the existence of ‘ether’, an attempt was made to find the velocity of drift
between ether and earth. If ether is assumed to be at rest, the velocity of the earth relative to
ether will be its orbital velocity which is 30 𝑘𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 and velocity of the ether-drift relative
to the earth shall be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Therefore, Michelson with
the help of Morley devised an experiment using his interferometer to detect the presumed
motion of earth through ether.

Principle: It is based upon the phenomenon of interference of light. if two light waves or signals
out of which one is sent in the direction of motion of the earth around the sun while second
perpendicular to it are made incident on two plane mirrors which are perpendicular to the path
of the light waves then the difference in the time taken by the two reflected signals to return to
the starting point can be used to determine the velocity of earth through the ether.
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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

Experimental Arrangements: Michelson interferometer consists of a monochromatic source of

light (S), two plane mirrors M1and M2 placed in perpendicular directions to each other at equal
distances, two glass plates A and B and telescope T. The glass plate A is half silvered, while the
glass plate B is plane glass plate made of same material and having same thickness as that of
plate A. Plate B is called compensating plate. The mirrors M 1 and M2 are full silvered and
positioned in such a way that light beams strike them perpendicular to their surfaces and
reflected back along same path in opposite direction as shown in fig (01).
A convex lens L is used to make the rays of light parallel to its principal axis by placing it
at a distance equal to its focal length from the monochromatic source S. The whole apparatus
was kept in a pool of mercury.

Fig (01)
Working: A parallel beam of light from a monochromatic source of light S falls on a semi-
silvered glass plate A inclined at an angle 450 with the horizonal. At plate A, this beam gets split
into two parts due to refraction and reflection. The refracted beam moves along horizontal
towards mirror M1 while the reflected beam move vertically upward towards mirror M 2 i.e.,
these two beams are perpendicular to each other as M1 and M2 are perpendicular to each other.
The beams incident normally on M 1 and M2 kept at equal distances from plate A, shall retrace
their paths in opposite directions after reflection. On returning back to A, the two beams get
united and are observed through telescope T as shown in fig (02).
Due to the superposition of these two beams, interference takes place forming alternate dark
and bright fringes.
The reflected beam going vertically upward passes through the plate A thrice whereas
the refracted beam going towards M1 crosses the plate A once. Therefore, to compensate the
extra thickness of plate A traversed by reflected beam going towards M 2 as compared to that
of refracted beam going horizontally towards M 1, the glass plate B is used as compensating plate
having same thickness and inclination. It is made of same material (glass) as that of A and placed
in the path of refracted beam going towards M 1.

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

Fig (02) Fig (03)

The interferometer is adjusted in such a way that the arm AM1 is directed towards the
direction of motion of earth and other arm AM 2 is perpendicular to it.
Let 𝑐 be the velocity of light beam and 𝑣 be the orbital velocity of earth in stationary
ether. Therefore, velocity of light beam incident at P on plate A for its journey from path P to
M1 shall be (𝑐 − 𝑣 ) and for it return journey from M 1 to P is (𝑐 + 𝑣 ) with respect to the
interferometer or observer.
Therefore, the time (𝑡𝑥 )taken by the light to go from P to M1 and back to P is given by
𝑡𝑥 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2
𝑙 𝑙
where 𝑡1 = (𝑐−𝑣) and 𝑡2 = (𝑐+𝑣) as 𝑃𝑀1 = 𝑀1 𝑃 = 𝑙
𝑙 𝑙
or 𝑡𝑥 = (𝑐−𝑣) + (𝑐+𝑣)
(𝑐+𝑣)+(𝑐−𝑣) 2𝑙𝑐 2𝑙𝑐
or 𝑡𝑥 = 𝑙 = (𝑐 2 = 𝑣2
(𝑐−𝑣)(𝑐+𝑣) −𝑣 2 ) 𝑐 2 (1− 2 )
𝑐
−𝟏
𝟐𝒍 𝒗𝟐
or 𝒕𝒙 = [𝟏 − 𝟐
] (A) from Binomial Theorem
𝒄 𝒄
2𝑙 𝑣2
or 𝑡𝑥 = [1 − (−1 × ) +∙∙∙∙∙∙∙] neglecting higher terms
𝑐 𝑐2
2𝑙 𝑣2
or 𝑡𝑥 = [1 + ] (01)
𝑐 𝑐2
Due to motion of the earth with velocity 𝑣, the reflected beam moving from A towards
mirror M2 shall meet mirror M2 at M2’ as shown in fig (02).
To calculate time taken by the beam in going from A to M2 and back to A, the beam of
light reflected from A must leave the half silvered plate along the path PN’ so that the resultant
velocity of light and the velocity of earth may act in the direction PN’ as shown in figure (02) as
the position of mirror M2 appears to be shifted to M2’.
Therefore, the resultant velocity along PN’ = √𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 and not 𝑐
After reflection at N’ from mirror M 2’, the light is reflected along N’P’ (as the position of
plate A appears to be shifted to A’) and due to same reason, velocity of light along N’P’ =
√𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 and not 𝑐.
Therefore, time taken by light to go from P to N’ and back to P’ is given by
𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡1′ + 𝑡2′
𝑙 𝑙
where 𝑡1′ = and 𝑡2′ =
√𝑐 2 −𝑣 2 √𝑐 2 −𝑣 2
𝑙 𝑙
or 𝑡𝑦 = +
√𝑐 2 −𝑣 2 √𝑐 2 −𝑣 2

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
2𝑙 2𝑙
or 𝑡𝑦 = 2
= 1⁄2
𝑣 𝑣2
𝑐√1− 𝑐(1− 2 )
𝑐2 𝑐
⁄
2𝑙 𝑣 2 −1 2
or 𝑡𝑦 = (1 − ) from Binomial Theorem
𝑐 𝑐2
2𝑙 1 𝑣2
or 𝑡𝑦 = [1 − (− × ) +∙∙∙∙∙∙∙] neglecting higher terms
𝑐 2 𝑐2
2𝑙 1 𝑣2
or 𝑡𝑦 = [1 + ∙ ] (02)
𝑐 2 𝑐2

Therefore, due to ether drift, time taken by light to go from P to D (on mirror M 1) and
back will be greater that time taken by light to go from P to mirror M 2 and back to P (on the
plate A) after reflection from mirror M 2. The difference in these two intervals of time is given
by
Δ𝑡 = 𝑡𝑥 − 𝑡𝑦
Therefore, from equations (01) and (02), we get
2𝑙 𝑣2 2𝑙 1 𝑣2
Δ𝑡 = [1 + 2
]− [1 + ∙ ]
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑐2
2𝑙 1 𝑣 2
or Δ𝑡 = [ ∙ ]
𝑐 2 𝑐2
𝑙𝑣 2
Δ𝑡 = 3 (03)
𝑐
If 𝑐 be absolute velocity of light, then effective path difference (Δ𝑥 ) is given by
Δ𝑥 = 𝑐 × Δ𝑡
𝑙𝑣 2
Δ𝑥 = 𝑐 ×
𝑐3
𝑙𝑣 2
Δ𝑥 = 2 (04)
𝑐
0
If the whole apparatus is turned through 90 , then time taken by light beam travelling
towards mirror M2 and back will be more than the time taken by light beam moving towards
𝑙𝑣 2
mirror M1 by the same amount Δ𝑡 = 3
𝑐
Hence, the path covered by light beam going towards mirror M 2 will be longer than that
𝑙𝑣 2
going towards M1 by the same amount given by Δ𝑥 =
𝑐2

Due to this path difference, there must be a fringe shift in the field of view of telescope. The
number of fringes (𝑛) shifted is given by
𝑙𝑣 2
Path difference Δ𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 or = 𝑛𝜆
𝑐2
𝑙𝑣 2
or 𝑛= 2
𝑐 𝜆
The fringe shift was not observed because the previous positions of the fringes were not
known. So the whole apparatus is rotated through 900 so that PQ and PR were interchanged.
On rotation total path difference will be 2Δ𝑥
Therefore,effect path difference between the two rays on rotating the interferometer
2𝑙𝑣 2
through 900 is therefore 2Δ𝑥 = .
𝑐2

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

Due to this path difference, there must be a fringe shift in the field of view of telescope.
The number of fringes (𝑛) shifted is given by
Path difference Δ𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆
2𝑙𝑣 2
= 𝑛𝜆
𝑐2
or shift in terms of fringes is given by
2𝑙𝑣 2
𝑛=
𝑐2 𝜆
In the experiment Michelson Morley𝑙 = 10 𝑚. The orbital velocity 𝑢 of earth is about
30 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑜𝑟 3 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1 and the speed of light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 . With the average
wavelength 𝜆 = 6 × 10−7𝑚 for visible light, the expected shift in terms of number of fringes is
2𝑙𝑢2 2×10×(3×104 )2 1
𝑛= = (3×108 )2 = 0.33 ≈
𝑐2 𝜆 ×6×10−7 3
Thus, the expected shift was nearly one-third of a fringe. Michelson’s apparatus was
sensitive enough even to measure the shift of one-hundredth of a fringe. In spite of taking all
the necessary precautions, the experiment showed no shift. The experiment was performed by
a number of scientists at different times of year when the directions of earth’s orbital velocity
were different. The experiment was carried out below the earth’s surface and also at high
altitudes but in each case the observed shift was almost negligible. These are called negative
results of Michelson Morley experiment. The negative results of the experiment indicate that
there is no relative motion between the earth and the so-called ether. This observation negates
the existence of a universal or fundamental or absolute frame of reference called ether.

Explanation of Negative Result:

Several alternative explanations were given by different physicists, who believed in the
stationary hypothesis to justify the negative results of Michelson and Morley experiment. Some
of the explanations are as follows:
1) Michelson tried to explain this null result on the hypothesis that earth dragged a little
ether along with it, so that there was no relative motion between the earth and ether
and hence no shift. To overcome this difficulty Michelson and Morley performed their
experiment on a mountain so that the effect of ether is reduced but it was of no use as
no fringe shift was detected.
2) As the earth revolves around the sun in its orbit along different directions therefore it
was pleaded that the absolute frame of ether at any instant may have the same velocity
with respect to earth and the earth at that instant may be at rest with respect to ether
and no shift is observed. To rule out this possibility, the experiment was repeated at
different times of the year but no change in result was found.
3) In the year 1892, Lorentz and Fitzgerald tried to explain the negative results by saying
that there occurs a contraction in length of an object along the direction of motion of the
𝑣2
object relative to the ether. Thus, the distance gets shortened by a factor √1 − and
𝑐2
𝑣2
effectively the distance is 𝑙 √1 − instead of 𝑙. The distance PB remains the same. Thus,
𝑐2
from equation (A)
M Jani Baig, DoP, ASM College, Ballari – February 2024 Page 7
 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
1⁄2
𝑣2
2𝑙(1− 2 ) −1 −1⁄2
𝑐 𝑣2 2𝑙 𝑣2
𝑡𝑥 = (1 − 2 ) = (1 − 2 ) = 𝑡𝑦
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Hence ∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑥 − 𝑡𝑦 = 0
path difference = 𝑐∆𝑡 = 0
Hence the expected shift in the interference pattern should be zero which
really was the observation in the experiment. Thus, the negative result was
explained though it did not follow naturally from the theory.

4) Einstein’s Explanation: An explanation of the null results of Michelson and Morley

experiment was proposed by Einstein in 1905 on the fact that velocity of light is an
invariant and hence it is not possible to detect relative motion through ether i.e., velocity
of light is constant and does not depend upon the motion of the source, observer and
medium. This is also one of the postulates of the special theory of relativity and explained
𝑣2
length contraction by a factor of √1 − .
𝑐2
On the basis of above possibilities, it was concluded that;
a) Ether has no observable properties. Therefore, it is wrong to assume such things as
absolute space or fixed and fundamental frame of reference.
b) The velocity of light is same in all directions and does not depend upon the motion of the
source or observer or both.

Einstein’s Theory of Relativity: From the negative results of the ether-drift experiments, more
importantly that of Michelson-Morley experiment, and also from his own reasoning, Einstein
came to the conclusion that there is nothing like ether and an absolute or fixed frame of
reference does not exist in reality. Einstein took the scientific community by surprise when he
gave his special theory of relativity in the year 1905. This simple version of theory of relativity
was based upon two fundamental postulates and deals with problems associated with internal
frames of reference. Later in the year 1915, he gave the more complex, general theory of
relativity which treats problems associated with non-inertial frames of reference that are
frames of reference accelerated with respect to one another. The theory of relativity therefore
deals with the consequences of the lack of a universal frame of reference.
The theory of relativity proved to be the revolution in the scientific world because just as
the enunciation of Newton’s laws of motion heralded emancipation from the age-old
Aristotelian ideas of motion so also did Einstein’s theory of relativity to discard the concept of
luminiferous ether and the confused notions of absolute space and time.

Special Theory of Relativity: Special theory of relativity was given by Einstein in the year 1905
and is based upon two fundamental postulates. These are:

1st Postulate (Principle of equivalence of all inertial frames):

“The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference”.
or

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

“The laws of physical phenomena are exactly same in all inertial frames moving with
constant velocity with each other”.
This postulate is known as the principle of relativity and follows from the absence of a
universal frame of reference. If the laws of physics were different for observers in different
frames in relative motion, it could be determined from these differences which objects are
stationary in space and which of them are moving. But because there is no universal frame of
reference, this distinction between he objects cannot be made. Thus, the equations of physics
cannot acquire different forms in different inertial frames.

2nd Postulate (Principle of Invariance of velocity of light):

“The speed of light in free space has the same value in all inertial frames of reference”.
or
“The velocity of light in space has the same value for all observers in all directions and is
independent of the velocity of the source and the observer”.
This postulate follows directly from the results of many experiments notably Michelson-
Morley experiment. It must also be mentioned here that the speed of light will be the same in
all directions in an inertial frame. These postulates are not in agreement with Galilean
transformations. Einstein showed that Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetic waves (of which
light is an example) is consistent with special theory of relativity whereas Newtonian mechanics
is not. He developed relativistic mechanics for describing phenomena that take place at relative
speed comparable with the speed of light. However, it was seen that at relative speeds much
smaller compared to the speed of light, Newtonian mechanics agrees well with the results of
relativistic mechanics. Thus, Newtonian mechanics turns out to be a special case of more
general theory i.e., relativistic mechanics. This is the reason behind Newtonian mechanics
giving accurate results at low relative speeds.

Lorentz Transformation:
Galilean transformations are not consistent with special theory of relativity. They violate
both postulates of special theory. The first postulate requires for the same equations of physics
in both the inertial frames S and S’ between which we transform the co-ordinates of an event.
But it has been verified that the equations of the electricity and magnetism take very different
forms when the Galilean transformation is used to covert quantities measured in one frame into
their equivalents in the other. According to second postulate the speed of light in free space
should be the same whether determined from frame S or S’. However, if we measure the speed
of light in the x-direction in the frame S to be 𝑐, then its value as transformed into frame S’
would be
𝑐′ = 𝑐 − 𝑣
where 𝑣 is the constant speed of S’ along x-direction relative to frame S.Thus a more general
transformation was required to relate measurements between two inertial frames.
The correct transformation equations were derived by H. A. Lorentz in the year 1895. The
Lorentz transformation equations were developed in accordance with the two postulates of
special theory of relativity.

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

Let us consider two frames of references S and S’, as shown in fig (01). The frame S is at
rest while the frame S’ is moving along +x-direction with a constant speed 𝑣 relative to frame S.
“A set of equations which relates the space-time coordinates of two frames of references
having relative motion between them are called Lorentz Transformation Equations”.
Let the co-ordinates of the event at A be (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) at any instant of time 𝑡 when observed
from frame S. Now every frame has its own characteristic time, therefore the same event
appears to occur at time 𝑡 ′ and has coordinates(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) as seen from frame S’. Since the
relative motion is along x-direction, therefore the x-coordinates in two frames should be
different. Let the correct relationship between 𝑥 and 𝑥′ is given by
𝑥 ′ = 𝛾 (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) (01)
where 𝛾 is a factor that does not depend upon either 𝑥 or 𝑡 but may be a function of 𝑣. Since
the equations of physics must have the same form in both S and S’, therefore we must have
𝑥 = 𝛾(𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡′) (02)
where 𝛾 should be the same in both the frames as there is no difference between the two
frames except the sign of 𝑣.
Substituting the value of 𝑥′ from
equation (01) into equation (02), we get 𝑦 𝑦′
𝑣
𝑥 = 𝛾{𝛾 (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) + 𝑣𝑡′}
𝑆 𝑆′
𝑥 = 𝛾 2(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) + 𝛾𝑣𝑡′
𝛾𝑣𝑡 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝛾 2 𝑥 + 𝛾 2𝑣𝑡 𝐴 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑥 𝛾2 𝑥 𝛾2 𝑣𝑡 (𝑥′, 𝑦′, 𝑧′, 𝑡′)
𝑡′ = − +
𝛾𝑣 𝛾𝑣 𝛾𝑣
1−𝛾2
𝑡 ′ = 𝛾𝑡 + ( ) 𝑥 (03)
𝛾𝑣
Equations (01), (02) and (03) are in 𝑂 𝑂′ 𝑥 𝑥′
accordance with the first postulates of 𝑧 𝑧′
the special theory of relativity.
Fig (01)
The factor 𝛾 can be determined by using the second postulate of special theory of
relativity. Let at 𝑡 = 𝑡 ′ = 0, the origins of frames S and S’ coincide. Suppose that a light signal
starts at the common origin of S and S’ at 𝑡 = 𝑡 ′ = 0, and observers in each frame measure the
speed of light signal. Both observers must find the same speed 𝑐. Thus, in frame S
𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡 (04)
and that in frame S’
𝑥 ′ = 𝑐𝑡′ (05)
Substituting the values of 𝑥′ and 𝑡′ from equations (01) and (03), into equation (05), we get
1−𝛾2
𝛾(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) = 𝑐 {𝛾𝑡 + ( ) 𝑥}
𝛾𝑣
1−𝛾2
𝛾(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) = 𝛾𝑐𝑡 + ( ) 𝑐𝑥
𝛾𝑣
1−𝛾2
or [𝛾 − ( ) 𝑐] 𝑥 = 𝛾𝑐𝑡 + 𝛾𝑣𝑡
𝛾𝑣
𝛾𝑐𝑡+𝛾𝑣𝑡
or 𝑥= 1−𝛾2
[𝛾−( )𝑐]
𝛾𝑣

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
𝑣
𝛾+𝑐 𝛾
𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡 [ 1−𝛾2 𝑐
]
[𝛾−( ) ]
𝛾 𝑣
Dividing the numerator and denominator by 𝛾
𝑣
1+
𝑐
or 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡 [ 1 𝑐 ] (06)
[1−( −1)𝑣]
𝛾2
Comparing equations (04) and (06) we get,
𝑣
1+𝑐
1 𝑐 =1
[1−( −1) ]
𝛾2 𝑣
𝑣 1 𝑐
1+ =1−( − 1)
𝑐 𝛾2 𝑣
𝑣 1 𝑐
= −( − 1)
𝑐 𝛾2 𝑣
𝑣 1 𝑐
= (1 − )
𝑐 𝛾2 𝑣
𝑣2 1
= (1 − )
𝑐2 𝛾2
1 𝑣2
= (1 − )
𝛾2 𝑐2
𝟏
𝜸= 𝟐
(07)
√𝟏−𝒗𝟐
𝒄

Substituting this value of 𝛾 in equation (01), we get

𝒙−𝒗𝒕
𝒙′ = 𝟐
(08)
√𝟏−𝒗𝟐
𝒄

Again, substituting the value of 𝛾 in equation (03), we get

1
1−( )
𝑣2
𝑡 1− 2
𝑡′ = 2
+ 𝑣
𝑐
𝑥
√1−𝑣2 2
𝑐 √1−𝑣
[ 𝑐2 ]
𝑣2
(1− 2 )−1
𝑐
𝑣2
𝑡 1− 2
𝑡′ = 2
+ 𝑣
𝑐
𝑥
√1−𝑣2 2
𝑐 √1−𝑣
𝑐2
[ ]
𝑣2
(1− 2 )−1
𝑐
𝑣2
𝑡 1− 2 𝑣2
𝑡′ = + 𝑐
√1 − 𝑥
2 𝑣 𝑐2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
[ ]
𝑣2
𝑡 (1− 2 )−1
𝑐
𝑡′ = 2
+[ 2
]𝑥
√1−𝑣2 𝑣
𝑣 √1− 2
𝑐 𝑐

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

𝑣2
𝑡 (1− 2 −1)
𝑐
𝑡′ = 2
+[ ]𝑥
𝑣2
√1−𝑣2 𝑣 √1−
𝑐 𝑐2

𝑣2
𝑡 ( 2 𝑥)
𝑐
𝑡′ = 2
−[ 2
]
√1−𝑣2 𝑣
𝑣 √1− 2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑣2
𝑣𝑡−( 2 𝑥)
𝑐
𝑡′ = [ ]
𝑣2
𝑣√1−
𝑐2
𝒗𝒙
𝒕−
′ 𝒄𝟐
Dividing the numerator and denominator by 𝑣 𝒕 = 𝟐
(09)
√𝟏−𝒗𝟐
𝒄

Since there is no relative motion between S and S’ along the y- and z-directions therefore
like in Galilean transformation, we again have
𝒚′ = 𝒚 and 𝒛′ = 𝒛 (10)
Equations (08), (09) and (10) give all the transformation equations which transform the
measurement of an event made in S to the corresponding measurement made in S’. The full
significance of these equations was later discovered by Einstein.

Inverse Lorentz Transformations:

If measurements are made in frame S’ and we want to transform them into frame S, then
the required equations are known as Inverse Lorentz Transformations. To obtain Inverse
Lorentz Transformations, primed and unprimed quantities into equations (08) and (10) are
interchanged and 𝑣 is replaced by – 𝑣 to give
𝑥 ′ +𝑣𝑡 ′
𝑥= 2
(11)
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
𝑣𝑥
𝑡′+2
𝑐
𝑡= 2
(12)
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
and 𝑦 = 𝑦′ and 𝑧 = 𝑧′ (13)

Physical Significance of Lorentz Invariance:

(a) Galilean transformation is a special case of Lorentz transformation: If the velocity (𝑣 )
𝑣 𝑣
of moving frame S’ is much smaller than the velocity of light (𝑐 ), then << 1, so 2 → 0
𝑐 𝑐
𝑣2
and hence → 0 under the given limit. Therefore, we get
𝑐2
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑦′ = 𝑦
𝑧′ = 𝑧
𝑡′ = 𝑡
which represents Galilean transformations.
“Hence, Galilean transformations have been obtained as a special case from Lorentz
transformation”.
M Jani Baig, DoP, ASM College, Ballari – February 2024 Page 12
 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

(b) Lorentz transformations have superiority over Galilean transformation: The Galilean
transformations hold for low velocities only while Lorentz transformation holds for all
velocities of the frame of reference. Therefore, Lorentz transformations are superior to
that of the Galilean transformations.

Consequences of Lorentz Transformation:

Several important results of relativity follow naturally from the Lorentz transformation
equations though in our daily life we do not experience their effects due to small relative
velocity between the frames of reference under consideration. Some of these are;
1) Length contraction
2) Time dilation
3) Relativistic addition of velocities
4) Simultaneity
5) Invariance of space-time interval
6) Relativistic Doppler Effect
7) Variation of mass with velocity, etc.

Relativity of Space or Length Contraction:

Measurement of lengths are effect by the relative motion between the object and the
observer. If an object is in motion relative to an observer then the length 𝐿 will be smaller
compared to its length 𝐿0 when the object is at rest with respect to the observer. This
contraction or shortening of length occurs only in the direction of the relative motion. The
length 𝐿0 of an object in its rest frame is called its proper length and is the largest or maximum
length of the object. The proper length will be the same in all stationary frames of reference.
“This length 𝐿0 is called proper length of the object (say rod) as it is defined as the length
measured by a scale at rest with respect to the object”.

Fig (01)
Consider two coordinate systems S and S’, the latter moving with velocity 𝑣 relative to
the former along x-direction. Imagine that the rod is at rest with respect to the frame of
reference S’ and is placed in S’ parallel to its x-axis. If 𝑥1′ and 𝑥2′ be the coordinates of the ends
of the rod, then its length 𝐿0 in the reference frame S’ is given by
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿0 = 𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

Now let an observer in reference frame S measure the length of the same rod. Let 𝑥1 and
𝑥2 be the coordinates of the ends of the rod, then its length 𝐿0 in the reference frame S is given
by
𝐿 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
As S’ is moving to the right along the X-axis with velocity 𝑣 with respect to reference
frame S, therefore, according to inverse Lorentz transformation, we get
𝑥 −𝑣𝑡
𝑥1′ = 1 21
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
𝑥2 −𝑣𝑡2
and 𝑥2′ = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
𝑥2 −𝑣𝑡2 𝑥1 −𝑣𝑡1
𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′ = 2
− 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
(𝑥2 −𝑣𝑡2 )−(𝑥1 −𝑣𝑡1 ) (𝑥2 −𝑥1 )−𝑣(𝑡2 −𝑡1 )
𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′ = 2
= 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
To make the observer in reference frame S to be able to measure the length of the object
AB in S; he should mark the two ends A and B of the object at same instant of time i.e., 𝑡2 = 𝑡1
(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )
𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′ = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝐿 𝒗𝟐
𝐿0 = or 𝑳 = 𝑳𝟎 √ 𝟏 − (01)
2 𝒄𝟐
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
Since, 𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′ = 𝐿0 is the actual or proper length,𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 𝐿 is the observed length of same
object as measured by S when S’ is in motion.
Hence, when measuring the length of an object in the system S’ moving with a velocity 𝑣
with respect to an observer in the system S, it is found that the length gets contracted by a
𝑣2
factor √1 − and the contraction is the reciprocal also i.e., the observer in system S’ finds that
𝑐2
the length of an object lying in the system S whose proper length is 𝐿0 appears to be 𝐿 =
𝑣2
𝐿0 √ 1 − .
𝑐2
This phenomenon is called the length contraction or space contraction. It is also called
Lorentz Fitzgerald contraction.
A D A’ D’
𝑣 𝑣

B C B’ C’
Square at rest Moving square Sphere at rest Moving sphere
Fig (02a) Fig (02b)
Thus, according to theory of relativity, the length of an object is not absolute but depends
upon the relative motion of the object with respect to the observer. Also the length contraction
takes place along the direction of motion and not in a direction perpendicular to the direction

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

of motion keeping in view the Lorentz transformations as 𝑦1′ = 𝑦1 , 𝑦2′ = 𝑦2 , 𝑧1′ =

𝑧1, 𝑧2′ = 𝑧2
i.e., 𝑦2′ − 𝑦1′ = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 and 𝑧2′ − 𝑧1′ = 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
therefore, a moving square appears as a rectangle and a circle appears as an ellipse with its
minor axis along the direction of motion as shown in fig (02a) and fig (02b).
Note: From equation (01)
𝑣2
a) When 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐 then 2 may be neglected and 𝐿 = 𝐿0. At low speed no change in the length
𝑐
of the rod is observed. The length of the rod at rest is equal to that the rod in motion as
in classical mechanics.
𝑣2
b) When 𝑣 < 𝑐 then √1 − < 1 ⇒ 𝐿 < 𝐿0 .
𝑐2
Hence, the moving rod appears to be contracted in the direction of motion.
𝑣2
c) When 𝑣 = 𝑐, then √1 − = 0 ⇒ 𝐿 = 0, which is impossible.
𝑐2
Hence it limits the velocity of the moving object. “The maximum velocity that an object
can attain is the velocity of light but not higher than that”.

Relativity of Time or Time Dilation:

Time interval of an event remains the same for all observers in moving frames having any
velocity relative to reference frame in which event occurs as per classical mechanics. But
according to the theory of relativity, time interval of an event is not absolute i.e., time of same
two events will be different, when measured in different frames moving with different relative
velocities.
Let us obtain a relation between the time interval between two events (say ticking of a
clock or heart beats of a person) as measured by two observers in relative motion. Let us
consider a frame of reference S’ moving with constant velocity 𝑣 along positive X or X’-axis with
respect to another reference frame S which is at rest. Let an observer in frame S observes two
events taking place in frame S’ moving with respect to S and records the time interval between
the above said events occurring at the same point. It is observed that time interval measured
in frame S is longer than the time interval between same events measured in the frame S’. This
is called Time Dilation which means to lengthen a time interval or moving clock appears to run
slow to an observer at rest.
Let 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 be the instant of time when first and second events (say successive ticking
of clock or two consecutive heart beats) are recorded by a clock at position 𝑥 in frame S which
is at rest.
Similarly, let 𝑡1′ and 𝑡2′ be the instants recorded by a clock in frame S’ moving with relative
velocity 𝑣, for the same two successive events taking place at position 𝑥. Then, according to
Lorentz inverse transformations,
𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥
𝑡1 − 𝑡2 −
𝑐2 𝑐2
𝑡1′ = 2
and 𝑡2′ = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 −
𝑐2 𝑐2
𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ = 2
− 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥
(𝑡2 − 2 )−(𝑡1 − 2 )
or 𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ = 𝑐 𝑐
2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
𝑡2 −𝑡1
or 𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
If 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝑇0 and 𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ = 𝑇 are time elapsed between two given events measured by clock
in frame S and S’ respectively, then we get
𝑻𝟎
𝑻= 𝟐
(01)
√𝟏−𝒗𝟐
𝒄

As 𝑣 < 𝑐 , therefore, 𝑇 > 𝑇0 . Hence the observer in frame S’ measures longer time
interval between two events as compared to the time interval measured by same clock between
the same two events in frame S which is at rest i.e., a clock frame S appears to go slow to an
observer in S’ which is in motion relative to S. This is called time dilation.

Note: From equation (01), we have

𝑣2
a) When 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐 then 2 may be neglected and 𝑇 = 𝑇0 . At low speed no change in the
𝑐
intervals of time when observed either from frame S or frame S’.
𝑣2
b) When 𝑣 < 𝑐 then √1 − < 1 ⇒ 𝑇 > 𝑇0, thus the moving clock appears to run slow.
𝑐2
𝑣2
c) When 𝑣 = 𝑐 then √1 − =0⇒𝑇=∞
𝑐2
The movement of the moving system with a velocity of light appears to be dead slow.
Again, it puts the limit to the velocity of an object. No object can attain the velocity
greater than the velocity of light.

Proper Time and Relativistic Time: “The time interval between two events which occur at the
same position as recorded by a clock kept in the inertial frame in which the events occur, is called
the proper time”.
“The time interval between the same two events measured by an observer from an inertial frame
which is moving with respect to the frame S in which clock is kept, called non-proper or
relativistic time”.

The Twin Paradox: “It is the direct consequence of the time dilation causing differential ageing”.
Consider two exactly identical twin brothers. If one of the twins stays at home while
other goes on a long and fast trip through space (with very high velocity) then on his return from
journey he will be younger than his twin brother who stayed at home. The traveler twin will
have lived through less time i.e., the watch he carried with him have ticked lesser number of
times or the watch appears to be slower. For example, an astronaut returning after one year

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

having moved with velocity of 0.5𝑐 appears to be younger to an observer on earth. This can be
shown mathematically using time-dilation relation as follows:
Let 𝑇0 be the proper time spent in the spaceship by an astronaut corresponding to the
observer time 𝑇 of one year on earth. The observed or ordinary time 𝑇 on earth is more than
the proper time 𝑇0 in the spaceship of the astronaut and is given by
𝑇
𝑇= 0 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝑣2 (0.5𝑐)2
𝑇0 = 𝑇√1 − = 1√1 − = √0.75 = 0.866 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑐2 𝑐2
Therefore, the astronaut is younger by (𝑇 − 𝑇0) = 1 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 18 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
To resolve this paradox, we must note that the twin who is in the moving frame S’ is in
accelerated frame of reference, as the he undergoes an acceleration at various times in his
journey say when he takes off; when he turns round, and when he finally comes to stop. The
results of special theory of relativity cannot be applied at all to the above accelerated frames as
these are applicable for frames of reference moving with uniform velocity. Time dilation cannot
be applicable in this case. Therefore, the two brothers will have the same age when they meet.

Concept of Simultaneity:
“According to the principle of simultaneity, two events which appear to take place
simultaneously to an observer are, in general, not simultaneous to anther observer in relative
motion”.
Consider two time-bombs explode at the same time 𝑡0 to an observer on ground. Let the
two bombs are at different places 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 . Now consider this situation to a pilot of a
spaceship moving with a velocity 𝑣 relative to ground. For him, the explosion at 𝑥1 occurs at
𝑡0 −𝑣𝑥1 ⁄𝑐 2
𝑡1′ = (01)
√1−𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2
The explosion at 𝑥2 occurs at
𝑡0 −𝑣𝑥2 ⁄𝑐 2
𝑡2′ = (02)
√1−𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2
The time interval is given by
(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 )𝒗⁄𝒄𝟐
𝒕′𝟐 − 𝒕′𝟏 = (03)
√𝟏−𝒗𝟐 ⁄𝒄𝟐
Thus, the two events which occur simultaneously to an observer are separated to another
observer.
So, we conclude that there is no such thing as ‘absolute time’ which is different for
different observers. In this way, time is relative. It is different for observers in relative motion.

Relativistic Velocity Transformation (Velocity Addition Theorem):

We know that Lorentz transformation equations help us to transform the velocity from
one frame of reference to another, in relative motion with respect to each other. Also, using
Lorentz transformation equations, we can obtain a relativistic velocity addition formula known
as Einstein’s Velocity Addition Theorem.

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

To derive it, let us consider two inertial frames of references S and S’ in relative motion.
Let S’ moves with uniform velocity 𝑣 along the positive X-axis relative to S.
Let 𝑢 ⃗⃗ = 𝑢⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑥 +𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢𝑧 where 𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑢𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑢𝑧 are the rectangular components of 𝑢⃗⃗ .
Similarly ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢′ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢𝑥′ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢𝑦′ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢𝑧′ where ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢𝑥′ , 𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
′ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗′
𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑧 are the rectangular components of 𝑢 .
⃗⃗⃗⃗′
These components are given as
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 = and 𝑢𝑧 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑦 ′ 𝑑𝑧 ′
and 𝑢𝑥′
= ′ = ′ and =𝑢𝑦′ 𝑢𝑧′
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ′
The Lorentz transformation equations are
𝑣𝑥
𝑥−𝑣𝑡 𝑡−
′ ′ ′ ′ 𝑐2
𝑥 = 2
𝑦 =𝑦 𝑧 =𝑧 𝑡 = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
Taking derivative of the above equations, we get
𝑣
𝑑𝑥−𝑣∙𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡− 2 𝑑𝑥
′ ′ ′ ′ 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡 = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
Therefore,
𝑑𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑥−𝑣∙𝑑𝑡
= 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡− 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑐
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑡
−𝑣
= 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 ′ 1− 2 ∙ 𝑑𝑡
𝑐
𝑢𝑥 −𝑣
𝑢𝑥′ = 𝑣 (01)
1− 2 𝑢𝑥
𝑐
𝑣2 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦√1− √1−𝑣2
𝑑𝑦 ′ 𝑐2 𝑑𝑡 𝑐
Also = 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡− 2 𝑑𝑥 1− 2 ∙ 𝑑𝑡
𝑐 𝑐
𝑣2
𝑢𝑦 √1−
𝑐2
𝑢𝑦′ = 𝑣 (02)
1− 2 ∙𝑢𝑥
𝑐
𝑣 2 𝑑𝑧 2
𝑑𝑧√1− 2 √1−𝑣2
𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑐
And = 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡− 2 𝑑𝑥 1− 2 ∙ 𝑑𝑡
𝑐 𝑐
𝑣2
𝑢𝑧 √1−
𝑐2
𝑢𝑧′ = 𝑣 (03)
1− 2 ∙𝑢𝑥
𝑐
Here, equations (01), (02) and (03) gives the components of velocities in frame S’ and
represent velocity transformation equations.
Similarly, we can get inverse velocity transformation equations by putting −𝑣 in place of
𝑣 in the above equations.
𝑢𝑥′ +𝑣
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣 (04)
1+ 2 𝑢𝑥′
𝑐
′ √1− 𝑣2
𝑢𝑦
𝑐2
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑣 ′ (05)
1+ 2 ∙𝑢𝑥
𝑐
𝑣2
𝑢𝑧′ √1−
𝑐2
𝑢𝑧 = 𝑣 (06)
1+ 2 ∙𝑢𝑥′
𝑐

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

Here, equations (01) to (06) represent the relativistic law of addition of velocities or
components of velocities which are different from those in classical mechanics where 𝑢𝑥′ =
𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣, 𝑢𝑦′ = 𝑢𝑦 and 𝑢𝑧′ = 𝑢𝑧 .

Note:
𝑢−𝑣
1. If the velocity of particle is along X-axis i.e., 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢, 𝑢𝑦 = 0 and 𝑢𝑧 = 0, then 𝑢′ = 𝑣
1− 2 𝑢
𝑐
𝑢′ +𝑣
and conversely 𝑢 = 𝑣
1+ 2 𝑢′
𝑐
2. No particle can have velocity greater than light: To show this, let us suppose that a particle
is moving with the velocity of light as observed by an observer O in frame. (This velocity
𝑐−𝑣
of the same particle for an observer O’ in frame S’ is given by 𝑢′ = 𝑣 i.e., 𝑢′ = 𝑐
1−
𝑐
i.e., the observer in the inertial frame S’ also finds the particle to be moving with same
velocity 𝑐 or we can say that it is not possible for a particle to move with a velocity faster
than light.
This also shows that Lorentz transformation equations are in accordance with the
consistency of velocity of light.

Relativity of mass or variation of mass with velocity:

On the basis of special theory of relativity, we have seen that length and time are not
absolute quantities but depend on the frame of reference from which they are observed. Same
is true for mass also i.e., mass is not absolute quantity but varies with velocity which is in
contradiction with the classical physics, according which mass is invariant and independent of
velocity. To derive an expression which tells us how mass depends on speed, let us consider an
elastic collision between two exactly identical and perfectly elastic spherical balls.
Let both the given balls have the same mass in a frame in which they are at rest.
Now, let us consider collision between the balls in a coordinate frame S’ moving with
uniform velocity 𝑣 with respect to an observer O at the origin of coordinate system S as shown
in fig (01)
The two balls labelled A and B are
moving with velocity 𝑢 and −𝑢 respectively
with respect to observer O’ (origin of
coordinate system S’). As the two balls are
moving with same velocity with respect to O’,
therefore they must have same mass, say 𝑚,
in S’ frame of reference. Let us further
assume that after collision, the two balls
coalesce. The speed of coalesced mass in S’
frame of reference can be measured using Fig (01)
law of conservation of momentum i.e.,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓
or { }+{ }={ }
𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐴 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
M Jani Baig, DoP, ASM College, Ballari – February 2024 Page 19
 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

or 𝑚𝑢 + (−𝑚𝑢) = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 0
Thus, the coalesced mass, after collision between A and B, must be at rest in S’ frame of
reference.
Let us now consider the same collision from the view point of an observer O which is at
the origin of reference frame S. For him, the velocities of balls A and B before collision are not
equal. To the observer O, before collision, ball A appears to be moving with velocity 𝑢1 such
that
𝑢+𝑣
𝑢1 = 𝑣 (01)
1+ 2 𝑢
𝑐
and ball B appears to be moving with a velocity 𝑢2 , such that
−u+𝑣
𝑢2 = 𝑣 (02)
1− 2 u
𝑐
After collision, the coalesced mass, which is at rest in S’ frame, will appear to be moving
with a velocity 𝑣 to the observer O in S frame.
As the physical laws are same in all inertial frames of reference, therefore, the
momentum must be conserved in this collision also for the observer in S, i.e.,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
{ }={ }
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚1𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2)𝑣 (03)
where 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are the masses of ball A and B respectively or observed by observer O in
frame of reference S.
Using equations (01), (02) and (03), we get
𝑢+𝑣 −𝑢+𝑣
𝑚1 ( 𝑢𝑣 ) + 𝑚2 ( 𝑢𝑣 ) = 𝑚1𝑣 + 𝑚2𝑣
1+ 2 1−
𝑐 𝑐2

𝑢+𝑣 −𝑢+𝑣
or 𝑚1 [ 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣] = 𝑚2 [𝑣 − ( 𝑢𝑣 )]
1+ 2 1−
𝑐 𝑐2
𝑢𝑣2 𝑢𝑣2
𝑢+𝑣−𝑣+ 𝑣−+𝑢+𝑣
𝑐2 𝑐2
or 𝑚1 [ 𝑢𝑣 ]=𝑚 [ 2 𝑢𝑣 ]
1+ 1− 2
𝑐2 𝑐
𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑢(1− 2 ) 𝑢(1− 2 )
𝑐 𝑐
or 𝑚1 [ 𝑢𝑣 ] = 𝑚2 [ 𝑢𝑣 ]
1+ 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑢𝑣
𝑚2 1− 2
𝑐
or = 𝑢𝑣 (04)
𝑚1 1+ 2
𝑐
Squaring equation (01), we get
(𝑢+𝑣)2 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 +2𝑢𝑣
𝑢12 = 𝑢𝑣 2
= 𝑢𝑣 2
(1+ 2 ) (1+ )
𝑐 𝑐2
Dividing both sides by 𝑐 2 and subtracting from 1, we have
𝑢2 𝑣2 2𝑢𝑣
𝑢12 + +
𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑐2
1− = 1− 𝑢𝑣 2
𝑐2 (1+ 2 )
𝑐
2
𝑢 𝑣 2 2𝑢𝑣 𝑢2 𝑣2 2𝑢𝑣
𝑢12 1+ 4 + 2 − 2 − 2 − 2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
1− = 𝑢𝑣 2
𝑐2 (1+ )
𝑐2

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
𝑢2 𝑣2 𝑢2
𝑢12 (1− )− 2 (1− 2 )
𝑐2 𝑐 𝑐
1− = 𝑢𝑣 2
𝑐2 )(1+
𝑐2
𝑢 2 𝑣2
𝑢12 (1− 2 )(1− 2 )
𝑐 𝑐
1− = 𝑢𝑣 2
(05)
𝑐2 (1+
𝑐 2)

Similarly, from equation (02), proceeding as above, we have

𝑢2 𝑣2
𝑢22 (1− 2 )(1− 2 )
𝑐 𝑐
1− = 𝑢𝑣 2
(06)
𝑐2 (1− )
𝑐2
Dividing equation (05) by (06), we get
𝑢21 𝑢𝑣 2
1− (1− )
𝑐2 𝑐2
𝑢2
= 𝑢𝑣 2
1− 22 (1+
𝑐2
)
𝑐
2
√1−𝑢1 1−
𝑢𝑣
𝑐2 𝑐2
or 2
= 𝑢𝑣 (07)
√1−𝑢2 1+ 2
𝑐
𝑐2
Comparing equation (04) with (07), we get
2
√1−𝑢21
𝑚2 𝑐
= 2
𝑚1 √1−𝑢22
𝑐

𝑢12 𝑢22
𝑚1√1 − = 𝑚2 √ 1 − (08)
𝑐2 𝑐2
Let us consider a special case of collision between two balls A and B, when one of the ball
say B is at rest i.e., 𝑢2 = 0 and having its mass 𝑚2 = 𝑚0 with respect to observer O in frame S.
𝑢12
Then from equation (08), we get 𝑚1√1 − = 𝑚0
𝑐2
Here, 𝑚0 is ‘the rest mass of the body’.
𝑚0
The mass 𝑚1 of the body when it is moving with a velocity 𝑢1 is given by 𝑚1 = 2
√1−𝑢21
𝑐
Hence, in general, if 𝑚 indicates the mass of a body moving with velocity 𝑣, then we get
𝒎𝟎
𝒎= 𝟐
(09)
√𝟏−𝒗𝟐
𝒄

This result shows that mass of a body moving with a velocity 𝑣 is more than its mass when
it is at rest i.e., mass of a body increases with the increase of its velocity.
Note: Material particle cannot have velocity equal to or greater than that of light because when
𝑚0
𝑣 = 𝑐 then from = 2
, we get 𝑚 = ∞ (infinite mass) and for 𝑣 > 𝑐, mass is negative but
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
mass can neither be infinite nor it can be negative. Therefore, we say that material body cannot
have a velocity equal to or more than the velocity of light.

Einstein’s Mass Energy Relationship:

This relation is the backbone of nuclear physics for nuclear phenomenon like nuclear
fission, nuclear fusion, determination of binding energy of various nuclei based on mass defect
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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

and energy released in the annihilation of matter. It is the most important relation of special
theory of relativity depicting how mass is convertible into energy and vice-versa. Its derivation
is based on relativity of mass as a result of special theory of relativity.
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the force acting on a body is measured as
the rate of change of momentum produced in the body by this force. If 𝑚 is mass of the body
moving with a velocity 𝑣 on applying force 𝐹, then
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝐹 = (𝑚𝑣 ) = 𝑚 ∙ + 𝑣 ∙ (01)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∵ momentum 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣, where mass 𝑚 is variable according to special theory of relativity. Here
both 𝑚 and 𝑣 are variables.
If the given force acts for a small distance 𝑑𝑥, then work done by this force 𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥 is
stored as kinetic energy (𝑑𝐸𝑘 ) of the moving body
𝑑𝐸𝑘 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝐸𝑘 = (𝑚 ∙ + 𝑣 ∙ ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑑𝑣 ∙ + 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑚 ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2
𝑑𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑚 (02)
From special theory of relativity, we know that
𝑚0
𝑚= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
where 𝑚0 is rest mass of body while 𝑚 is its mass during its motion.
𝑚02 𝑚02 𝑐 2
𝑚2 = 𝑣2
=
1− 2 𝑐 2 −𝑣 2
𝑐
𝑚2𝑐 2 − 𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 𝑚02 𝑐 2
Differentiating the above relation on both sides, we get
2𝑚 ∙ 𝑑𝑚 ∙ 𝑐 2 − 2𝑚 ∙ 𝑑𝑚 ∙ 𝑣 2 − 2𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑣 ∙ 𝑚2 = 0
∵ 𝑚0 and 𝑐 are constants.
𝑑𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑚𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 ∙ 𝑑𝑚 (03)
Comparing equation (02) and (03), we get
𝑑𝐸𝑘 = 𝑑𝑚𝑐 2
Integrating both sides we have
𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑘 = 𝑐 2 ∫𝑚 𝑑𝑚
0
∵ mass of the body varies from 𝑚0 to 𝑚
or 𝐸𝑘 = (𝑚 − 𝑚0)𝑐 2 (04)
2
or 𝐸𝑘 = Δ𝑚 ∙ 𝑐 (05)
where Δ𝑚 = (𝑚 − 𝑚0 ), is increase in mass which is converted into energy.
As 𝑚0 is the rest mass of body therefore, 𝑚0 𝑐 2 is taken as the rest mass energy of the body
which is the internal energy of the body.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
∴ { }={ }+{ }
𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
i.e., 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑘 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2
From equation (04), we have
𝐸 = (𝑚 − 𝑚0 )𝑐 2 + 𝑚0𝑐 2

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

or 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐 (06)
This relation is known as Einstein’s mass-energy relation.

Verification:

Annihilation Creation
1) The conversion of mass into energy and energy into mass is beautifully illustrated by
nature itself. When a particle collides with its antiparticle, there is a mutual annihilation
and the total mass is converted into radiant energy as shown in figure. Thus, the
conversion of mass takes place into energy. On the other hand, when radiant energy
comes near a charged nucleus, particle and antiparticle are created. Thus, the energy is
converted into mass.
2) The explanation of mass defect and release of tremendous amount of energy in nuclear
fission is entirely based on mass-energy relation. This gives a strong support to mass-
energy relation.
It is observed that the mass of the nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus. This difference in the mass is known as mass defect. During
the formation of nucleus, the mass defect is converted into energy (𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 ) . This
energy holds the nucleus together and is called binding energy. The binding energy per
nucleon gives a measure of the stability of the nucleus.
3) Sommerfeld explained the fine structure of spectral lines on the basis of relativistic
variation of mass. The agreement of his theory with experiment provides another
verification of mass-energy relation.
4) Compton treated the X-ray scattering as an elastic collision between a photon and an
electron. Experimentally he observed a wavelength shift in this collision. By applying the
law of conservation of energy and momentum in the light of mass-energy relation, he
theoretically calculated the wavelength shift. The theoretical results agree well with the
experimental results.

Physical Significance of Mass-Energy Relationship:

The relation 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 representing the mass-energy equivalence is an important result
of the special theory of relativity showing the conversion of mass into energy and vice-versa.
According to classical Newtonian mechanics, there are two separate conservation laws (i)
law of conservation of mass and (ii) law of conservation of energy.

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

The mass-energy relationship, based on special theory of relativity, combines these two
into one, taken as conservation of mass and energy. If there is a decrease in mass, then energy
is released. While on absorption of energy, there is an equivalent increase in mass. Due to very
large velocity of light in free space, there is a release of very large amount of energy for very
small decrease in mass i.e., conversion of rest mass of 1 a.m.u. or 1.66 × 10−27𝑘𝑔 releases an
energy of 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉.

Lorentz Transformation of Momentum:

Let us consider two inertial coordinate systems S and S’ out of which S’ is moving with
velocity 𝑣 relative to S along +ve x-axis. Now consider in the system S a photon of light on the
spherical wavefront emitted by a flash of light from a point source of light. Let the given photon
has a momentum 𝑝 and energy 𝐸.
We know that the momentum 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐 and energy 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑝2 = 𝑚2 𝑐 2 and 𝐸 2 = 𝑚2 𝑐 4 = (𝑚2 𝑐 2 )𝑐 2
𝐸2
Thus, 𝐸2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 or 𝑝2 = 2 (01)
𝑐
If 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝𝑦 , 𝑝𝑧 are the rectangular components is system S along X, Y and Z axis respectively,
then we
𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑥2 + 𝑝𝑦2 + 𝑝𝑧2
Therefore, equation (01) becomes
𝐸2
𝑝𝑥2 + 𝑝𝑦2 + 𝑝𝑧2 = 2 (02)
𝑐
Let 𝐸 ′ and 𝑝′ be the corresponding energy and momentum respectively of the given
photon as viewed by an observer in the system S’.
Therefore, we have
2
2 2 2 𝐸′
𝑝′𝑥
+ +𝑝′ 𝑦 = 2 𝑝′𝑧 (03)
𝑐
Equations (01) and (02) are similar to 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑐 2 𝑡 2
or 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑐 2𝑡 2 = 0
this equation is similar to equation of the expanding sphere of light taken in the derivation
of Lorentz transformation.
𝐸
Here𝑥 is replaced by 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑦 by 𝑝𝑦 and 𝑧 by 𝑝𝑧 and 𝑡 by 2 in comparison with equation
𝑐
(02).
The Lorentz transformation for space and time are given as
𝑣𝑥
𝑥−𝑣𝑡 𝑡−
′ ′ ′ ′ 𝑐2
𝑥 = 2
, 𝑦 = 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑧 and 𝑡 = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
Therefore, on similar basis the Lorentz transformations for momentum and energy will
be given by the following set of equations.
𝑣𝐸 𝐸 𝑣𝑝𝑥
𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸′ −
𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑐2
𝑝𝑥′ = , 𝑝𝑦′ = 𝑝𝑦 , 𝑝𝑧′ = 𝑝𝑧 and = (04)
2 𝑐2 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
𝐸 𝐸′
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡 = 2
and 𝑡′ =
𝑐 𝑐2

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
𝐸−𝑣𝑝𝑥
𝐸′ = 2
(05)
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
Similarly, inverse Lorentz transformations for momentum and energy are
𝑣𝐸 𝐸′ 𝑣𝑝𝑥
𝑝𝑥′ − 𝐸 −
𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑐2
𝑝𝑥 = , 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦′ , 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑧′ and = (06)
2 𝑐2 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
𝐸 ′ −𝑣𝑝𝑥′
𝐸= 2
(05)
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

Relativistic Doppler Effect:

According to Doppler’s effect, “whenever there is relative motion between a source and
observer, the apparent frequency of light observed by the observer is different from the actual
frequency of light emitted by the source of light. This is known as Doppler Effect”.
This effect is named after Austrian Mathematician and Physicist “Cristian Doppler” who
observed this effect in 1842.

Y’ Y
S’ S
𝑣→ 𝑛
 𝑡
𝑡0 𝑓0 𝑓
X
O’ X’ O

Z’ Z
Fig (01) Fig (02) Fig (03)
Let us consider two inertial frames S and S’. Initially their origins O and O’ coincide at
time 𝑡 = 𝑡 ′ = 0 and frame S’ is moving with a uniform velocity 𝑣 with respect to frame S along
the +x direction. A source of light of frequency 𝑓0 is stationary in frame S’ and moving towards
frame S with a velocity 𝑣. Let the length wave train be 𝐿 and 𝑛 be the number of waves
contained in the wave train generated in time 𝑡0 . Let the frequency of light observed by an
observer in frame be 𝑓 and time is 𝑡.
A) Source moving towards the observer:
Length of wave train is given by
𝐿 = 𝑐𝑡 − 𝑣𝑡 (01)
Wavelength is given by the ratio of length of wave train (𝐿) and the number of waves (𝑛) in
the wave train.
𝐿 𝑐𝑡−𝑣𝑡
𝜆= = (02)
𝑛 𝑛
Observed frequency of the source of light is given by
𝑐 𝑛𝑐
𝑓= = (03)
𝜆 𝑐𝑡−𝑣𝑡
Actual frequency of the source of light is given by
𝑛
𝑓0 = ⇒ 𝑛 = 𝑓0 𝑡0 (04)
𝑡0

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

Therefore, substituting the value of 𝑛 from equation (04) into equation (03), we get
𝑓0 𝑡0 𝑐
𝑓=
𝑡(𝑐−𝑣)
𝑣2
𝑓0 𝑡0 𝑐√1− 𝑡0
𝑐2
or 𝑓= ∵ 𝑡=
𝑡0 (𝑐−𝑣) √1−𝑣2
2
𝑐
𝑣2 𝑣 𝑣
𝑓0 √1− 𝑓0 √1+ ×√1−
𝑐2 𝑐 𝑐
or 𝑓= 𝑣 = 𝑣
(1− ) (1− )
𝑐 𝑐
𝒗
√𝟏+
𝒄 √𝒄+𝒗 √𝟏+𝜷 𝑣
or 𝒇= 𝒇𝟎 or 𝒇= 𝒇 or 𝒇= 𝒇𝟎 where 𝛽 =
√𝟏−
𝒗 √𝒄−𝒗 𝟎 √𝟏−𝜷 𝑐
𝒄

B) Source moving away from the observer:

Length of wave train is given by
𝐿 = 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑣𝑡 (01)
Wavelength is given by the ratio of length of wave train (𝐿) and the number of waves (𝑛) in
the wave train.
𝐿 𝑐𝑡+𝑣𝑡
𝜆= = (02)
𝑛 𝑛
Observed frequency of the source of light is given by
𝑐 𝑛𝑐
𝑓= = (03)
𝜆 𝑐𝑡+𝑣𝑡
Actual frequency of the source of light is given by
𝑛
𝑓0 = ⇒ 𝑛 = 𝑓0 𝑡0 (04)
𝑡0
Therefore, substituting the value of 𝑛 from equation (04) into equation (03), we get
𝑓0 𝑡0 𝑐
𝑓=
𝑡(𝑐+𝑣)
𝑣 2
𝑓0 𝑡0 𝑐√1− 2 𝑡0
𝑐
or 𝑓= ∵ 𝑡=
𝑡0 (𝑐+𝑣) √1−𝑣2
2
𝑐
𝑣2 𝑣 𝑣
𝑓0 √1− 𝑓0 √1+ ×√1−
𝑐2 𝑐 𝑐
or 𝑓= 𝑣 = 𝑣
(1+ ) (1− )
𝑐 𝑐
𝒗
√𝟏− 𝒄
√𝒄−𝒗 √𝟏−𝜷 𝑣
or 𝒇= 𝒇
𝒗 𝟎
or 𝒇= 𝒇𝟎 or 𝒇= 𝒇𝟎 where 𝛽 =
√𝟏+ √𝒄+𝒗 √𝟏+𝜷 𝑐
𝒄

In general, the apparent frequency of light from the source moving making an angle 𝜃 with the
x-axis is given by
𝟏+𝜷 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒇= 𝒇𝟎
√𝟏−𝜷𝟐

i) For Longitudinal Doppler Effect:

a) When 𝜽 = 𝟎
M Jani Baig, DoP, ASM College, Ballari – February 2024 Page 26
 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
1+𝛽 cos 0
𝑓= 𝑓0
√1−𝛽2
1+𝛽 1+𝛽
or 𝑓= 𝑓0 = 𝑓
√1−𝛽2 √1+𝛽×√1−𝛽 0
𝒗
√𝟏+ 𝒄
√𝟏+𝜷 √𝒄+𝒗
or 𝒇= 𝒇𝟎 or 𝒇= 𝒇
𝒗 𝟎
or 𝒇= 𝒇𝟎
√𝟏−𝜷 √𝟏− 𝒄 √𝒄−𝒗

b) When 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎
1+𝛽 cos 180
𝑓= 𝑓0
√1−𝛽2
1−𝛽 1−𝛽
or 𝑓= 𝑓 = 𝑓
√1−𝛽2 0 √1+𝛽×√1−𝛽 0
𝒗
√𝟏− 𝒄
√𝟏−𝜷 √𝒄−𝒗
or 𝒇= 𝒇𝟎 or 𝒇= 𝒇𝟎 or 𝒇= 𝒇𝟎
√𝟏+𝜷 √𝟏+
𝒗 √𝒄+𝒗
𝒄

ii) For Transverse Doppler Effect: 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎

1+𝛽 cos 09
𝑓= 𝑓0
√1−𝛽2
𝟏
or 𝒇= 𝒇𝟎 ≠ 𝟎
√𝟏−𝜷𝟐
Thus, in relativistic transverse Doppler effect frequency shift is not zero.
𝑣 𝑣2
For non-relativistic transverse Doppler effect, 𝛽 = or 𝛽 2 = ≪ 1, then
𝑐 𝑐2
𝒇 = 𝒇𝟎

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

Solved Problems
1) Show that Lorentz transformations reduce to Galilean transformations when
𝒗 ≪ 𝒄.
Solu: It can be easily seen that Lorentz transformations reduces to the Galilean
transformations when the relative velocity 𝑣 is small compared to the velocity of light
𝑐 as follows:
The Lorentz transformations are;
𝑣𝑥
𝑥−𝑣𝑡 𝑡−
′ ′ ′ ′ 𝑐2
𝑥 = 2
; 𝑦 = 𝑦; 𝑧 = 𝑧; 𝑡 = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑣
When 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐, the → 0 and the above equations reduce to
𝑐
′ 𝑥−𝑣𝑡 𝑡−0
𝑥 = ; 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦; 𝑧 ′ = 𝑧; 𝑡′ =
√1−0 √1−0
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡; 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦; 𝑧 ′ = 𝑧; 𝑡′ = 𝑡
which are clearly the Galilean transformation equations. Hence at low relative speeds
the Lorentz and Galilean transformation equations are identical. This proves the
required result. It also establishes the fact that the Galilean or Newtonian physics is
just a particular case of relativistic physics.

2) Show that the space-time interval remains invariant under the Lorentz-
transformation.
Solu: If (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) and (𝑥′, 𝑦′, 𝑧′, 𝑡′) be the space-time coordinates of an event in
frames S and S’ respectively where S’ is moving uniformly relative to S with a velocity
𝑣, then
𝑅 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑐 2𝑡 2
is called space-time interval. To show that the space-time interval is invariant in
Lorentz transformation, we must prove that
2 2 2 2
𝑥 ′ + 𝑦 ′ + 𝑧 ′ − 𝑐 2𝑡 ′ = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑐 2𝑡 2 (01)
From Lorentz transformation equations are
𝑥 ′ = 𝛾 (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)
𝑦′ = 𝑦
𝑧′ = 𝑧
𝑣𝑥 1
𝑡 ′ = 𝛾 (𝑡 − ); where 𝛾 =
𝑐2 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
Putting these values on LHS of equation (01), we get
2 2 2 2 𝑣𝑥 2
𝑥 ′ + 𝑦 ′ + 𝑧 ′ − 𝑐 2𝑡 ′ = 𝛾 2 (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑐 2𝛾 2 (𝑡 − )
𝑐2
𝑣2𝑥2
= 𝛾 2 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑣𝑥𝑡 + 𝑣 2𝑡 2 − 𝑐 2𝑡 2 − + 2𝑣𝑥𝑡) + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑐2
𝑣2 𝑣2
= 𝛾 2 [𝑥 2 (1 − 2
) − 𝑐 2𝑡 2 (1 − )] + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑐 𝑐2

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
1 𝑣2
= 𝑣2
(1 − ) [𝑥 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 ] + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
(1− 2 ) 𝑐2
𝑐
= [𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑐 2𝑡 2 ]
2 2 2 2
Thus 𝑥 ′ + 𝑦 ′ + 𝑧 ′ − 𝑐 2𝑡 ′ = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑐 2𝑡 2
Hence proved.

3) If proper length is of each edge of a cube be 𝑳𝟎 , then find its volume when it is
moving with a velocity 𝒗 along one of its edges.
Solu: When the cube is moving along one of its edges with a velocity 𝑣, then the two
edges of the cube that are perpendicular to the direction of motion remain unaffected
and appear to have the same length 𝐿0 as observed by an observer stationary to the
ground. The length of the edge along which the cube moves becomes
𝑣2
= (𝐿0 √1 − )
𝑐2
Thus, the apparent volume of the cube
𝑣2
= 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧 = (𝐿0√1 − ) × 𝐿 0 × 𝐿0
𝑐2

𝑣2
= 𝐿30√1 −
𝑐2
Thus, if 𝐿30 be the rest volume of the cube then its volume as measured by an
observer relative to which the cube is moving with a velocity 𝑣 along one of its edges
𝑣2
will be = 𝐿30√1 −
𝑐2
Thus, if rest volume = 𝑉 = 𝐿30
𝑣2
Apparent (for moving) volume = 𝑉 √1 −
𝑐2

4) Calculate the length and orientation of a metre rod in a frame of reference which
is moving with a velocity equal to 𝟎. 𝟔𝒄, in a direction making an angle of 𝟑𝟎𝟎 with
the rod.
Solu: Let the frame be moving along 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. Then the component of length
of the rod along the direction of motion, in its rest frame is
√3
𝐿0 𝑥 = 𝐿0 cos 300 = 1 × cos 300 = 𝑚
2
and perpendicular to the direction of motion is
1
𝐿0 𝑦 = 𝐿0 sin 300 = 1 × sin 300 = = 0.5 𝑚
2
1
The perpendicular component remains unaltered, therefore 𝐿𝑦 = 𝐿0𝑦 = = 0.5 𝑚
2
but the component along the direction of relative motion gets contracted to
𝑣2 √3 (0.6𝑐)2
𝐿𝑥 = 𝐿0 𝑥 √ 1 − = √1 −
𝑐2 2 𝑐2

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
√3
𝐿𝑥 = √1 − 0.62 = 0.6928 𝑚
2
Therefore the apparent (or observed) length of the rod is
𝐿 = √𝐿2𝑥 + 𝐿2𝑦 = √0.69282 + 0.52
∴ 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟒𝟖 𝒎
If the rod makes an angle of 𝜃 with the axis of moving frame, then
𝐿𝑦 0.5
tan 𝜃 = = ⇒ 𝜃 = tan−1(0.7219)
𝐿𝑥 0.6928
∴ 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟖𝟑𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝟒𝟗′ 𝟒𝟖′′

5) Calculate the percentage contraction of a rod moving with a velocity of 𝟎. 𝟖𝒄 in a

direction inclined at 𝟔𝟎𝟎 to its own length.
Solu:
Let 𝐿0 be the length of the rod at rest. Its
𝐿0
components along and perpendicular direction of motion 𝐿0 𝑦
respectively are 600
𝐿
𝐿0 𝑥 = 𝐿0 cos 600 = 0 𝐿0 𝑥
𝑣 = 0.8𝑐
2
𝐿0 √ 3
and 𝐿0 𝑦 = 𝐿0 sin 600 =
2
The apparent length perpendicular to the direction of motion remains
unaltered i.e.,
𝐿 √3
𝐿𝑦 = 𝐿0 𝑦 = 0
2
But the apparent length along the direction of motion is
𝑣2
𝐿𝑥 = 𝐿0 𝑥 √ 1 −
𝑐2
𝑣2
= 𝐿0 cos 600 √1 −
𝑐2
𝐿0 (0.8𝑐)2
= √1 − = 0.3𝐿0
2 𝑐2
Therefore, the apparent length of the rod is
2
𝐿 √3
𝐿= √𝐿2𝑥 + 𝐿2𝑦 = √(0.3𝐿0 )2 + ( 0 )
2
∴ 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟔𝑳𝟎
Therefore, the percentage contraction in the length of the rod is
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿 −0.916𝐿0
Δ𝐿% = 0 × 100 = 0 × 100
𝐿 𝐿0
𝚫𝑳% = 𝟖. 𝟒%

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

6) A spaceship moving away from the earth at a velocity of 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒄 with respect to
the earth launches a rocket in the direction away from the earth with a velocity of
𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒄 with respect to the spaceship. What is the velocity of the rocket with respect
to the earth?
Solu: Given:
Velocity of spaceship 𝑣 = 0.75𝑐
Velocity of the rocket w.r.t. spaceship 𝑢′ = 0.75𝑐
Velocity of the rocket w.r.t. to earth 𝑢 =?
We know that
𝑢′ +𝑣
𝑢= 𝑢′ 𝑣
1+ 2
𝑐
0.75𝑐+0.75𝑐
= 0.75𝑐×0.75𝑐
1+
𝑐2
1.5𝑐
=
1+0.5625
𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝒄

7) An observer moves past a metre scale with a velocity of 𝟎. 𝟓𝒄. What length does
he measure for the metre scale?
Solu: Given:
Velocity of the observer 𝑣 = 0.5𝑐
Proper length of the scale 𝐿0 = 1 𝑚
Observed length of the scale 𝐿 =?
We know that the observed length is
𝑣2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √ 1 −
𝑐2
(0.5𝑐)2
= 1 × √1 −
𝑐2
∴ 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝒄

8) An observer moves past a metre scale with a velocity of 𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 . What length
does he measure for the metre scale?
Solu: Given:
Velocity of the observer 𝑣 = 30 𝑚𝑠 −1
Proper length of the scale 𝐿0 = 1 𝑚
Observed length of the scale 𝐿 =?
We know that the observed length is
𝑣2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √ 1 −
𝑐2

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

(30)2
= 1 × √1 − (3×108 )2 = √1 − 10−14
∴ 𝑳=𝟏𝒎

9) Calculate the velocity of an elementary particle whose mass is 10 times its rest
mass.
Solu: Given:
Let 𝑚0 be the rest mass of the elementary particle and 𝑚 = 10𝑚0 be its mass when
it is moving with velocity 𝑣. 𝑣 =?
We know that
𝑚0
𝑚= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
𝑚0
10𝑚0 = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝑣2 1 𝑣2 1
√1 − = or 1− =
𝑐2 10 𝑐2 100
𝑣2 1
=1− = 0.99 or 𝑣 2 = 0.99𝑐 2
𝑐2 100
∴ 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝒄

10) What is the fractional increase in the mass for a 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒑𝒉 jet lines?
Solu: Given:
600×1.6×1000
Velocity of the jet line 𝑣 = 600 𝑚𝑝ℎ = = 267 𝑚𝑠 −1
60×60
Let 𝑚 be the mass of the jet at rest.
We know that the change in mass is
Δ𝑚 = 𝑚 − 𝑚0
𝑚0
= 2
− 𝑚0
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

1
= 𝑚0 [ 2
− 1]
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
−1⁄2
𝑣2
= 𝑚0 [(1 − ) − 1]
𝑐2
𝑣2
= 𝑚0 [(1 + ) − 1]
2𝑐 2
𝑣2
= 𝑚0 ( 2 )
2𝑐
Therefore, the fractional increase in mass is given by
Δ𝑚 𝑣2
=
𝑚0 2𝑐 2

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
Δ𝑚 1 267 2
= ×( 8
) = 3.96 × 10−13
𝑚0 2 3×10
𝚫𝒎
= 𝟑. 𝟗𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟑
𝒎𝟎

11) What is the mass of electron that has a kinetic energy of 𝟐 𝑴𝒆𝑽?
Solu: Given:
The rest mass energy of an electron is
𝑚0𝑐 2 = 9.1 × 10−31 × (3 × 108 )2
𝑚0𝑐 2 = 8.19 × 10−14 𝐽
8.19×10−14
𝑚0 𝑐 2 = = 511875
1.6×10−19
𝑚0𝑐 2 = 0.512 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Further, kinetic energy 𝐸𝐾 = 2 𝑀𝑒𝑉 ≈ 4𝑚0 𝑐 2
Hence, 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 𝐸𝐾
= 𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 4𝑚0𝑐 2
= 5𝑚0𝑐 2
∴ 𝒎 = 𝟓𝒎𝟎

12) In the Michelson Morley experiment what is the expected fringe shift according
to the other theory if the effective length of each path is 𝟓 𝒎, 𝝀 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 Å? Assume
that 𝒄 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 and 𝒗 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
.
Solu: Given:
Distance travelled by light 𝑙 = 5 𝑚
Wavelength of light 𝜆 = 5000 Å = 5 × 10−7 𝑚
Velocity of light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Velocity of earth 𝑣 = 3 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1
Fringe shift in Michelson Morley experiment is given by
2𝑙𝑣 2
𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 =
𝑐2 𝜆
2×5×(3×104 )2
= (3×108 )2 ×5×10−7
𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉

13) A clock keeps correct time. With what speed should it be moved related to an
observer so that it may seem to lose one minute in one-day.
Solu: Given:
𝑡′
𝑡 − 𝑡′ = 2
− 𝑡′
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

⁄
′ 1 ′ 𝑣 2 −1 2
=𝑡 [ − 1] = 𝑡 [(1 − ) − 1]
2 𝑐2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝑣2 𝑣2
= 𝑡 ′ [(1 + 2
) − 1] = 𝑡 ′
2𝑐 2𝑐 2
𝑡−𝑡 ′ 𝑣2
=
𝑡′ 2𝑐 2
Δ𝑡 𝑣2
=
𝑡′ 2𝑐 2
60 𝑣2
=
24×60×60 2(3×108 )2
2×9×1016
2
𝑣 =
24×60
∴ 𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
14) Two events occurring at the same place in an inertial frame are separated by a
time interval of 4 second. What is the spatial separation between these two events
in an inertial frame in which the events are separated by a time interval of 6 second.
Solu: Given:
The transformation equation is
(𝑐 2𝑡 2 − 𝑥 2 ) = [𝑐 2𝑡 ′ 2 − 𝑥 ′ 2]
For the observer in the inertial frame S, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 4 𝑠 and for the observer in the
frame S’ 𝑥 ′ =? When 𝑡 = 6 𝑠
Substituting these in the above equation we get
[𝑐 2 (4)2 − (0)2 ] = [𝑐 2(6)2 − 𝑥 ′ 2 ]
2
𝑥 ′ = 𝑐 2 [(6)2 − (4)2 ] = 20𝑐 2
𝑥 ′ = √20 × 𝑐 = √20 × 3 × 108
𝒙′ = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟒𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒎

15) A nuclear particle was observed to break into two fragments which moved in
opposite directions. The velocity of each fragment was found to be 𝟎. 𝟖𝒄 relative to
the laboratory. What was the velocity of one fragment relative to the other?
Solu: Given:
𝑢1′ = 0.8𝑐 𝑢2′ = −0.8𝑐
The relative velocity of one fragment with respect to the other is,
𝑢1′ −𝑢2′
𝑢= 𝑢′ 𝑢′
1− 12 2
𝑐
0.8𝑐−(−0.8𝑐)
= (0.8𝑐)(−0.8𝑐)
1−
𝑐2
1.6𝑐
= ∴ 𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝒄
1.64

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

16) Atomic particle in the form of a beam have a velocity 𝟗𝟓% of the speed of light.
What is their relativistic mass as compared to their rest mass?
Solu: Given:
𝑚0
𝑚= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
𝑚0
= 2
√1−(0.95𝑐)
𝑐2
𝑚0 𝑚0 𝑚0
= = =
√1−0.9025 √0.0975 0.3122
∴ 𝒎 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟏𝒎𝟎

17) An electron and a positron practically at rest came together and annihilate each
other. Calculate the energy released.
Solu: Given: Rest mass energy of both the electron and the positron is
𝑚0𝑐 2 = 9.1 × 10−31 × (3 × 108 )2
𝑚0𝑐 2 = 8.19 × 10−14 𝐽
8.19×10−14
𝑚0 𝑐 2 = = 511875
1.6×10−19
𝑚0𝑐 2 = 0.512 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Total energy = 0.512 + 0.512
∴ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝑴𝒆𝑽

18) The total energy of a particle is exactly twice its rest mass energy. Find its speed.
Solu: Given: 𝑚𝑐 2 = 2𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝑚 = 2𝑚0
𝑚0
2
= 2𝑚0
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
𝑣2 1
1− =
𝑐2 4
𝑣2 3
=
𝑐2 4
𝑣 √3
=
𝑐 2
√3 √3
𝑣= 𝑐= × 3 × 108
2 2
∴ 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝒄

19) Find the velocity that an electron must be given so that its momentum is 10
times the rest mass time the speed of light.
Solu: Given: 𝑚𝑣 = 10𝑚0𝑣
𝑚 = 10𝑚0

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
𝑚0
2
= 10𝑚0
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
𝑣2 1
1− =
𝑐2 100
𝑣2 100−1
= = 0.99
𝑐2 100
𝑣 = √0.99 × 𝑐
∴ 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝒄

20) Find the fractional loss of mass in the following cases of energy release
(i) physical change 1 g of steam at 1000C condenses to water at 1000C. [L=540 cal/g]
(ii) chemical change 1 g of fuel burns liberating 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒄𝒂𝒍. (iii) nuclear change two
deuterons each of mass 𝟐. 𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒂𝒎𝒖 fuse to form an alpha particle releasing
𝟐𝟑 𝑴𝒆𝑽.
Solu: Given:
Case (i) 540 𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 540 × 4.2 𝐽
540×4.2
= −13
𝑀𝑒𝑉
1.6×10
540×4.2
= 𝑎𝑚𝑢
1.6×10−13 ×931
540×4.2
Δ𝑚 = × 1.667 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
1.6×10−13 ×931
𝑚 = 10−3 𝑘𝑔
Δ𝑚
Hence = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚
Δ𝑚 540×4.2
= × 1.667 × 10−27
𝑚 1.6×10−13 ×931
𝚫𝒎
= 𝟐. 𝟓𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏
𝒎

Case (ii): 104 𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 104 × 4.2 𝐽

104 ×4.2
= 𝑀𝑒𝑉
1.6×10−13
4.2×104
= 𝑎𝑚𝑢
1.6×10−13 ×931
4.2×104
Δ𝑚 = × 1.667 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
1.6×10−13 ×931
𝑚 = 10−3 𝑘𝑔
Δ𝑚
Hence = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚
Δ𝑚 4.2×104
= × 1.667 × 10−10
𝑚 1.6×931
𝚫𝒎
= 𝟒. 𝟔𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎
𝒎

Case (iii) Total mass of the two deuterons = 4.028 𝑎𝑚𝑢

Energy released = 23 𝑀𝑒𝑉

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
23
= 𝑎𝑚𝑢
931
= 0.02471 𝑎𝑚𝑢
i.e., mass defect = 0.02471 𝑎𝑚𝑢
=0.02471
Therefore, the fractional mass =
4.028
𝚫𝒎
= 𝟔. 𝟏𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒎

21) In Michelson – Morley experiment, the distance between the mirror and the half
silvered glass plate is 𝟏𝟏 𝒎 and the wavelength of the light used is 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 ×
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒎. Calculate the fringe shift. The velocity of the Earth is 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 and
that of the light is 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 .
Solu: Given:
Distance between mirror and plate 𝑙 = 11 𝑚
Wavelength of light 𝜆 = 6000 × 10−10 𝑚
Velocity of Earth 𝑣 = 3 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1
Velocity of light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Fringe shift =?
We know that the fringe shift is given by
2𝑙𝑣 2
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 =
𝜆𝑐
2×11×(3×104 )2
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 = ⇒ 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑
6000×10−10 ×3×108

22) Find the percentage of contraction produced in the length of a moving rod with
a speed of 𝟎. 𝟖𝒄 in the direction of its length.
Solu: Given:
Velocity of the rod 𝑣 = 0.8𝑐, let 𝐿 be the length of rod,
𝐿
percentage of contraction of length ( ) × 100 =?
𝐿0
We known that the length of the rod is given by
𝑣2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √ 1 −
𝑐2
𝐿 𝑣2 (0.8𝑐)2
= √1 − = √1 − = √1 − 0.64 = √0.36
𝐿0 𝑐2 𝑐2
𝐿
= 0.6
𝐿0
𝐿
∴ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ( ) × 100 = 0.6 × 100
𝐿0
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟔𝟎%

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

23) A rod of length 𝟑 𝒎 moves with a velocity 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 with respect to the
observer. What is the apparent length of the rod as appeared by the observer?
Solu: Given:
Actual length of the rod 𝐿0 = 3 𝑚
Velocity of the rod 𝑣 = 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Velocity of light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Apparent length of the rod 𝐿 =?
We know that the apparent length of the rod is given by
𝑣2 108 2 1
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √ 1 − = 3 √1 − ( ) = 3√1 −
𝑐2 3×10 8 9
∴ 𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝒎

24) A moving body appears to be 𝟐𝟎% shorter in length to the stationary observer.
Find the velocity relative to observer
Solu: Given:
Actual length of the rod be 𝐿0
Apparent length of the rod 𝐿 = 0.8𝐿0
Velocity of light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Velocity of the rod 𝑣 =?
We know that the apparent length of the rod is given by
𝑣2 𝑣2 𝐿2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √ 1 − or 1− =
𝑐2 𝑐2 𝐿0 2
𝑣2 𝐿2 𝐿2
or = 1− or 𝑣 = 𝑐√1 −
𝑐2 𝐿0 2 𝐿0 2
(0.8𝐿0 )2
or 𝑣 = 𝑐√1 − 2 = 𝑐√1 − 0.64 = 3 × 108 × 0.6
𝐿0

∴ 𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏

25) To a stationary observer the moving body appears to be half its actual length.
Find its velocity relative to the observer.
Solu: Given:
Actual length of the rod be 𝐿0
Apparent length of the rod 𝐿 = 0.5𝐿0
Velocity of light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Velocity of the rod 𝑣 =?
We know that the apparent length of the rod is given by
𝑣2 𝑣2 𝐿2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √ 1 − or 1− =
𝑐2 𝑐2 𝐿0 2

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

𝑣2 𝐿2 𝐿2
or = 1− 2 or 𝑣 = 𝑐√1 −
𝑐2 𝐿0 𝐿0 2
(0.5𝐿0 )2
or 𝑣 = 𝑐√1 − = 𝑐√1 − 0.25 = 3 × 108 × √0.75
𝐿0 2

∴ 𝒗 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟗𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏

26) An astronaut is travelling in a spaceship at a speed of 𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏. How

long will it take for a clock in spaceship to make 2 minutes.
Solu: Given:
Actual time at rest 𝑡0 = 2 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 120 𝑠
Velocity of the astronaut 𝑣 = 2.4 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Velocity of the light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Apparent time 𝑡 =?
We know that
𝑇 120 120 120
𝑇= 0 2= = 2
=
√1−𝑣2 8 2 √1−(2.4) √1−0.64
𝑐 √1−(2.4×108 ) 3
3×10

∴ 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒔 = 𝟑 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅

27) At what speed a body will have its mass four times its rest mass?
Solu: Given:
Actual mass of the body at rest be 𝑚0
The new mass of the body be 𝑚 = 4𝑚0
Velocity of the light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Velocity of the body 𝑣 =?
We know that
𝑚0 𝑣2 𝑚0 2
𝑚= or 1− =
2 𝑐2 𝑚2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝑣2 𝑚0 2 𝑚0 2
or = 1− or 𝑣 = 𝑐 √1 −
𝑐2 𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑚 2
or 𝑣 = 𝑐√1 − (4𝑚0 )2 = 3 × 108 × √1 − 0.252
0

∴ 𝒗 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟎𝟒𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏

28) In an accelerator, an electron is accelerated to a speed of 80% of that of light.

Find its relativistic mass. Mass of the electron is 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈.
Solu: Given:
Actual mass of the electron be 𝑚0 = 9 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
Velocity of electron 𝑣 = 0.8𝑐
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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

Relativistic mass of electron 𝑚 =?

We know that the relativistic mass of electron is given by
𝑚0 9×10−31 9×10−31
𝑚= 2
= 2
=
√1−𝑣2 √1−
(0.8𝑐) √1−0.64
𝑐 𝑐2

∴ 𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟎 𝒌𝒈

29) At what speed the mass of proton be trebled, if the rest mass of proton is
𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈
Solu: Given:
Actual mass of proton be 𝑚0 = 1.63 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
Relativistic mass of proton 𝑚 = 3𝑚0
Velocity of proton 𝑣 =?
We know that the relativistic mass of electron is given by
𝑚0
𝑚= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
𝑚0
3𝑚0 = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
1
3= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝑣2 1 𝑣2 1 1
1− = or =1− or 𝑣 = 𝑐√1 −
𝑐2 9 𝑐2 9 9
1
𝑣 = 3 × 108 × √1 −
9

∴ 𝒗 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐𝟖𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏

30) Find the energy equivalent of the atomic mass unit?

Solu: Standard value: 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1.6604 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
According to mass energy relation
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝐸 = 1.6604 × 10−27 × (3 × 108 )2 = 1.4944 × 10−10 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1.4944×10−10
𝐸= = 9.3283 × 108 𝑒𝑉 ⇒ 𝑬 = 𝟗𝟑𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 𝒆𝑽
1.602×10−19

31) Calculate the energy of electron whose rest mass is 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈

Solu: Given: Rest mass of electron 𝑚 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
According to mass-energy relation
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝐸 = 9.11 × 10−31 × (3 × 108 )2 = 8.199 × 10−14 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
8.199×10−14
𝐸= = 5.118 × 105 𝑒𝑉 ⇒ 𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟏𝟖 𝑴𝒆𝑽
1.602×10−19

32) Find the amount of substance that will completely be consumed to produce an
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝑾𝒉.
Solu: Given: Energy 𝐸 = 1011 × 1000 × 3600 = 3.6 × 1017 𝐽
According the mass-energy relation
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝐸 3.6×1017
𝑚= = (3×108 )2
𝑐2
Therefore, the mass of the substance is 𝒎 = 𝟒 𝒌𝒈

33) Two photons P and Q are moving in opposite directions with a speed of 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝒄.
What is the relative velocity with respect to P.
Solu: Given:
Velocity of photon P is 𝑢 = 0.96𝑐
Velocity of photon Q is 𝑣 = −0.96𝑐
Relative velocity of P is given by
𝑢−𝑣
𝑢′ = 𝑢𝑣
1− 2
𝑐
0.96𝑐−(−0.96𝑐) (0.96𝑐+0.96𝑐)
𝑢′ = 0.96𝑐(−0.96𝑐) = (0.96𝑐×0.96𝑐)
1− 1+
𝑐2 𝑐2

𝒖′ = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟒𝒄

34) A spaceship 𝑨 moving with a speed of 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝒄 in a direction opposite to that of

another spaceship 𝑩. Find the relative velocity of 𝑨 with respect to 𝑩.
Solu: Given:
Velocity of spaceship A is 𝑢 = 0.95𝑐
Velocity of spaceship B is 𝑣 = −𝑐
Relative velocity of spaceship A with respect to spaceship B is given by
𝑢−𝑣
𝑢′ = 𝑢𝑣
1− 2
𝑐
0.95𝑐−(−𝑐) (0.95𝑐+𝑐)
𝑢′ = 0.96𝑐(−0.96𝑐) = (0.95𝑐×𝑐)
1− 1+
𝑐2 𝑐2

𝒖′ = 𝒄

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

35) Calculate the expected fringe shifts in the Michelson-Morley experiment, if the
distance of each plate is 𝟐 𝒎 and the wavelength of monochromatic radiation is (a)
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 Å and (b) 4𝟎𝟎𝟎 Å.
Solu: Given:
Distance between the mirrors and plate is 𝑙 = 2 𝑚
Standard Values:
Velocity of earth 𝑣 = 3 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1
Velocity of light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Expected fringe shift 𝑛 =?
2𝑙𝑣 2
We know that the expected fringe shift is given by 𝑛=
𝜆𝑐 2
−7
a) For 𝜆 = 6000 Å = 6 × 10 𝑚
2×2×(3×104 )2
𝑛= ⇒ 𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕
6×10−7 (3×108 )2
b) For 𝜆 = 4000 Å = 4 × 10−7 𝑚
2×2×(3×104 )2
𝑛= ⇒ 𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟏
4×10−7 (3×108 )2

36) Prove that 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒄𝟐 𝒕𝟐 is invariant under Lorentz transformation.

Solu: Given: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑐 2 𝑡 2
By Lorentz transformation;
𝑣𝑥′
𝑥 ′ +𝑣𝑡 ′ 𝑡′+
′ ′ 𝑐2
𝑥= 2
; 𝑦=𝑦; 𝑧=𝑧; 𝑡= 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
Substituting these values in the given equation
2 2
𝑣𝑥′
𝑥 ′ +𝑣𝑡 ′ 2 2 𝑡′+ 2
( 2
) + 𝑦′ + 𝑧′ = 𝑐 2 ( 𝑐
2
)
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
2
𝑣𝑥′
(𝑥 ′ +𝑣𝑡 ′ )2 2 2 𝑐 2 (𝑡 ′ + 2 )
𝑐
𝑣2
+ 𝑦′ + 𝑧′ = 𝑣2
1− 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐
1 2 ′2
𝑣 𝑥
2 2 2 2 2
𝑦′ + 𝑧′ = 𝑣2
[𝑐 2 𝑡 ′ + − 𝑥 ′ − 𝑣 2𝑡 ′ ]
(1− 2 ) 𝑐2
𝑐
2 2 1 2 2 𝑣2 2 2
𝑦′ + 𝑧′ = 𝑣2
[(𝑐 2𝑡 ′ − 𝑥 ′ ) + (𝑥 ′ − 𝑐 2𝑡 ′ )]
(1− 2 ) 𝑐2
𝑐
2 2 1 2 2 𝑣2 2 2
𝑦′ + 𝑧′ = 𝑣2
[(𝑐 2𝑡 ′ − 𝑥 ′ ) − (𝑐 2 𝑡 ′ − 𝑥 ′ )]
(1− 2 ) 𝑐2
𝑐
2 2 1 2 2 𝑣2
𝑦′ + 𝑧′ = 𝑣2
[(𝑐 2𝑡 ′ − 𝑥 ′ ) (1 − )]
(1− 2 ) 𝑐2
𝑐
2 2 2 ′2 2
𝑦 ′ + 𝑧 ′ = (𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑥′ )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒙′ + 𝒚′ + 𝒛′ = 𝒄𝟐 𝒕′

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Thus, 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒄𝟐 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒙′ + 𝒚′ + 𝒛′ − 𝒄𝟐 𝒕′
So the equation is invariant under Lorentz transformation.

37) A rod has length 𝟏 𝒎. When the rod is in a satellite moving with a velocity that
is one half of the velocity of light relative to laboratory, what is the length of the rod
as determined by an observer (a) in the satellite and (b) in the laboratory?
Solu: Given: Velocity of the satellite 𝑣 = 0.5𝑐
a) The observer in the satellite is at rest with respect to the rod hence the length
of the rod as measured by him is 1 𝑚.
b) The length 𝑙 of the rod in laboratory is given by
𝑣2 (0.5𝑐)2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √ 1 − = 1 × √1 − ⇒ 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝒎
𝑐2 𝑐2

38) If a rod travels with a speed 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝒄 along its length. Calculate the percentage
of contraction.
Solu: Given: Velocity of the rod 𝑣 = 0.6𝑐
Observed length of the rod is given by
𝑣2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √ 1 −
𝑐2
𝐿 (0.6𝑐)2
= √1 − = 0.8
𝐿0 𝑐2
Now the percentage of contraction is given by
𝐿0 −𝐿 𝑙 −0.8𝑙0
× 100 = 0 × 100 = 20%
𝐿0 𝑙0

39) Calculate the velocity of the rod when its length will appear 90% of its proper
length.
Solu: Given: Apparent length of the rod 𝑙 = 0.9𝑙0
Velocity of the rod 𝑣 =?
Observed length of the rod is given by
𝑣2 𝐿 𝑣2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √ 1 − or = √1 −
𝑐2 𝐿0 𝑐2
𝑣2 0.9𝑙0 𝑣2
√1 − = or 1− = 0.81
𝑐2 𝑙0 𝑐2
𝑣2 𝑣
= 1 − 0.81 or = √0.19
𝑐2 𝑐
∴ 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟔𝒄 or 𝑣 = 0.436 × 3 × 108
∴ 𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

40) A rocket ship is 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒎 long on the ground. When it is in flight its length is 𝟗𝟗 𝒎
to an observer on the ground. What is its speed?
Solu: Given:
Length of the rocket 𝑙0 = 100 𝑚
Apparent length of the rocket 𝑙 = 99 𝑚
Velocity of the rocket 𝑣 =?
Observed length of the rocket is given by
𝑣2 𝐿 𝑣2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √ 1 − or = √1 −
𝑐2 𝐿0 𝑐2
𝑣2 99 𝑣2
√1 − = or 1− = 0.992 = 0.9801
𝑐2 100 𝑐2
𝑣2 𝑣
= 1 − 0.9801 or = √0.0199
𝑐2 𝑐
∴ 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟏𝒄 or 𝑣 = 0.1411 × 3 × 108
∴ 𝒗 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒔−𝟏

41) A vector in a moving system is represented by 𝟖𝒊̂ + 𝟐𝒋̂. How far is the vector
represented by an observer in the system S if it moves with velocity of 𝟏. 𝟖 ×
𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 along x-axis?
Solu: The projection of the given vector along X-axis is 8 and project along the Y-axis
is 2. As the frame moves along X-axis and hence only x component contracts. Thus,
𝑣2 (1.8×108 )2
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 √1 − = 8√1 − = 6.4
𝑐2 (3×108 )2
Therefore, the vector representing system S is 𝟔. 𝟒𝒊̂ + 𝟐𝒋̂

42) A certain process requires 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒔 to occur in an atom at rest in laboratory. How
much time will this process requires to an observer in laboratory, when the atom is
moving with a speed of 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒔−𝟏.
Solu: Given:
Velocity of the moving frame is 𝑣 = 5 × 107 𝑚𝑠 −1
Duration of process in laboratory 𝑇0 = 10−6 𝑠
Duration of the process observed from the moving frame is
𝑇0 10−6
𝑇= 2
=
√1−𝑣2 7 2
𝑐 √1−(5×108 )
3×10

𝑻 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒔

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

43) A particle with a mean proper time of 𝟐 𝝁𝒔 moves through the laboratory with
a speed of 𝟎. 𝟗𝒄. Calculate its life time as measured by an observer in the laboratory.
Solu: Given:
Velocity of the moving frame is 𝑣 = 0.9𝑣
Proper life time of a particle is 𝑇0 = 2 × 10−6 𝑠
Duration of the process observed from the moving frame is
𝑇0 2×10−6 2×10−6 2×10−6
𝑇= 2
= 2
= =
√1−𝑣2 √1−(0.9𝑐) √1−0.81 √0.19
𝑐 𝑐

𝑻 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟖𝟖𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒔

44) What is the velocity of 𝝅 − 𝒎𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒔 whose observed mean life is 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒔
and the proper life time is 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔
Solu: Given:
Proper life time of a 𝜋 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 is 𝑇0 = 2.5 × 10−8 𝑠
Observed life time of a 𝜋 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 is 𝑇 = 2.5 × 10−7 𝑠
Velocity of 𝜋 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 is 𝑣 =?
Observed life time of a 𝜋 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 is given by
𝑇0 𝑣2 𝑇0
𝑇= or √1 − =
2 𝑐2 𝑇
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
𝑣2 𝑇 2 𝑣2 𝑇 2
or 1− = ( 0) or = 1 − ( 0)
𝑐2 𝑇 𝑐2 𝑇
𝑇 2 2.5×10−8 2
or 𝑣 = 𝑐 √1 − ( 0 ) = 3 × 108 √1 − ( )
𝑇 2.5×10−7
or 𝑣 = 3 × 108 √0.99 =
𝒗 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏

45) The proper life of a meson is 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔. Calculate the mean life of a meson
moving with a velocity of 𝟎. 𝟖𝒄
Solu: Given:
Proper life time of a 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛 is 𝑇0 = 2 × 10−8 𝑠
Observed life time of a 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛 is 𝑇 =?
Velocity of a 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛 is 𝑣 = 0.8
Observed life time of a 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛 is given by
𝑇
𝑇= 0 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
2×10−8 2×10−8 2×10−8
𝑇= 2
= = ∴ 𝑻 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔
√1−(0.8𝑐) √1−0.64 0.6
𝑐

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

46) A stationary 𝝁 − 𝒎𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒏 decays in 𝟐. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔. What will be the length of its
path if it is moving towards the earth with velocity 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝒄.
Solu: Given:
Proper life time of a 𝜇 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛 is 𝑇0 = 2.2 × 10−8 𝑠
Velocity of 𝜇 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛 is 𝑣 = 0.99𝑐
Length of the path of 𝜇 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑑 =?
Observed life time of a 𝜇 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛 is given by
𝑇
𝑇= 0 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
2.2×10−8 2.2×10−8 2.2×10−8
𝑇= 2
= =
√1−(0.99𝑐) √1−0.9801 √0.0199
𝑐

∴ 𝑻 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟗𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒔

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

Question Bank
Short Answer Questions:
1) Special theory of relativity was given by Einstein in the year
a) 1911 b) 1905
c) 1896 d) 1892

2) Special theory of relativity deals with the problems in

a) inertial frames b) non-inertia frames
c) both (a) and (b) d) none of the above

3) The correct transformation between two inertial frames that are consistent
with both the postulates of special theory of relativity, are
a) Legendre transformations b) Galilean transformations
c) Lorentz transformations d) Canonical transformations

4) The Lorentz transformations reduce to Galilean transformations when 𝑣 tends

𝑐
to
a) zero b) infinity
c) one d) half

5) The contraction in length of an object due to relative motion between the

object and observer takes place
a) along the direction of motion b) perpendicular to the direction of
motion
c) both (a) and (b) d) at 450 to the direction of motion

6) A moving object, to a stationary observer appears to be

a) increased in length b) no change in length
c) decreased in length d) nothing be said definitely

7) The apparent length of a metre rod, when it is moving at a speed to 0.8𝑐

relative to an observer, will be
a) 1 m b) 0.5 m
c) 0.8 m d) 0.6 m

8) A moving clock appears to an stationary observer

a) slow b) fast
c) keeping correct time d) none of the above

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

9) The proper life time of muons is their life time in the

a) moving frame at a speed 𝑐 b) frame at a speed 𝑐
2
c) rest frame d) frame at a speed 3 𝑐
4

10) The proper life time of muons is 2.2 𝜇𝑠, and they move at a speed of 0.998𝑐
relative to the lab (earth) frame. Their life time in the lab frame would be
a) 2.2 × 10−6 𝑠 b) 1.0 × 10−6 𝑠
c) 34.38 × 10−6 𝑠 d) zero

11) Two particles are moving in opposite direction each with a velocity of 0.9𝑐
relative to a stationary observer. The speed of one particle relative to the
other are
a) 0.994𝑐 b) 0.715𝑐
c) 1.8𝑐 d) 1.2𝑐

12) When a velocity 𝑐 is add to another velocity 𝑐 relativistically, the resultant

velocity will be
a) 0.5𝑐 b) 0.75𝑐
c) 2𝑐 d) 𝑐

13) One kilogram of mass is equivalent to an energy of

a) 9 × 1016 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 b) 3 × 1016 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
c) 1.6 × 10−19 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 d) 3 × 108 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

14) Massless particles must move with a velocity of

a) 0.1𝑐 b) 0.5𝑐
c) 2𝑐 d) 𝑐

15) The momentum of massless particles is given by

a) 𝐸 ⁄𝑐 b) 𝐸 2 ⁄𝑐
c) 2𝐸 ⁄𝑐 d) 𝐸 2 ⁄2𝑐

16) The rest mass energy of electron is

a) 1.6 × 10−19 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 b) 9 × 1016 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
c) 0.51 𝑀𝑒𝑉 d) 1.02 𝑀𝑒𝑉

17) The minimum energy required for the 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 photon for the creation of an
electron and a proton is
a) 0.51 𝑀𝑒𝑉 b) 1.02 𝑀𝑒𝑉
c) 2 𝑀𝑒𝑉 d) 5 𝑀𝑒𝑉

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

18) The speed at which the mass of the moving particle becomes double its rest
mass, is
a) √3𝑐 b) √2𝑐
𝑐
c) d) √3 𝑐
2 2

19) The percentage contraction in the length of a rod when it is moving at a speed
of 0.8𝑐 in a direction inclined at 600 to its length, will be approximately
a) 9 b) 21
c) 4 d) 14

20) The shape of a square moving at relativistic speed relative to a stationary

observer.
a) circle b) ellipse
c) point d) rectangle

21) A circle is moving at relativistic speed relative to a stationary observer appears

to be
a) ellipse b) straight line
c) square d) circle

22) The length of a space ship is measured to be exactly half of its proper length
by an observer. The relative velocity of the observer is
a) 1 𝑐 b) √2 𝑐
2 3
1
c) √3
𝑐 d) 𝑐
2 √2

23) If the total energy of a particle of mass 𝑚 is equal to twice its rest mass energy,
the magnitude of the particle’s relative momentum is
a) 𝑚𝑐 b) 𝑚𝑐
2 √2
c) 𝑚𝑐 d) √3𝑚𝑐

24) If a charged pion that decays in 10−8 𝑠 in its own rest frame is to travel
30 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 in the laboratory before decaying, the pion’s speed must be most
nearly
a) 0.43 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 b) 2.84 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
c) 2.90 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 d) 2.98 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1

25) A train 100 𝑚 in length when at rest is moving with velocity of 0.8𝑐. Its length
as seen by a stationary observer is
a) 40 𝑚 b) 60 𝑚
c) 100 𝑚 d) 120 𝑚

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

26) In the laboratory the life time of a particle moving with velocity 2.8 ×
108 𝑚𝑠 −1; is found to be 2.5 × 10−7 𝑚𝑠 −1. Its proper life time is
a) 3 × 10−8 𝑠 b) 0.9 × 10−7 𝑠
c) 3.5 × 10−7 𝑠 d) 2.0 × 10−6 𝑠

27) A particle leaving a cyclotron has a total relativistic energy of 10 𝐺𝑒𝑉 and a
relativistic momentum of 9 𝐺𝑒𝑉/𝑐. What is the rest mass of this particle?
a) 0.25 𝐺𝑒𝑉/𝑐 2 b) 1.20 𝐺𝑒𝑉/𝑐 2
c) 4.36 𝐺𝑒𝑉 d) 6.00 𝐺𝑒𝑉/𝑐 2
𝑐2

1
28) The tube of water is travelling at relative to the lab frame when a beam of
2𝑐
light travelling in the same direction as the tube, enters it. What is the speed
of light in water relative to the lab frame?
a) 1 b) 2
2𝑐 3𝑐
c) 5 d) 10
6𝑐 11𝑐

29) What do you mean by special theory of relativity and general theory of
relativity?
30) What will happen to the theory of relativity if the velocity of light becomes
infinite?
31) What do you mean by Lorentz transformations? How does it differ from
Galilean transformations?
32) How Galilean transformations is taken as special case of Lorentz
transformation?
33) How Lorentz transformation is superior to Galilean transformation?
34) Why Length contraction is not observed in daily life?
35) Why the shapes of a square, sphere or cube appear to change to an observer
in an inertial frame of reference?
36) When the velocity of light is added to the velocity of light, we get the velocity
of light. Why?
37) The length of a rod is found to be half of its length when at rest. What is the
speed of the rod relative to the observer?
38) What is the physical significance of mass energy relation?
39) Give some examples of nuclear phenomenon based on the mass-energy
equivalence.
40) What is relativity of space?
41) What is Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction?
42) A boy says “I shall appear thin if I run fast”. Comment upon this statement
using theory of relativity.

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

43) What do you understand by a frame of reference? Give their types.

44) Discuss the need of a frame of reference while describing the motion.
45) What was the idea of Newton regarding the existence of an absolute or fundamental
frame of reference? Does this exist in reality?
46) What is meant by a frame of reference? Give examples to show that the state of motion
of a body would appear to be different when viewed from different frames of reference.
47) What are inertial frames of reference?
48) What is meant by an inertial frame of reference? Show that all frames that are moving
uniformly relative to an inertial frame are also inertial.
49) Describe the characteristic properties and importance of inertial frames of reference. Can
the earth be regarded as an inertial frame?
50) Define Coriolis’ force. In a uniform rotating frame of reference derive an expression for
Coriolis’ force.
51) Describe Michelson Morley experiment by sketching a neat diagram. What was the
conclusion drawn from the experiment?
52) Explain the negative results of Michelson Morley experiment and give their physical
significance.
53) On the basis of Michelson Morley experiment, show that the velocity of light is
independent of the direction in all inertial frames of reference.
54) State the fundamental postulates of special theory of relativity.
55) Deduce Lorentz transformation equations by using postulates of special theory of
relativity.
56) What do you understand by the proper length of an object? Explain length contraction
starting from Lorentz transformation equations.
57) Deduce the concept of time dilation. Obtain an expression for the dilated time interval in
terms of proper time interval.
58) Using Lorentz transformations, obtain the velocity addition law. Show that when we add
any velocity to 𝑐, speed of light in free space, the resultant velocity is 𝑐 itself.
59) Show on the basis of relativistic addition law of velocities that the velocity of light is an
absolute constant independent of the frame of reference. Also show that it is the
maximum velocity attainable in nature.
60) Discuss the equivalence between mass and energy. Obtain Einstein mass-energy relation
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 .
61) Derive Lorentz transformation equations for momentum and energy.
62) What are massless particles? State the conditions required for the existence of massless
particles.
63) Discuss the variation of mass with velocity of a particle. Show that the mass 𝑚 of a
𝑚0
particle moving with velocity 𝑣 is given by 𝑚 = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
where 𝑚0 is the rest mass of the particle and 𝑐 is the speed of light in free space.
64) What is relativistic Doppler effect? Derive an expression for the apparent frequency in
case longitudinal and transverse relativistic Doppler effect.
65) Write short notes on the following:
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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

a) Length contraction
b) Massless particles
c) Mass-energy equivalence
d) Relativistic addition of velocities.

Some Important Problems

1) Show that Lorentz transformations reduce to Galilean transformations when 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐.
2) Show that the space-time interval remains invariant under the Lorentz-
transformation.
3) If proper length is of each edge of a cube be 𝐿0 , then find its volume when it is
moving with a velocity 𝑣 along one of its edges.
4) Calculate the length and orientation of a metre rod in a frame of reference which
is moving with a velocity equal to 0.6𝑐, in a direction making an angle of 300 with the
rod.
5) Calculate the percentage contraction of a rod moving with a velocity of 0.8𝑐 in a
direction inclined at 600 to its own length.

6) A spaceship moving away from the earth at a velocity of 0.75𝑐 with respect to the
earth launches a rocket in the direction away from the earth with a velocity of 0.75𝑐
with respect to the spaceship. What is the velocity of the rocket with respect to the
earth?
7) An observer moves past a metre scale with a velocity of 0.5𝑐. What length does
he measure for the metre scale?

8) An observer moves past a metre scale with a velocity of 30 𝑚𝑠 −1. What length
does he measure for the metre scale?
9) Calculate the velocity of an elementary particle whose mass is 10 times its rest
mass.
10) What is the fractional increase in the mass for a 600 𝑚𝑝ℎ jet lines?
11) What is the mass of electron that has a kinetic energy of 2 𝑀𝑒𝑉?
12) In the Michelson Morley experiment what is the expected fringe shift according
to the other theory if the effective length of each path is 5 𝑚, 𝜆 = 5000 Å? Assume
that 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 and 𝑣 = 3 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1
.
13) A clock keeps correct time. With what speed should it be moved related to an
observer so that it may seem to lose one minute in one-day.

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

14) Two events occurring at the same place in an inertial frame are separated by a
time interval of 4 second. What is the spatial separation between these two events
in an inertial frame in which the events are separated by a time interval of 6 second.
15) A nuclear particle was observed to break into two fragments which moved in
opposite directions. The velocity of each fragment was found to be 0.8𝑐 relative to
the laboratory. What was the velocity of one fragment relative to the other?
16) Atomic particle in the form of a beam have a velocity 95% of the speed of light.
What is their relativistic mass as compared to their rest mass?
17) An electron and a proton practically at rest came together and annihilate each
other. Calculate the energy released.
18) The total energy of a particle is exactly twice its rest mass energy. Find its speed.
19) Find the velocity that an electron must be given so that its momentum is 10 times
the rest mass time the speed of light.
20) Find the fractional loss of mass in the following cases of energy release (i)
0 0
physical change 1 g of steam at 100 C condenses to water at 100 C. [L=540 cal/g] (ii)
chemical change 1 g of fuel burns liberating 104 𝑐𝑎𝑙 . (iii) nuclear change two
deuterons each of mass 2.014 𝑎𝑚𝑢 fuse to form an alpha particle releasing 23 𝑀𝑒𝑉.
21) In Michelson – Morley experiment, the distance between the mirror and the half
silvered glass plate is 11 𝑚 and the wavelength of the light used is 6000 × 10−10 𝑚.
Calculate the fringe shift. The velocity of the Earth is 3 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1 and that of the
light is 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1.
22) Find the percentage of contraction produced in the length of a moving rod with a
speed of 0.8𝑐 in the direction of its length.
23) A rod of length 3 𝑚 moves with a velocity 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 with respect to the observer.
What is the apparent length of the rod as appeared by the observer?
24) A moving body appears to be 20% shorter in length to the stationary observer.
Find the velocity relative to observer
25) To a stationary observer the moving body appears to be half its actual length. Find
its velocity relative to the observer.
26) An astronaut is travelling in a spaceship at a speed of 2.4 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 . How long
will it take for a clock in spaceship to make 2 minutes.
27) At what speed a body will have its mass four times its rest mass?
28) In an accelerator, an electron is accelerated to a speed of 80% of that of light. Find
its relativistic mass. Mass of the electron is 9 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔.

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

29) At what speed the mass of proton be trebled, if the rest mass of proton is 1.673 ×
10−27 𝑘𝑔
30) Find the energy equivalent of the atomic mass unit?
31) Calculate the energy of electron whose rest mass is 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
32) Find the amount of substance that will completely be consumed to produce an
1011 𝑘𝑊ℎ.
33) Two photons P and Q are moving in opposite directions with a speed of 0.96𝑐.
What is the relative velocity with respect to P.
34) A spaceship 𝐴 moving with a speed of 0.95𝑐 in a direction opposite to that of
another spaceship 𝐵. Find the relative velocity of 𝐴 with respect to 𝐵.
35) Calculate the expected fringe shifts in the Michelson-Morley experiment, if the
distance of each plate is 2 𝑚 and the wavelength of monochromatic radiation is (a)
6000 Å and (b) 4000 Å.
36) Prove that 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑐 2𝑡 2 is invariant under Lorentz transformation.
37) A rod has length 1 𝑚. When the rod is in a satellite moving with a velocity that is
one half of the velocity of light relative to laboratory, what is the length of the rod as
determined by an observer (a) in the satellite and (b) in the laboratory?
38) If a rod travels with a speed 𝑣 = 0.6𝑐 along its length. Calculate the percentage
of contraction.
39) Calculate the velocity of the rod when its length will appear 90% of its proper
length.
40) A rocket ship is 100 𝑚 long on the ground. When it is in flight its length is 99 𝑚
to an observer on the ground. What is its speed?
41) A vector in a moving system is represented by 8𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ . How far is the vector
represented by an observer in the system S if it moves with velocity of 1.8 ×
108 𝑚𝑠 −1 along x-axis?
42) A certain process requires 10−6 𝑠 to occur in an atom at rest in laboratory. How
much time will this process requires to an observer in laboratory, when the atom is
moving with a speed of 5 × 107 𝑚𝑠 −1.
43) A particle with a mean proper time of 2 𝜇𝑠 moves through the laboratory with a
speed of 0.9𝑐. Calculate its life time as measured by an observer in the laboratory.
44) What is the velocity of 𝜋 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 whose observed mean life is 2.5 × 10−7 𝑠 and
the proper life time is 2.5 × 10−8 𝑠

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 B.Sc. V Sem. (5.1) N.E.P. Unit 02 - Relativity

45) The proper life of a meson is 2 × 10−8 𝑠. Calculate the mean life of a meson
moving with a velocity of 0.8𝑐
46) A stationary 𝜇 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛 decays in 2.2 × 10−8 𝑠. What will be the length of its
path if it is moving towards the earth with velocity 0.99𝑐.

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