5.

Functions, Graphs, and Properties∗

Functions are a tool for describing the real world in mathematical terms. In this lesson, we will
review the concept of a function and discuss the di↵erent ways to represent functions. Additionally,
we will study properties of functions.

• The Definition of a Function

Many everyday phenomena involve two quantities that are related to each other by some rule of
correspondence. The mathematical term for such a rule of correspondence is a relation.

Example 1. The relation between the area, A, of a circle and its radius, r, is described as follows:

A = ⇡r2 .
Observe that for a fixed value of r, there is exactly only one value for A. Such a relation is called
a function and we say that “the area of the circle is a function of its radius”.

Definition of a Function
A function f from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns to each x 2 D a unique (i.e.,
exactly one) element y 2 Y .

Remarks:

(1) Characteristics of a function from the set D to the set Y :

(a) Each element in D (the domain) must be mapped to an element in Y (the codomain).
(b) An element in D cannot be mapped two di↵erent elements in Y .
(c) Some elements in Y may not be the image of any element in D.

(2) The set D is called the domain (the set all possible input values) of the function f , and the
set Y (named the codomain) contains the range (or set of all outputs). That is; the range
of the function f is a subset of its codomain.

(3) We will denote the domain of f by Df and the range of f by Rf .

(4) The domain and range of a function can be any sets of objects, but often in calculus they are
sets of real numbers interpreted as points of a coordinate line. When the range of a function
is a subset of R (the set of real numbers), the function is said to be real-valued function.

(5) The domains and ranges of most real-valued functions we consider are intervals or combina-
tions of intervals.
∗
The material of this lesson handout comes from Section 1.1 in CALC. Additional review material can be found
in Sections 2.2, 2.4 & 2.5 in CAT.

1
 (6) If the function f maps the element x 2 D to y 2 Y , then we say that y is the image of x
under f , and we write y = f (x). In this case, we say that x is the independent variable
and y is the dependent variable. We also write

f : D ! Y.

In Example 1, one can write

A = f (r) = ⇡r2 .
Here, r is the independent variable and A is the dependent variable.

(7) The Function f Viewed as a Machine: We might think of the function f as a machine
that produces an output value f (x) in its range for each input value x as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Machine diagram of f .

(8) Arrow Diagram: A relation from a set D to a set Y can also be pictured as an arrow
diagram, with arrows starting from an element in D and pointing to an element in Y . When
the relation represents a function, each arrow associates to an element of the domain D a
single element in the set D (Figure 2).

Figure 2: A function from a set D to a set Y assigns a unique element of Y to each element in D.

In Figure 2, the arrows indicate that f (a) is associated with a, f (x) is associated with x, and
so on.

Notice that a function can have the same output value for two di↵erent input elements in
the domain (as occurs with f (a) in Figure 2), but each input element x is assigned a single

2
 output value f (x).

Example 2.

(a) The following relation represents a function since each element in D is mapped to a unique
element in Y . D Y

1•
•5
2•
•6
3•
•7
4•

The domain of this function is the set D = {1, 2, 3, 4} and its range is the set {6}. (Notice
that the codomain is the set Y = {5, 6, 7}). If we call this function f , then we can write

f (1) = 6, f (2) = 6, and f (3) = 6.

(b) Since the element 4 2 D is not mapped to any element in Y , this relation does not represent
a function. D Y

1• •5

2• •6

3• •7

4•

(c) Since the element c 2 D is mapped to two elements in Y (namely to 10 and 11), this relation
does not represent a function.
D Y

a• •6

b• •9

c• • 10

• 11

3
 (d) Observe that each element in D is mapped to exactly one element in Y . Thus, this relation
represents a function.
D Y

1• •3

2• •6

3• •9

.. ..
. .

x• • 3x

.. ..
. .

The domain of this function is the set D = {1, 2, 3, · · · } and its range is the set Y =
{3, 6, 9, · · · }. If we call this function g, then we can write

y = g(x) = 3x, where x 2 {1, 2, 3, · · · }.

I Four Ways to Represent a Function:

There are four ways to represent functions as we summarize next.

Four Ways to Represent a Function

Functions are commonly represented in four ways:

(1) Verbally by a sentence that describes how the input variable is related to the output
variable,

(2) Numerically by a table or a list of ordered pairs that maps input values to output
values,

(3) Graphically by points on a graph in a coordinate plane in which the input values are
represented by the horizontal axis and the output values are represented by the vertical
axis, and

(4) Algebraically by an equation in two variables.

Example 3.
(a) The function in Example 2(a) can be represented numerically as the set

f = {(1, 6), (2, 6), (3, 6), (4, 6)},

or in a tabular way as

4
 x 1 2 3 4
f (x) 6 6 6 6

(b) The function in Example 2(d) can be represented numerically as the set

g = {(1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9), · · · , (x, 3x), · · · }.

or in a tabular way as

x 1 2 3 ··· x ···
g(x) 3 6 9 ··· 3x ···

• The Graph of a Function

Graphs are an important part of studying functions, and learning to read and interpret them
correctly is a high priority. A graph highlights and emphasizes the all important input/output
relationship that defines a function.

If the function f maps the set D to the set Y , then the graph of f in the Cartesian plane1 is the
collection of all ordered pairs of the form (input, output) for f . In set notation, the graph of f is
the set

Graph of f = {(x, f (x)) : x 2 D}.

Example 4. The function f (x) = x + 2 is the set of all points of the form

{(x, y) : y = x + 2, where x 2 R} = {(x, 2x) : x 2 R}.

Its graph is the straight line sketched in Figure 3.

y
5

2
+
x
=
y

x
-3 0 3

-2
Figure 3: The graph of f (x) = x + 2 is the set of points (x, y) for which y has the value x + 2.

1
The Cartesian plane is also called the rectangular coordinate system and often referred to as the xy-plane.

5
The graph of a function f is a useful picture of its behavior. If (x, y) is a point on the graph, then
y = f (x) is the height of the graph above (or below) the point x. The height may be positive or
negative, depending on the sign of f (x) (Figure 4).

Figure 4: If (x, y) lies on the graph of f , then the value y = f (x) is the height of the graph above
the point x (or below if f (x) is negative).

I The Vertical Line Test:

The definition of a function as a set of ordered pairs in which no two ordered pairs with the same
x-coordinate have di↵erent y-coordinates implies that any vertical line intersects the graph of a
function at no more than one point. This is known as the vertical line test.

The Vertical Line Test (VLT) for Functions

A given graph is the graph of a function if, and only if, every vertical line intersects the graph
in at most one point.

Figure 5: An Illustration of the Vertical Line Test.

6
Example 5. Determine if the given graph represents a function.
y y

x x

(a) (b)

y y

x x

(c) (d)

• Getting Information from the Graph of a Function

Many properties of a function are more easily obtained from a graph than from the rule that
describes the function.

I Intercepts of a Graph:
When a relation is represented graphically, it is often easy to determine the solution points that
have zero as either the x-coordinate or the y-coordinate. These points are called the intercepts of
the graph.2

We examine the points where a graph intersects (crosses or touches) the coordinate axes.
• Because all points on the x-axis have a y-coordinate of 0, any point where a graph intersects
the x-axis has the form (a, 0). The number a is called an x-intercept of the graph.
• Similarly, any point where a graph intersects the y-axis has the form (0, b), and the number
b is called an y-intercept of the graph.
Remark: Some texts denote the x-intercept as the x-coordinate of the point (a, 0) [and the y-
intercept as the y-coordinate of the point (0, b)] rather than the point itself. Unless it is necessary
to make a distinction, we will use the term intercept to mean either the point or the coordinate.
2
It is possible for a graph to have no intercepts, one intercept, or several intercepts.

7
 Figure 6: The Intercepts of a Graph.

Exercise 1. We have seen that a function can have more than one x-intercept. Explain why a
function can have at most one y-intercept.

I Finding the Domain and Range from a Graph:

The graph of a function y = f (x) helps us to picture the domain and range of the function on the
x-axis and y-axis, as explained in Figure 7.

Figure 7: To determine the domain of f , we project the graph on the x-axis. Determining the
range is achieved by projecting the graph on the y-axis.

8
Example 6. The graph of the function y = f (x) is given below.

y = f (x)
5

x
-4 0 4

-5

From the graph of f , we can say that

• Df = [ 4, 1) [ [1, 1), and

• Rf = ( 1, 1) [ [0, 1).

Example 7. The graph of the function y = g(x) is given below.

y = g(x)
4

x
-4 0 6

-2

From the graph of g, we can say that

• Dg = ( 1, 0] [ (3, 1), and

• Rg = ( 1, 2] [ {4}.

9
I Intervals Where a Function Is Increasing or Decreasing:
It is very useful to know where the graph of a function rises and where it falls. The graph shown
in Figure 8 rises, falls, then rises again as we move from left to right: It rises from A to B, falls
from B to C, and rises again from C to D. The function f is said to be increasing when its graph
rises and decreasing when its graph falls.

Figure 8: f is increasing on (a, b) [ (c, d); f is decreasing on (b, c).

Definition of Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Given a function defined by y = f (x). We say that f

(a) is increasing on an open interval, I, if f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) whenever x2 > x1 for any
x1 , x2 2 I,

(b) is decreasing on an open interval, I, if f (x2 ) < f (x1 ) whenever x2 > x1 for any
x1 , x2 2 I, and

(c) is constant on an open interval, I, if f (x2 ) = f (x1 ) for any x1 , x2 2 I.

Figure 9: Increasing, decreasing, and constant functions, respectively.

10
Example 8. Use the graph of the function f to answer the following questions.
y
5

x
-4 0 4

-5

(a) State the domain of f .

(b) State the range of f .

(c) Find the y-intercept.

(d) Find the x-intercept(s).

(e) Find f (1) or state it is undefined.

(f) Find f ( 3) or state it is undefined.

(g) Solve the equation f (x) = 1.

(h) Solve the inequality f (x) < 0.

(i) State the interval(s) where the function is increasing.

(j) State the interval(s) where the function is decreasing.

11
I Comparing Function Values – Solving Equations and Inequalities Graphically:

We can compare the values of two functions f and g visually by drawing their graphs. The points
at which the graphs intersect are the points where the values of the two functions are equal. So
the solutions of the equation f (x) = g(x) are the values of x at which the two graphs intersect.

The points at which the graph of g is higher than the graph of f are the points where the values
of g are greater than the values of f . So the solutions of the inequality f (x) < g(x) are the values
of x at which the graph of g is higher than the graph of f .

Solving Equations and Inequalities Graphically

(1) The solution(s) of the equation f (x) = g(x) are the values of x where the graphs
of f and g intersect. (Figure 10).

(2) The solution(s) of the inequality f (x) < g(x) are the values of x at which the graph
of g is higher than the graph of f . (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Solving Equations and Inequalities Graphically.

Exercise 2. The graphs of the functions f and g are given in the figure below. Use the graph to
answer the following questions.
y
5 y = f (x)

-4 4 x
0

-5 y = g(x)
(a) Solve the equation f (x) = g(x).
(b) Solve the inequality f (x) < g(x).

12
• Representing Functions Algebraically
In algebra, it is common to represent functions by equations (formulas or rules) involving two (or
more) variables.3 For instance, the equation

y=1 x2 (y is a function of x)

represents the dependent variable y as a function of the independent variable x.

I Function Notation and Function Evaluation:

When an equation is used to represent a function, it is convenient to name the function so that
it can be referenced easily. For example, the equation y = 1 x2 describes y as a function of x.
Suppose you give this function the name “f ”. Then you can use the following function notation:

Input Output Formula

x y = f (x) f (x) = 1 x2
The symbol f (x) corresponds to the y-value for a given x. So, you can write y = f (x). Keep in
mind that f is the name of the function, whereas f (x) is the value (or the evaluation) of the
function f at x (i.e., the image of x under f ).

Caution 4
!

It is important to remember that f (x) represents function values (read f of x) and not the
product of two variables. In other words,

f (x) 6= f · x

The function given by f (x) = 3 2x2 has function values denoted by f (1), f (0), f ( 1), and so on.
To find these values, substitute the specific input values in the given rule of the function:

f (1) = 3 2(1)2 = 3 2(1) = 3 2 = 1,

f (0) = 3 2(0)2 = 3 2(0) = 3 0 = 3, and

f ( 2) = 3 2( 2)2 = 3 2(4) = 3 8 = 5.

Remark: Although f is commonly used as a function name and x is often used as the independent
variable, you can use other letters. For instance,

f (x) = x2 4x + 7, h(t) = t2 4t + 7, and r(✓) = ✓2 4✓ + 7

all define the same function. In fact, the variable (or symbol) that is used in defining a given
function is called the argument, and serves as nothing more than a “placeholder ”. Consequently,
the function above could be described by the form

⌥ (⌅) = (⌅)2 4 (⌅) + 7.

3
In this course, we discuss only functions of one independent variable.

13
Example 9. The following are examples of functions.

(a) f (x) = 3x 4 (linear function)

(b) g(x) = x2 5x + 2 (quadratic function)

(c) h(x) = 3x3 + 7x2 1 (cubic function)

Example 10. Does the equation define y as a function of x?

(a) y x2 = 2

(b) x2 + y 2 = 5

Example 11. Consider the point (x, y) lying on the graph of the line 4x + 5y = 7. Let L be the
distance between the point (x, y) and the origin. Write L as a function of x.

Exercise 3. A box with an open top is to be constructed from a rectangular piece of cardboard
with dimensions 14 cm by 22 cm by cutting out equal squares of side x at each corner and then
folding up the sides as in the figure. Express the volume, V , of the box as a function of x.

14
I The Domain of a Function Represented Algebraically:
When a function is represented algebraically (by a formula of the form y = f (x)), its domain may
be given explicitly or it can be implied by the expression used to define the function. The “natu-
ral” domain (or simply, the domain) of a function is the largest subset of real numbers for which
the expression is defined (i.e., the output is a real number).

Remark: If y = f (x) = x2 , then Df = R. If we want to restrict the domain in some way, we must
say so.4 For instance, to restrict the domain of the function to, say, nonnegative values of x, we
would write
f (x) = x2 , x 0 or f (x) = x2 , x 2 [0, 1).
Finding the Domain Algebraically: When a function is represented algebraically, we find its
domain by following the rules for evaluating an arithmetic expression paying special attention to
two potential problems:

(1) Dividing by zero: When the function involves a ratio of two expressions, the domain will
exclude the values that cause a denominator of zero.

(2) Even roots of a negative number: When the function involves a square root (the fourth
root, the sixth roots, ... , or in general, any even root) expression, the domain will exclude
the values that create a negative value under the root

Example 12. The domain of each of the functions in Example 9 is the set of all real numbers, R.
This is simply because there are no restrictions on evaluating any of these polynomials at any real
number.

Example 13. Find the domain of each of the following functions.

1
(a) u(t) =
1 t2

p
(b) g(s) = s 2

4
This usually happens in application problems.

15
 p
3
(c) c(✓) = 1 2✓

I The Intercepts of a Function Represented Algebraically:

From our definition above of the intercepts, we have the following definition.

The Intercepts of the Function y = f (x)

Given a function defined by y = f (x).

(1) The x-intercepts are the real solutions to the equation f (x) = 0. These are also called
the zeros of the function.

(2) The y-intercept is given by f (0).

Remark: From this point of view, we see that

(1) To find the x-intercept(s), we set the formula (the expression defining) of the function equal
to zero and solve the resulting equation seeking for real values for the solutions, and

(2) to find the y-intercept, we evaluate the function at 0 (of course, that is if the function is
defined at 0).

Example 14. A function f is defined by y = f (x) = 9x2 4. Find the x- and y-intercept(s) of
the function.

I Determining whether a Given Value is in the Range of a Given Function:

Let y = f (x) be a real-valued function of a real variable. To determine whether b, a real number,
is in the range of f is exactly equivalent to attempting to find a real number a in the domain of f
such that f (a) = b.

Example 15. Is 7 in the range of f (x) = |x2 5|?

16
I Finding Points of Intersections and Solving Inequalities Involving More than
One Function Algebraically:
At this point, by combing their meanings and the skills we have learned in Lessons 1 and 4, we
should be able to find the points of intersection of two functions algebraically. Simply, to find the
point(s) of intersection of the functions f and g, we seek real solutions of the equation

f (x) = g(x).

To find which function dominates the other, we need to solve an inequality of the form

f (x) > g(x) or f (x) g(x).

Example 16. Find the point(s) of intersection of the functions f (x) = |2x + 1| and g(x) = 8.

Exercise 4. For the same functions in Example 16, find the intervals where the graphs of f lies
above the graph of g.

• Symmetry

The concept of symmetry helps us sketch graphs of equations.5 A graph has symmetry if one
portion of the graph is a mirror image of another portion.

Symmetry about a Line: As shown in Figure 11(a), if a line ` is an axis of symmetry, or

line of symmetry, we can construct the mirror image of any point P not on ` by first drawing
the perpendicular line segment from P to `. Then we extend this segment an equal distance on the
other side to a point P 0 so that the line ` perpendicularly bisects the line segment P P 0 . In Figure
11(a), we say that the point P 0 is the symmetric image of the point P about the line `.

Symmetry about a Point: Two points M and M 0 are symmetric about a point Q if Q is the
midpoint of the line segment M M 0 . Figure 11(b) illustrates the symmetry about the origin O.

Figure 11: (a) Symmetric points about a line, (b) Symmetric points about the origin.

5
Symmetry lets us use information about part of the graph to draw the remainder of the graph.

17
The following three types of symmetries are frequently used.

Three Types of Symmetry

(1) A graph is symmetric with respect to (or symmetric about) the y-axis if for
every point (x, y) on the graph, the point ( x, y) is also on the graph. (Figure 12(a)).

(2) A graph is symmetric with respect to (or symmetric about) the x-axis if for
every point (x, y) on the graph, the point (x, y) is also on the graph. (Figure 12(b)).

(3) A graph is symmetric with respect to (or symmetric about) the origin if for
every point (x, y) on the graph, the point ( x, y) is also on the graph. (Figure 12(c)).

Figure 12: (a) The graph is symmetric with respect to (or symmetric about) the y-axis, (b) The
graph is symmetric with respect to (or symmetric about) the x-axis, (c) The graph is symmetric
with respect to (or symmetric about) the origin.

This is how we test a relation given algebraically for symmetry.

Test for Symmetry

(1) The graph of an equation is symmetric about the y-axis if replacing x with x yields
the same equation.

(2) The graph of an equation is symmetric about the x-axis if replacing y with y yields
the same equation.

(3) The graph of an equation is symmetric about the origin if replacing x with x and y
with y yields the same equation.

18
Example 17. Test the following relations for symmetry.

(a) x2 + y 2 = 1

(b) x2 + y = xy

(c) y 2 + |x| = 1

19
I Even and Odd Functions:
Functions can have only two types of symmetry: symmetry about the y-axis or symmetry about the
origin.

Exercise 5. Explain why the graph of a function cannot be symmetric with respect to the x-axis.

Definitions of Even and Odd Functions

Let f be a function. We say that

(1) f is even if f ( x) = f (x) for all x 2 Df .

(2) f is odd if f ( x) = f (x) for all x 2 Df .

Remarks:

(1) The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis (Figure 13(a)), while the graph
of an odd function is symmetric about the origin (Figure 13(b)).

(2) There are functions that are neither even nor odd.

y y
( x, y) (x, y) (x, y)

f ( x) f (x) g(x)

x x x x
x 0 x 0
g( x)

( x, y)
(a) (b)
Figure 13: (a) f is an even function, (b) g is an odd function.

Example 18. Decide whether the given function is even, odd, or neither.

(a) f (x) = x4 + x2 + 1

20
 (b) g(x) = x3

(c) u(x) = x4 + x + 1

• Piecewise Functions

A function that is defined by two (or more) formulas over a specified domain is called a piecewise
function. A piecewise function looks like
8
>
> f1 (x), x 2 S1
>
>
< f2 (x), x 2 S2
f (x) = .. .. ,
>
> . .
>
>
:
fn (x), x 2 Sn
where S1 , S2 , · · · , Sn are subsets of Df (the domain of f ).

21
Example 19. Consider the function
8
>
< 1 x, 4x<0
f (x) = x2 + 1, 0x<2 .
>
:
5, x>2

The domain of f is [ 4, 2) [ (2, 1). The graph of f is shown in the figure below.6

y
5
y=5
y=
1
x

1
+
x2
y=
x
-4 0 4

From the graph of f , we make the following observations:

• The range of f is [1, 5]. Combining the two facts about the domain and the range of f , we
can write
1  f (x)  5, whenever x 2 [ 4, 2) [ (2, 1).

• The y-intercept of f is 1. f has no x-intercepts.

• The function f is decreasing on ( 1, 0), increasing on (0, 2), and constant on (2, 1).

• f is neither odd nor even.

8 2
< x +9
if x 6= 1
Example 20. Let g(x) = x 1 . Find
:
7 if x=1

(a) g(0)

(b) g(1)

6
A piecewise function is graphed by graphing each formula on its subdomain.

22