RBE (REVOLUTION BY EDUCATION)

Eng.

CHEMISTRY
Short Notes

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Chemistry Concise Notes: by Radhika Ma’am (RBE)

Video Link:- https://youtu.be/p3pgtS89DhE?si=7dTk2DQTWJkDnpq2

Characteristics of Particles of Matter

1. The particles of matter are very small.
2. The particles of matter have spaces between them.
3. Particles of matter are constantly moving.
4. The particles of matter attract each other.

Brownian Motion
➢ The zig-zag movement of small particles suspended in a liquid or gas is called Brownian motion.
➢ Brownian motion gives two conclusions about the nature of matter:
1. The particles of matter are very-very small.
2. The particles of matter are constantly moving.

Density
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
➢ The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density. The S.I. unit of density is kg/m 3. Solids have
highest density and gases have the least density.

Diffusion
➢ The spreading and mixing of a substance with another substance due to mixing of its particles is called
diffusion. It is fastest in gases and slowest in solids. The rate of diffusion increases with increase in
temperature of the substance.

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Temperature
➢ The degree of hotness and coldness of a body is known as its temperature. The common unit of measuring
temperature is degree Celsius and the S.I. unit is Kelvin.

𝟎℃ = 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝑲

➢ The melting point of ice is 𝟎℃and the boiling point of water is 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ 𝒐𝒓 373K.

Effects of Change of Temperature

Melting or Fusion
➢ The process in which a solid substance changes into a liquid on heating is called melting or fusion.
➢ Reason: When a solid substance is heated its particles gain kinetic energy and they overcome the strong
forces of attraction between them and change into liquid.

Melting Point
➢ The temperature at which a solid substance melts and changes into a liquid at atmospheric pressure is
called melting point of that substance.

Boiling
➢ The process in which a liquid substance changes into a gas rapidly on heating is called boiling.
➢ Reason: When a liquid is heated its particles gain kinetic energy and they overcome the forces of
attraction between them and separate into individual atoms and liquids change in to gas.

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Boiling Point
➢ The temperature at which the liquid boils and changes rapidly into a gas at atmospheric pressure is called
boiling point of liquid.

Condensation
➢ The process of changing a gas into liquid by cooling is called condensation.
➢ Reason: When a gas is cooled its particles lose so much kinetic energy that they move closer and start
attracting each other and form a liquid.

Latent Heat
➢ Heat energy which has to be supplied to change the state of a substance is called its latent heat. Latent
heat does not rise the temperature of a substance because it is used in overcoming the force of attraction
between the particles of a substance and hence changes the state.

It is of two types
1. Latent heat of fusion
2. Latent heat of vaporisation

Latent Heat of Fusion

➢ The latent heat of fusion of a solid is the amount of heat in joules required to change 1 kg of solid at its
melting point into liquid without any change in temperature.

Latent of Vaporisation
➢ The latent heat of vaporisation of a liquid is the quantity of heat in joules required to change 1kg of liquid
at its boiling point into vapour or gas without any change in temperature.

Sublimation
➢ The changing of solid directly into vapours on heating and changing of vapours into solid on cooling
without coming to liquid state is called sublimation. The substance which undergoes sublimation are
ammonium chloride, naphthalene, anthracene, iodine, camphor etc.

Evaporation
➢ The process in which a liquid changes into a vapour or gas even below its boiling point is called
evaporation. It is a surface phenomenon.

Factors Affecting Evaporation

➢ Evaporation of a liquid mainly depends on:

1. Temperature
2. Surface area of liquid
3. Humidity
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4. Wind speed

Pure substances Impure substances

1. Made up of only one kind of particles 1. Contains two or more different types of
(atom, ion or molecule). particles.
2. Homogeneous. 2. Heterogeneous.
3. Cannot be separated into other kinds of 3. Can be separated into other kinds of
matter by physical processes. matter by physical methods.
4. Have fixed melting and boiling points. 4. Don’t have fixed melting and boiling
point.
5. Have a fixed formula. 5. Don’t have a fixed formula.

Elements Compounds
1. These are made up of only one kind of 1. These are made up of two or more
particle. elements chemically combined together in
a fixed ratio by mass.
2. They cannot be broken down into simplest 2. They can be broken down into elements by
substances by chemical methods. chemical methods.
3. For Eg: copper, oxygen, iron, hydrogen etc. 3. For Eg: water, sugar, salt etc.

Mixture Compound
1. A mixture can be separated into its 1. A compound cannot be separated into its
constituents by physical methods. constituents by physical methods.
2. It shows all the properties of its 2. Its properties are entirely different from its
constituents. constituents.
3. Energy is neither given out nor 3. Energy is usually given out or absorbed in
absorbed in the preparation of the preparation of compounds.
mixture.
4. Mixture has variable composition. 4. Compounds have fixed composition.
5. They do not have definite formula. 5. They have definite formula.
6. They do not have fixed melting and 6. They have fixed melting and boiling point.
boiling point.

Metal Non-metal
1. These are malleable and ductile. 1. They are neither malleable nor ductile. These
are brittle.
2. These are good conductors of heat and 2. These are bad conductors of heat and
electricity. Except lead and mercury electricity except diamond and graphite which
are good conductors of heat and electricity
respectively.
3. Metals are lustrous and can be 3. These are non-lustrous and cannot be polished
polished. except iodine which is lustrous.

4. Metals are solids at room temperature 4. They may be solid, liquid or gas at room
except mercury which is a liquid at temperature.
room temperature.
5. Metals are strong, tough and have high 5. They are not strong and have low tensile
tensile strength. Except sodium, strength.
potassium
6. Metals are sonorous and they make a 6. Non-metals are not sonorous.
ringing sound when struck with an
object.

➢ The only non-metal which is liquid is bromine.

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Metalloids
➢ The elements which show some property of metals and some properties of non-metals are called
metalloids. Their properties are intermediate between those of metals and non-metals. These are also
called semi-conductors. For Eg: Boron, silicon, germanium.

Alloy
➢ Alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals. It cannot be separated into its components by
physical methods. An alloy is considered as a mixture. For Eg: Brass, Bronze etc.

Solution or True Solution Sol or Colloidal Solution Suspension

1. It is a homogeneous 1. It appears to be 1. It is a heterogeneous mixture.
mixture. homogeneous but
actually it is
heterogeneous.
2. The particles of a 2. The particles of most 2. The particles of suspension
solution cannot be seen of the colloids cannot can be seen easily with naked
even with the be seen with the eyes.
microscope. microscope.
3. The particles of a 3. The particles of colloid 3. The particles of suspension
solution pass through pass through the filter cannot pass through filter
the filter paper so they paper so they cannot paper. So they can be
cannot be separated by be separated by separated by filtration.
filtration. filtration.
4. These are very stable as 4. These are very stable 4. These are unstable. The
solute particles do not as solute particles do solute particles settle down
separate out on keeping. not separate out on on keeping.
keeping.
5. These do not scatter 5. These scatter light. 5. These scatter light.
light.
6. The size of particles in 6. The size of particles of 6. The size of particles of
true solution is very colloid is intermediate suspension is very large.
small. to that of true solution
and suspension.
7. The diameter of particles 7. The diameter of 7. The diameter of particles of
of true solution is less particles of colloid is suspension is greater than
than 1nm. between 1 and 100 100nm.
nm.

Tyndall Effect
➢ The scattering of light by colloidal particles in its path is known as tyndall effect. This effect can also be
seen when a beam of light passes through a dark room through a small hole. This effect shows that
colloidal particles are much bigger than particles of a true solution.

Law of Conservation of Mass

➢ This law is given by Lavoisier. According to this law,” Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction. In other words, the total mass of products is equal to the total mass of reactants. So
there is no change in mass during a chemical reaction.”

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For Eg:
➢ Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
100 g 56 g 44 g

Law of Definite Proportions or Law of Constant Proportions

➢ This law is given by Proust. According to this law,” A chemical compound always consists of same
elements combined together in the same proportion by mass. In other words, we can also say that a pure
compound is always made up of same elements in the same mass percentage.”

Dalton’s Atomic Theory (DAT)

➢ The various postulates of DAT are:
1. All matter is made up of very tiny particles called atoms which participate in chemical reactions.
2. Atoms are indivisible which cannot be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
3. Atoms of given elements are identical in mass and chemical properties.
4. Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
5. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.
6. The relative number and kind of atoms are constant in a given compound.

Atomicity
➢ The number of atoms present in 1 molecule of an element is called atomicity. The atomicity of noble gases
or inert gases is 1.

Ionic Compounds
➢ The compounds which are made up of ions are called ionic compounds. These compounds contain strong
force of attraction between oppositely charged ions. This force is known as ionic or electrostatic bond.

S.No. Elements Symbols Electrons Protons Mass Electronic Valence Valency Ion
Configuration Electrons
1. Hydrogen H 1 1 1 1 1 1 H+,
H-
2. Helium He 2 2 4 2 2 0 -
3. Lithium Li 3 3 2,1 1 1 Li+
4. Beryllium Be 4 4 2,2 2 2 Be++
5. Boron B 5 5 2,3 3 3 B++++
6. Carbon C 6 6 12 2,4 4 4 -
7. Nitrogen N 7 7 14 2,5 5 3 N---
8. Oxygen O 8 8 16 2,6 6 2 O--
9. Fluorine F 9 9 2,7 7 1 F-
10. Neon Ne 10 10 2,8 8 0 -
11. Sodium Na 11 11 23 2,8,1 1 1 Na+
12. Magnesium Mg 12 12 24 2,8,2 2 2 Mg++
13. Aluminium Al 13 13 27 2,8,3 3 3 Al+++
14. Silicon Si 14 14 2,8,4 4 4 -
15. Phosphorus P 15 15 31 2,8,5 5 3 P---
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16. Sulphur S 16 16 32 2,8,6 6 2 S—
17. Chlorine Cl 17 17 35.5 2,8,7 7 1 Cl-
18. Argon Ar 18 18 2,8,8 8 0 -
19. Potassium K 19 19 39 2,8,8,1 1 1 K+
20. Calcium Ca 20 20 40 2,8,8,2 2 2 Ca++

Mole Concept
➢ A mole is a link between mass of particles (atom, ion, molecule) and number of particles (atom, ion,
molecule). A group of 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 particles (atom, ion, molecule) of a substance is known as one mole
of that substance. This number is known as Avogadro number.

Thomson’s Model of The Atom

➢ According to Thomson’s model of an atom,
1. An atom consists of a sphere of positive charge with negatively charged electrons embedded in it.
2. The positive and negative charge in an atom are equal in magnitude due to which an atom is
electrically neutral.

Rutherford Model of an Atom

1. There is a positively charged part at the centre of an atom which is called the nucleus. All the mass of the
atom resides in the nucleus.
2. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular path at very high speed. The paths are called orbit.
3. The size of nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
4. Most of the atom is empty space.

Bohr’s Model of an Atom

1. An atom is made up of three particles; electrons, protons and neutrons. Electrons are negatively charged,
protons are positively charged and neutrons are neutral. Due to the presence of equal number of
electrons and protons, an atom is electrically neutral.
2. The protons and neutrons are located in a small nucleus at the centre of the atom. Due to the presence of
protons, nucleus has a positive charge.
3. The electrons revolve rapidly around the nucleus in fixed circular path called energy levels or shells which
are represented in two ways:
a. By the numbers 1,2, 3……
b. By the letters K, L, M, N………

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4. The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula 2n2 where n is the orbit
number.
a. For K shell, n=1 so maximum electrons = 2n2= 2(1)2=2
b. For L shell, n=2 so maximum electrons = 2n2= 2(2)2=8
c. For M shell, n=3 so maximum electrons = 2n2= 2(3)2=18
➢ So first energy level can hold a maximum of 2 electrons, second energy level can hold a maximum of 8
electrons and so on.
1. The shell which is nearest to the nucleus have minimum energy and the shell which is farthest from
the nucleus has maximum energy.
2. There is no change in the energy of electron as they keep revolving in the same energy level. The
change in energy of electron can take place in two ways:
a. When an electron gains energy, it jumps from a lower energy level to higher energy level.
b. When an electron loses energy, electron comes down from a higher energy level to a lower energy
level.

Bohr and Bury Scheme

According to Bohr and Bury scheme
1. The maximum number of electrons which can be accommodated in any energy level of an atom is given by
2n2
❖ For K shell, n=1
❖ Maximum number of electrons = 2n2= 2(1)2=2
❖ For L shell, n=2
❖ Maximum number of electrons = 2n2= 2(2)2=8
❖ For M shell, n=3
❖ Maximum electrons = 2n2= 2(3)2=18
2. The outermost shell of an atom can’t accommodate more than 8 electrons even if it has the ability to
accommodate more electrons.
3. Electrons in an atom do not occupy a new shell unless all the inner shells are completely filled with the
electrons.

Atomic Number
➢ The number of protons in one atom of an element is called atomic number of that element. It is denoted
by Z. No two elements can have the same atomic number. The atomic number of an element does not
change during a chemical reaction. It is also equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom of that
element. It is written on the lower left side of the symbol.
➢ Atomic number, Z= No. of protons= No. of electrons in a neutral atom.
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Atomic Mass or Mass Number

➢ The total number of protons and neutrons present in one atom of an element is known as atomic mass or
mass number. It is denoted by A and is written on the upper left side of the symbol.

Mass Number, A = Protons + Neutrons

A = p+ + n

Isotopes
➢ These are the atoms of same element having same atomic number but different mass number. The
chemical properties of isotopes are similar but the physical properties are different.
➢ The difference in the masses of the isotopes is due to different number of neutrons in their nuclei. If an
element occurs in isotopic form then, its average mass is calculated.

Isobars
➢ These are the atoms of different elements having different atomic number but the same mass number.
For Eg:

Isotopes protons neutrons mass number

40
18Ar 18 22 40
40
20Ca 20 20 40

1. Exothermic Reaction
➢ Those reactions in which heat is evolved are known as exothermic reaction.

For Eg: C(s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + heat

All the combustion reactions are exothermic reactions because heat energy is produced. Respiration is also an
exothermic reaction.

2. Endothermic Reaction
➢ Those reactions in which heat is absorbed are known as endothermic reaction.

For Eg: N2 (g) + O2 (g) +heat → 2NO (g)

All the decomposition reactions are endothermic reactions because they require energy in the form of heat,
light or electricity to take place. Photosynthesis is also an endothermic reaction.

Combination Reaction
➢ Those reactions in which two or more substances combine to form a single product are called combination
reactions. For Eg:

1. 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

2. CaO (s) + H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq)

Quick lime Slaked lime

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➢ A large amount of heat is evolved when calcium oxide reacts with water.

Decomposition Reactions
➢ Those reactions in which a compound splits up into two or more simpler substances are known as
decomposition reaction. These reactions are carried out by applying heat, electricity and light. These
reactions are just the opposite of combination reactions.

Thermal Decomposition
➢ When decomposition reactions are carried out in presence of heat, these are called thermal
decomposition.
∆
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

Electrolytic Decomposition
➢ The decomposition reaction which is carried out by the action of electricity, it is known as electrolytic
decomposition. For Eg:
Electricity
2H2O (l) 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)

Photodecomposition Reaction
➢ When a decomposition reaction is carried out in presence of light, it is known as photodecomposition
reaction. For Eg:
light
1. 2AgCl (s) 2Ag(s) + Cl2 (g)
decomposition
white grey

light
2. 2AgBr (s) 2Ag (s) + Br2 (g)
decomposition
Pale yellow grey

➢ These reactions are used in black and white photography.

Displacement Reaction
➢ Those reactions in which one element takes place of another element in a compound are known as
displacement reaction. For Eg:

CuSO4 (aq) + Fe (s) FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)

blue green Reddish brown

CuSO4 (aq) + Zn (s) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)

blue colourless Reddish brown

Double Displacement Reaction

➢ Those reactions in which two compounds react by the exchange of ions to from two new compounds. For
Eg:

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3 (aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3 (aq)

white

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Redox Reaction
➢ Oxidation and Reduction reactions are known as redox reaction. Oxidation and Reduction reaction always
occur simultaneously.

Corrosion of metals
➢ The process in which metals are eaten by gradually by the action of air, moisture or a chemical (such as
acids) on their surface is called corrosion. For Eg: Rusting of iron. Corrosion weakens the iron and steel
objects such as car bodies, ships etc. and shortens their life.

Corrosion of Various Metals

1. Iron
➢ When an iron object is left in damp air for a considerable time, it gets covered with a red brown flaky
substance called rust and this process is known as rusting of iron.
4Fe + 3O2 + 2n H2O 2Fe2O3.nH2O

2. Copper
➢ CuS (black), basic copper carbonate Cu(OH)2.CuCO3 (green)

3. Silver
➢ Ag2S (black)

4. Aluminium
➢ Al2O3 (black)

Rancidity
➢ The condition produced by aerial oxidation of fats and oils in food marked by unpleasant smell or taste is
called rancidity. Rancidity spoils the food material and makes them unfit for eating.

Ways to prevent Rancidity

1. By adding Anti-oxidants
2. By Packaging Fats and Oils Containing Food in Nitrogen Gas
3. By keeping food in Refrigerator
4. By Storing The Food in Air Tight Containers
5. By Storing The Food Away From The Light

Acids
➢ Acids are the chemical substances that are sour in taste. These change the colour of blue litmus to red. For
Eg: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 etc.

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Organic Acids
➢ The acids present in plant materials and animals are known as organic acids. These are naturally occurring
acids. These are weak acids and are not harmful to eat or drink. For Eg:

Substance Acids

1. Vinegar Acetic acid/ Ethanoic Acid

2. Lemon and Orange Citric Acid
3. Sour milk and Curd Lactic acid
4. Unripe grapes and tamarind Tartaric acid
5. Tomatoes Oxalic acid
6. Ant sting Formic acid/Methanoic acid

Properties of Acids
1. Acids have sour taste.
2. Acids turn blue litmus to red.
3. Acids solution conducts electricity. So they are electrolytes.
4. Acids have corrosive nature:
The mineral acids cause severe burns in skin and attacks and eat up the material like clothes, food, metal
structure and stone work. So they are said to be corrosive.
5. Acid reacts with metal to form salt and H2 gas.
Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen gas
6. Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water.
For Eg:
Acid + Metal Oxide Salt + water
The acids also react with metal hydroxides to form salt and water.
7. Acids also react with metal carbonates and metal bicarbonate to form salt and water
Acid + Metal carbonate Salt + Water + CO2
Acid + Metal hydrogen carbonate Salt + Water+ CO2
8. Acid reacts with base or alkali to form salt and water.
Acids + Bases Salt + Water
For e.g.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
This reaction is known as neutralisation reaction.
In this reaction, H+ ions of acids combines with OH- ions of bases to form water.
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)
From From
acid base

Antacids
➢ These are the group of mild bases which have no toxic effect on the body. These react with excess acid in
the stomach and neutralises it which give relief to a person from pain and indigestion.
➢ For Eg: Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2, Baking soda NaHCO3

Bases
➢ Bases are those chemical substances which have bitter taste. Bases are the chemical opposites of acids. A
base is a chemical substance which can neutralise the acid.
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➢ For Eg: NaOH, KOH, Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 etc.

Properties of Bases
1. Bases have a bitter taste.
2. Bases feel soapy to touch.
3. Bases turn red litmus to blue.
4. Bases conduct electricity in solution.
Reason: When a base is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form ions which conducts electricity.
5. Bases react with some metals to form salt and hydrogen gas.
But all the metals do not react with bases to form salt and hydrogen gas.
6. Bases react with non-metal oxides to from salt and water.
For Eg:
Base + Non-metal oxides Salt + Water
7. Bases react with acids to form salt and water.
Acids + Base Salt + Water

pH Scale
➢ In 1909, Sorenson devised a scale known as pH scale on which the strength of acid as well as basic solution
could be represented by making the use of hydrogen ion concentration in them. The pH value of a solution
is inversely proportional to the concentration of hydrogen ion in it. In the term pH, p stands for potenz
which means power and H stands for H+ ions concentration.

Definition: The strength of an acid or a base is measured on a scale of numbers called pH scale. The pH scale has
values from 0 to 14. pH of a solution is a pure number and has no units.

pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration.

𝒑𝑯 = − 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑯+

1. Neutral substances have a pH of exactly 7. For Eg: Pure water.

2. Acids have a pH of less than 7. More acidic a solution is lesser will be its pH. For Eg: A solution of pH 1 will
be more acidic than the solution having a pH of 4.
3. Bases have a pH of more than 7. More basic a solution is, the higher will be its pH. For Eg: a solution of pH
14 will be more basic than a solution whose pH is 8.

Universal Indicator
➢ To obtain the idea of how acidic or basic a solution is universal indicator is used. It is a mixture of different
indicators or dyes which gives different colours at different pH values. Since pH of a solution depends on
hydrogen ion concentration. So universal indicator give different colours at different hydrogen ion
concentration.

pH Colour pH Colour
0 Dark red 8 Greenish Blue
1 Red 9 Blue
2 Red 10 Navy Blue
3 Orange Red 11 Purple
4 Orange 12 Dark Purple
5 Orange Yellow 13 Violet
6 Greenish Yellow 14 Violet
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7 Green
Importance of pH in every day life

pH as the cause of tooth decay

➢ Tooth decay starts when the pH of acids formed in our mouth falls below 5.5 as it has become acidic
enough to attack the enamel of the teeth and corrode it. The best way to prevent tooth decay is to clean
the mouth thoroughly after eating food and by using the tooth paste which is basic in nature for cleaning
the teeth.

Fact:

➢ Tooth enamel is calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2. It is the hardest substance of our body.

Self defence by plants and animals

➢ Plants and animals protect themselves by injecting painful and irritating acid and base into the skin of
enemies. For e.g.
a. When a honey bee stings, it injects an acidic liquid called epitoxin into the skin which causes immense
pain and irritation.
b. When a wasp stings, it injects an alkali liquid containing histamine.
c. An ant stings methanoic acid or formic acid into the skin causing burning sensation.
d. The leaves of neetle plant also injects methanoic acid into the skin of the person if touched accidently
which causes burning sensation. Its natural remedy is to rub the stung area with the leaves of the dock
plant which grows naturally beside the neetle plant.

Washing Soda
1. Formula : Na2CO3. 10H2O
2. Chemical Name: Sodium carbonate deca hydrate
3. Common name: Washing Soda
4. Sodium carbonate which does not contain water of crystallisation is called anhydrous sodium carbonate
Na2CO3. This is also called soda ash.

Baking Soda
1. Chemical Formula: NaHCO3
2. Chemical name : Sodium bicarbonate or Sodium hydrogen carbonate
3. Common name: Baking Soda

Properties
1. It consists of white crystals which are sparingly soluble in water.
2. It is mild non-corrosive base.
3. It is used in fire extinguisher (soda acid type).

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Bleaching Powder
1. Chemical Formula: CaOCl2
2. Chemical Name : Calcium oxy chloride
3. Common Name: Bleaching Powder, Chloride of lime

Properties
1. It is a white powder which gives a strong smell of chlorine.
2. It is soluble in cold water.

Facts:

➢ The real bleaching agent present in bleaching powder is chlorine. The bleaching action of chlorine is due to
its oxidising properties.

Plaster of Paris
𝟏
1. Chemical formula: CaSO4 𝟐 H2O
2. Chemical name: Calcium sulphate hemi hydrate
3. Common name: POP, plaster of paris

Preparation
➢ It is prepared from gypsum i.e. calcium sulphate di hydrate. When gypsum is heated to temperature of
𝟏
100℃ or 373K it loses 1𝟐 of its water of crystallization and forms POP.

Chemical Properties of metals

Reaction of metals with oxygen
a. Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides which are basic in nature. Most of the metal oxides are
insoluble in water but some of them dissolve in it to form alkali.
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Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxides
I. The reaction of sodium and potassium with air is so vigorous that these catch fire if kept in open.
II. Metals like aluminium and zinc also react and form amphoteric oxides which means their oxides react
with both acid and base to form salt and water.

Anodising
➢ it is a process of forming a thick oxide layer of aluminium. Aluminium oxide layer is developed by
aluminium when it is exposed to air which makes it resistant to further corrosion. This resistance can be
improved by making the oxide layer thicker.
➢ During anodizing, a clear aluminium article is made anode and is electrolyzed with dilute H 2SO4. The
oxygen gas evolved at anode reacts with aluminium to make a thick protective layer of oxide.

Reaction of metals with water

➢ Metals react with water (hot or cold) to form metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas but some metals react
with steam to form metal oxide and hydrogen gas.
a. Metals like sodium and potassium reacts violently with cold water to form hydrogen gas and catches
fire easily.

Aqua Regia
➢ It is freshly prepared mixture of 1 part of concentrated nitric acid and 3 parts of concentrated hydrochloric
acid. It is highly corrosive in nature and very fuming. It can dissolve all the metals in it like gold, platinum
etc.

Reactivity Series or Activity Series

➢ The arrangement of metals in a vertical column in the order of decreasing activities is known as reactivity
series of metals. Hydrogen is not a metal but still it is placed in reactivity series of metals because like
metals, hydrogen also loses electrons and form positive ions. The metals placed at the bottom like gold,
silver etc. are less reactive so they are usually found in free states.

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Reaction of Non-Metals with Oxygen

➢ Non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic oxide or neutral oxide. The acidic oxide of non-metals
dissolves in water to form acids.

Covalent Bond
➢ The chemical bond formed by sharing electrons between two atoms is known as covalent bond. In other
words, we can also say that the bonds formed between the atoms of same element or between two
atoms of non-metal is called covalent bond.
➢ It is of three types:
1. Single covalent bond
2. Double covalent bond
3. Triple covalent bond

Single Bond
➢ The bond formed by sharing of one pair of electrons between two atoms is called single bond. For Eg: H2,
Cl2, NH3 etc.

Double Bond
➢ The bond formed by sharing of two pair of electrons between two atoms is called a double bond. For Eg:
O2, CO2 etc.

Triple Bond
➢ The bond formed by sharing of three pair of electrons between two atoms is called a triple bond. For Eg:
N2 etc.

Fact:

➢ The structure of S8 is w or crown shaped.

Ores
➢ The minerals from which the metals can be extracted conveniently and profitably are called ores.
➢ “All ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.”

Metal Name of ore

❖ Sodium rock salt

❖ Aluminium Bauxite
❖ Manganese Pyrolusite
❖ Iron Haematite
❖ Mercury Cinnabar
❖ Copper Cuprite, copper glance
❖ Zinc Zinc blende

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Concentration of ore
➢ The unwanted impurities like sand, rocky material, earthy particles, limestone etc. present in an ore are
called gangue. This process is also known as enrichment of ore. The concentration of Sulphide ores is
always done by froth floatation process. In froth floatation process, H2SO4 is used as depressant.

Roasting
➢ It is a process in which sulphide ore is heated strongly in the excess supply of air to convert it into metal
oxide.
𝑅𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2
➢ Now, the metal oxides are then reduced to the corresponding metals by using suitable reducing agents
like carbon.
ZnO (s) + C (s) Zn (s) + CO (g)
Other reducing agents are Na, Ca, Al, etc.

Thermite Reaction
➢ The reduction of metal oxide to form metal by using aluminium powder as a reducing agent is called
thermite reaction.

Fe2O3 (s) + 2 Al (s) 2Fe (s) + Al2O3 (s) + Heat

➢ These reactions are highly exothermic in which a large amount of heat is evolved and metals are produced
in molten state.
➢ This property of reduction by aluminium is made use of in thermite welding for joining the broken parts of
heavy iron objects like girders, railway tracks or cracked machine parts.
➢ This process is called aluminothermy or thermite reaction.

Galvanization
➢ The process of depositing a thin layer of zinc metal on iron object is called galvanization. The thin layer of
zinc metal on the surface of iron objects protects them from rusting because zinc metal does not corrode
on exposure to damp air.
➢ It can also be prevented by tin plating and chromium plating.
➢ It can be prevented by alloying it to make stainless steel. When iron is alloyed with chromium and nickel
then stainless steel is obtained which does not rust at all.

Brass
➢ 80% copper and 20% zinc, golden colour, used for making cooking utensils, screws, nuts, bolts, wires,
tubes etc.

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Bronze
➢ 90% copper and 10% tin, tough, highly resistant to corrosion, used for making statues, coins, medals,
cooking utensils etc.

Fact:

1. Brass and bronze are poor conductors of electricity.

Solder
➢ 50% lead and 50% tin, MP of alloy is less than the pure metal, used for welding electric wires together.

Amalgam
➢ An alloy of mercury with one or more other metals, solution of sodium metal in liquid mercury is called
sodium amalgam, usually consists of mercury, silver, tin and zinc, used by dentists for fillings of teeth.

Organic compounds
➢ All the living things plants and animals are made up of carbon containing compounds known as organic
compounds. So we can say that the compounds of carbon are known as organic compounds.
➢ These have low melting and low boiling point because the force of attraction between their molecules is
not very strong. Most of the organic compounds are bad conductors of electricity. These compounds
involve covalent bonds.
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Catenation
➢ The property of self-combination of carbon atom in the form of long chain is called catenation.

Fact:

➢ Silicon element also shows catenation property and forms compounds with hydrogen atoms having chains
of up to 7 or 8 silicon atoms but due to weaker bond, these are very unstable.

Allotropes of Carbon
➢ The various physical forms in which element can exist are called allotropes of that element. There are
three allotropes of carbon:
1. Diamond
2. Graphite
3. Buckminsterfullerene

Diamond
Properties:
1. It is a colourless transparent substance having extra ordinary brilliance.
2. It is the hardest substance known.
3. It has a very high density.
4. It does not conduct electricity.
5. It is insoluble in all polar solvents and has high refractive index.
6. It burns on strong heating to form CO2 gas.

Structure
1. In diamond crystal, each carbon atom is linked to four other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds to
form a regular tetrahedron. Due to this diamond is very rigid and is the hardest substance known.

Graphite
Properties:
1. It is greyish black opaque substance.
2. It is soft and slippery to touch.
3. It conducts electricity.
4. It burns on strong heating to form CO2 gas.
5. Its symbol is C.
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6. It is insoluble in all polar solvents.

Structure
➢ A graphite crystal consists of layer of carbon atoms in which each carbon atom is linked to three other
carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds to form flat hexagonal rings. The various layers are held together
by weak Vander waals forces. These layers are very far apart.

Buckminsterfullerene
➢ It is an allotrope of carbon containing clusters of 60 carbon atoms joined together to form spherical
molecule. It is football shaped molecule containing 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons. Its formula is C 60. It is a
dark solid at room temperature. It is neither very hard nor very soft.

Vital Force Theory

➢ According to this theory, the organic compounds could only be formed within a living body and hence a
vital force which creates living things was necessary for their preparation. This theory was disproved by a
scientist Freidrich Wohler as he prepared the organic compound urea [CO(NH2)2 or NH2CONH2] in the lab
with the help of ammonium cyanate NH4CNO

Hydrocarbon
➢ A compound made up of only hydrogen and carbon is called hydrocarbon. For example: Methane, Butane,
propane etc.
➢ These are of two types:
1. Saturated hydrocarbons
2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons

Saturated Hydrocarbons
➢ A hydrocarbon in which carbon atoms are connected by only single bonds is called saturated
hydrocarbons. These are also known as alkanes. The general formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2. The alkanes are
quite unreactive. For eg: Methane, Ethane, Propane etc.

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Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
➢ A hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are connected by a double bond or triple bond is called
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
➢ These are of two types:
1. Alkenes
2. Alkynes

Alkenes
➢ An unsaturated hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are connected by a double bond is called an
alkene. The general formula of alkene is CnH2n. For Eg: Ethene, Propene, Butene etc.

Alkynes
➢ The hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are connected by triple bond is called alkynes. The general
formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2. For eg: Ethyne, Propyne, Butyne etc.

Nomenclature
➢ The organic compound has two names:
1. Common name
2. IUPAC name

IUPAC stands for International Union of pure and applied chemistry. According to IUPAC,

1. 1 carbon atom is indicated by meth

2. 2 carbon atoms are indicated by eth
3. 3 carbon atoms are indicated by prop
4. 4 carbon atoms are indicated by but
5. 5 carbon atoms are indicated by pent
6. 6 carbon atoms are indicated by hex
7. 7 carbon atoms are indicated by hept
8. 8 carbon atoms are indicated by oct
9. 9 carbon atoms are indicated by non
10. 10 carbon atoms are indicated by dec.

❖ Alkanes are indicated by writing –ane in the end.

❖ Alkenes are indicated by writing –ene in the end.
❖ Alkynes are indicated by writing –yne in the end.

Isomers
➢ The compounds having same molecular formula but different structures are known as isomers or
structural isomers.

Isomerism or Structural Isomerism

➢ The existence of two or more organic compounds having same molecular formula but different structure is
called isomerism or structural isomerism. Isomerism is possible only with hydrocarbons having 4 or more
carbon atoms. No isomerism is possible in methane, ethane and propane.

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Homologous Series
➢ The group of organic compounds having similar structure and similar chemical properties in which the
successive compounds differ by –CH2 group is known as homologous series. For Eg:

Characteristics of homologous series

1. All the members of a homologous series can be represented by the same general formula. Eg: Alkanes are
represented by the general formula CnH2n+2.
2. Any two adjacent members of homologous series differ by CH2 group.
3. The difference in molecular mass of any two homologues is 14u.
4. All the compounds of homologous series show similar chemical properties.
5. The homologues show a gradual change in their physical properties with increase in molecular mass.

Alcohols
➢ These are the organic compounds containing –OH group attached to a carbon atom. The general formula
of alcohols is CnH2n+1-OH
➢ Example: Methanol or methyl alcohol CH3OH
➢ Ethanol or ethyl alcohol C2H5OH

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Aldehydes
➢ The organic compounds containing the aldehyde group (-CHO or –CH=O) are known as aldehydes. Eg:
Methanal HCHO, Ethanal CH3CHO, Propanal C2H5CHO etc. The general formula of aldehydes is CnH2nO

Ketones
➢ The organic compounds containing the ketone group (>C=O) are known as ketones. A ketone group always
occur in the middle of carbon chain. The simplest ketone is propanone CH3COCH3 which is also known as
acetone. The general formula of ketone is CnH2nO. Eg: Propanone, Butanone, Pentanone etc.

Carboxylic acids
➢ The organic compounds containing carboxylic acid group (-COOH or –C(OH)=O) are known as carboxylic
acids. These are also known as organic acids or alkanoic acids. The general formula of carboxylic acids is R-
COOH. Example: Methanoic acid or formic acid HCOOH , Ethanoic acid or acetic acid CH3COOH etc.

Hydrogenation Reaction
➢ The addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated hydrocarbon is called hydrogenation. This reaction is used to
prepare vegetable ghee from vegetable oil.

➢ Vegetable oil (unsaturated fats) is good for our health but saturated fats like vegetable ghee are harmful
for our health. The commercial use of hydrogenation reaction is hydrogenation of vegetable oil to
vegetable ghee in the presence of nickel catalyst.

Facts:

➢ Catalysts are the substances which accelerate the rate of reaction without taking part on it.

Denatured Alcohol
➢ Denatured alcohol is ethyl alcohol which has been made unfit for drinking purposes by adding small
amount of poisonous substances like methanol, pyridine, copper sulphate etc.

Boyle’s Law
➢ At constant temperature, the volume of a definite mass of a gas is inversely proportional to pressure.
𝟏
𝑽∝ (𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑻)
𝒑

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Charles Law
➢ At constant pressure, the volume of a definite mass of a gas is directly proportional to the its absolute
temperature.
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
𝑽∝𝑻 or =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

➢ If two or more gases which do not react chemically are enclosed in a vessel, the total pressure of the
gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of each gas which exerted when enclosed
separately in the same vessel at constant temperature.

Hard Water
➢ Less froth with soap
➢ Due to the presence of soluble impurities of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of Ca and Mg.

Temporary hardness
➢ Due to the presence of bicarbonate of calcium and magnesium.
➢ Removed by boiling and by clark’s method.

Permanent hardness
➢ Due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of Ca and Mg.
➢ Removed by soda ash (Na2CO3) process and permutit process.

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Dobereiner’s Law of Triads

➢ When elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic masses, groups of three elements (called
triads) having similar chemical properties are formed. The atomic mass of the middle element of triad is
equal to the arithmetic mean of the atomic masses of other two elements. For Eg:

1. Alkali Metal Group

Lithium Li 7u

Sodium, Na 23u

Potassium,K 39u
𝟕+𝟑𝟗 𝟒𝟔
➢ Arithmetic mean of masses of Li and K= 𝟐
= 𝟐
= 𝟐𝟑𝒖 =atomic mass of Na

Newland’s Law of Octaves

➢ When elements are arranged in the increasing order of atomic masses the properties of 8th element are a
repetition of properties of 1st element.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

➢ When elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic masses the elements with similar
properties occur at regular intervals.
➢ According to Mendeleev’s periodic law,” The properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic
masses.”

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Modern Periodic Law

➢ According to modern periodic law,” The properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic number”. When elements are arranged according to their increasing atomic numbers,
there is a periodicity in the electronic configuration of elements which leads to the periodicity in
their chemical properties.

Gp1 Gp2 Gp13 Gp14 Gp15 Gp16 Gp17 Gp18

Li Be B C N O F He
Na Mg Al S P S Cl Ne
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Ar
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Kr
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po Xe
Fr Ra Rn

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