Introduction to Computers

Group 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS.

Definition of a Computer:
 A Computer is an electronic device that operates (works) under the control of
programs stored in its own memory unit.
 A computer is an electronic machine that processes raw data to give information as
output.
 An electronic device that accepts data as input, and transforms it under the
influence of a set of special instructions called Programs, to produce the desired
output (referred to as Information).
A computer automatically accepts data & instructions as input from an Input device,
stores them temporarily in its memory, then processes that data according to the
instructions given, and finally transfers the processed data (Information) to an Output
device.
Explanations;
A computer is described as an electronic device because; it is made up of electronic
components and uses electric energy (such as electricity) to operate.
A computer has an internal memory, which stores data & instructions temporarily
awaiting processing, and even holds the intermediate result (information) before it is
communicated to the recipients through the Output devices.
It works on the data using the instructions issued, means that, the computer cannot
do any useful job on its own. It can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
A computer will accept data in one form and produce it in another form. The data is
normally held within the computer as it is being processed.
Program:
 A computer Program is a set of related instructions written in the language of the
computer & is used to make the computer perform a specific task (or, to direct the
computer on what to do).
 A set of related instructions which specify how the data is to be processed.
 A set of instructions used to guide a computer through a process.
Data:
Data is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions that do not have much meaning
to the user.
Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be processed
to produce information.

TYPES OF DATA.
There are two types/forms of data:
a). Digital (discrete) data:
Digital data is discrete in nature. It must be represented in form of numbers,
alphabets or symbols for it to be processed by a computer.
- Digital data is obtained by counting. E.g. 1, 2, 3 …
b). Analogue (continuous) data:
Analogue data is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in
order to be processed by the computer.
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Analogue data is obtained by measurement. E.g. Pressure, Temperature,
Humidity, Lengths or currents, etc
The output is in form of smooth graphs from which the data can be read.
Data Processing:
 It is the process of collecting all items of data together & converting them into
information.
 Processing refers to the way the data is manipulated (or handled) to turn it into
information.
The processing may involve calculation, comparison or any other logic to produce the
required result. The processing of the data usually results in some meaningful
information being produced.
Information:
Information is the data which has been refined, summarized & manipulated in the way
you want it, or into a more meaningful form for decision-making.
The information must be accurate, timely, complete and relevant.
Comparison between Data and Information.
Data Information
1. Unprocessed (raw) facts or figures. 1. It is the end-product of data
processing (processed data)
2. Not arranged. 2. Arranged into a meaningful format.
3. Does not have much meaning to the user. 3. More meaningful to the user.
4. Cannot be used for decision-making. 4. Can be used to make decisions.

Characteristics / Features of a Computer.

th
Before 20 century, most information was processed manually or by use of simple
machines. Today, millions of people are using computers in offices and at home to
produce and store all types of information
The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely accepted & used
in the day-to-day activities in our society:
1. Speed.
Computers operate at very high speeds, and can perform very many functions within
a very short time.
They can perform a much complicated task much faster than a human being.
The speed of a computer is measured in Fractions of seconds.
Millisecond - a thousandth of a second (10-3)
Microsecond - a millionth of a second (10-6)
Nanosecond- a thousand millionth of a second (10-9)
Picosecond - a million millionth of a second (10-12)
The speed of a computer is usually linked to the technology used to build it.
a). 1st Generation computers (1940s & early 1950s).
The computers were built using Vacuum tubes, and the speed was measured in
Milliseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 5,000 additions & 300
multiplications per second.
b). 2nd Generation computers (1950s & early 1960s).
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Were built using Transistors. Their operation speeds increased & were
measured in Microseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 1 million additions
per second.
c). Mid 1960s.
Integrated Circuit (IC), which combined a no. of transistors & diodes together
on a silicon chip, was developed.
The speed increased to tens of millions of operations per second.
d). In 1971, Intel Corporation produced a very small, single chip called a
Microprocessor, which could perform all the operations on the computer’s
processor. The chip contained about 1,600 transistors.
e). Today’s microprocessors are very powerful, cheaper & more reliable due to the
use of the Large Scale Integration (LSI) & Very Large scale Integration (VLSI)
technologies, which combines hundreds of thousands of components onto a
single chip.
The computer speeds are now measured in Nanoseconds & Picoseconds.
2. Accuracy:
Unlike human beings, computers are very accurate, i.e., they never make mistakes.
A computer can work for very long periods without going wrong. However, when an
error occurs the computer has a number of in-built, self-checking features in their
electronic components that can detect & correct such errors.
Usually errors are committed by the users entering the data to the computer, thus
the saying Garbage in Garbage Out (GIGO).
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it processed,
the computer will give you misleading information.
3. Reliability.
The computer can be relied upon to produce the correct answer if it is given the
correct instructions & supplied with the correct data.
Therefore, if you want to add two numbers, but by mistake, give the computer a
“Multiply” instruction, the computer will not know that you intended to “ADD”; it will
multiply the numbers supplied.
Similarly, if you give it the ADD instruction, but make a mistake and enter an incorrect
data; let say, 14 & 83 instead of 14 & 38; then the computer will produce the “wrong”
answer 97 instead of 52. However, note that, 97 is ‘correct’ based on the data
supplied.
Therefore, the output produced by a computer is only as reliable as the instructions
used & the data supplied.
4. Consistency:
Computers are usually consistent. This means that, given the same data & the same
instructions, they will produce the same answer every time that particular process is
repeated.
5. Storage:
A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a very
small space.
A computer can store data & instructions for later use, and it can produce/
retrieve this data when required so that the user can make use of it.
Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals
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through the use of passwords.
6. Diligence:
Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired or
bored. Even if it has to do a million calculations, it will do the last one with the same
speed and accuracy as the first one.

7. Automation:
A computer is an automatic device. This is because, once given the instructions, it is
guided by these instructions and can carry on its job automatically until it is
complete.
It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
8. Versatile:
A computer can be used in different places to perform a large number of different
jobs depending on the instructions fed to it.
9. Imposition of a formal approach to working methods:
Because a computer can only work with a strict set of instructions, it identifies and
imposes rigid rules for dealing with the data it is given to process.
Review Questions.
1. What is a computer?
2. Why is a computer referred to as an electronic device?
3. Define the following terms as used in computer science.
a). Data.
b). Programs.
c). Data processing.
d). Information.
4. (a) Briefly explain the two forms of data.
(b) Give THREE differences between Data and Information.
5. The speed of a computer is measured in ___________.
6. What does the term GIGO stand for?
7. List and explain 4 salient features/ properties of a computer.
8. List FIVE advantages of a computerized system over a manual system.

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Group 2 PARTS OF A COMPUTER.

A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are interconnected
together in order to work as a single entity.
A Computer consists of the following parts/devices: -
1. The System Unit.
2. Input devices.
3. Output devices.
4. Storage devices.

System Unit.
This is the casing (unit) that houses electronic components such as the ‘brain’ of the
computer called the Central processing Unit (CPU) and storage devices.
The components in the System unit include: -
 Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is also referred to as Processor.
 Motherboard.
 Power supply unit.
 Memory storage devices.
 Disk drives, which are used to store, record and read data.
Types of System units
There are two makes of System units:
a) Tower style system unit
This system unit is made to stand alone. They are designed to be placed on the
floor.
Tower style units have more space for expansion than the typical desktop units.
b) Desktop system units
Desktop units lie on the desk with the monitor resting on top of the system unit.

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Features of the System unit.

It houses the CPU.
It connects to all peripheral devices using ports.
It has the computer’s Power switch.
The Central processing unit (CPU)
This is the brain of the computer, and carries out all the processing within the computer.

Input devices.
These are the devices used to enter/put data into the computer.
• They accept data for processing & convert it into a suitable form that the computer
can understand.
Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Joysticks, Light pen, Scanner, etc.
The Keyboard
The keyboard looks like a typewriter, and has letters, numbers and other keys through
which data is entered into the computer.
To enter data & instructions into the computer, the user should press the required keys.
The Mouse
It is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by
controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.

Output devices.
Output devices are used to give the end results of data that was entered into the
computer.
They extract/ disseminate processed data (information) from the computer.
They accept data from processing devices & convert it into human sensible form.
Examples: Screens (Monitors), Printers, Graph plotters, Speakers, etc
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The Monitor
It is a television like screen used for displaying output. When you type a letter or
number on the keyboard, it shows up on the monitor.
Note. The monitor enables the user to monitor/track or see what is going on in the
computer.
Printer
Printers are used to create permanent copies of output on paper.

Memory storage devices.

These are devices used to store programs & data in computers.
• They hold data & programs until they are needed for processing.
• They also hold the results after processing.
Computer storage is divided into 2:
i). Primary (main) storage.
This is the storage found within the computer itself. It is used to hold data,
programs & instructions required immediately (or currently being used) by the
Processor.
Examples: Random Access Memory (RAM) & Read Only Memory (ROM).

ii). Secondary (Backing) storage.

It is used by the computer to store backup information that is not needed
immediately by the Processor. It is also used by the computer to supplement the
computer’s main memory/ internal memory in case of mass storage purposes.
Secondary storage units provide permanent data storage facilities. They allow
large quantities of information to be stored permanently on some form of magnetic
media such Magnetic tapes or disks.
The programs & data are transferred to & from the secondary storage units to the
Main memory only when they are required; hence the information is said to be
online to the computer.

Examples of secondary storage devices:

• Hard disk * Floppy disks. * Magnetic Tapes.
• Cassette tapes. * Punched cards. * Zip disks.
• Compact disks * Digital Video Disks (DVDs).

Computer peripherals.
A computer is basically made up of a system unit and other devices connected to the
system unit called Peripheral devices.
Peripheral devices are the elements (components) connected to the system unit so as
to assist the computer satisfy its users.
Peripheral devices are connected to the System unit using special cables called data
interface cables that carry data, programs & information to and from the processor.
The cables are connected to the system unit using connectors called Ports.
Examples of peripheral devices include;
Monitor, - Keyboard, - Mouse
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Printer. - Modem. - Speakers.
Plotter.

Review Questions.
1. List down the components that make up a computer.
2. Clearly draw and label the main physical parts of a simple computer system.
3. What are computer peripherals?
4. (a). Name and explain the two main divisions of computer storage.
(b). Give two common examples of secondary storage devices.
5. Name two output devices.
6. (a). Explain the term System unit.
(b). Name some of the components found in the System unit.
(c). Give three features of a computer’s System Unit.
7. Why is the screen also called a Monitor?
8. What is a Mouse in relation to computing?

Group 3 DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS.

HISTORY OF COMPUTING.
Before 1900, most data processing was done manually using simple tools like stones &
sticks to count and keep records.
Around 2000 years ago, Asian merchants came up with a special calculating tool called
Abacus that could be used to calculate large figures.
An Abacus is made up of a rectangular frame and a crossbar at the middle. It is fitted
with wires or strings running across from the frame to the crossbar.
How to represent a number using an Abacus.
Each bead in the lower row has a value of 1, while each bead in the upper row has a
value of 5. To represent a number, the bead is moved to the crossbar. Those beads
away from the crossbar represent zeros.
The Figure below represents the number 6908 (Six thousand nine hundred and eight).

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After Abacus, the first machine that is usually regarded as the forerunner of modern
computers was named the Analytical Engine, and was developed by an English
mathematician called Charles Babbage.
In 1939, Professor Howard Aken of Horrard University designed the first computer-like
machine named Mark 1. Since then, a series of advancements in electronics has
occurred. With each breakthrough, the computers based on the older form of
electronics have been replaced by a new “generation” of computers based on the newer
form of electronics.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS.
A Computer generation is a grouped summary of the gradual developments in the
computer technology. The historical events are not considered in terms of individual
years, but are classified in durations (a period of more than a year).
ST
1 Generation computers (1946 – 1956).
st
The 1 generation of computers used thousands of electronic gadgets called Vacuum
tubes or Thermionic valves to store & process information.

Vacuum tube
The tubes consumed a lot power, and generated a lot of heat during processing due to
overheating.
The computers constantly broke down due to the excessive heat generated, hence were
short-lived, and were not very reliable.
They also used Magnetic drum memories.
Cards were used to enter data into the computers.
Their internal memory capacity was limited. The maximum memory size was approx. 2
KB (2,000 bytes).
The computers used big physical devices in their circuitry; hence they were very large in
size, i.e. the computer could occupy several office blocks. For example, ENIAC
occupied an area of about 150m2 - the size of an average 3-bedroom house.
They were very slow - their speed was measured in Milliseconds. E.g., ENIAC (the
earliest electronic computer) could perform 5,000 additions per second & 300
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multiplications per second.
The computers were very costly - they costed millions of dollars.
Examples of 1ST Generation computers:
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) built in 1946 for use in World
War II. It contained 18,000 Vacuum tubes.
 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) developed in 1945 by Dr.
John Von Neumann. It was the first computer that used instructions stored in
memory.
 UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).
 IBM 650.
 LEO (Lyon’s Electronic Office).

2ND Generation computers (1957 – 1963).

The 2nd generation computers used tiny, solid-state electronic devices called Transistors.
The transistors were relatively smaller, more stable & reliable than vacuum tubes.

Transistor
The computers consumed less power, produced less heat, were much faster, and more
reliable than those made with vacuum tubes.
They used Magnetic core memories.
RAM Memory size expanded to 32 KB.
Their operation speed increased to between 200,000 – 300,000 instructions per second.
Their speeds were measured in Microseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 1 million
st
additions per second, which was comparatively higher than that of the 1 generation
computers.
The computers were smaller in size & therefore, occupied less space compared to the
st
1 G computers.

They were less costly than the 1st G computers.

Examples of 2nd Generation computers:
 NCR 501, IBM 300, IBM 1401, IBM 7070, IBM 7094 Series & CDC-6600 Mainframe
computers.
 ATLAS LEO Mark III.
 UNIVAC 1107.
 HONEYWELL 200.
3RD Generation computers (1964 – 1979).
Used electronic devices called Integrated Circuits (ICs), which were made by combining
thousands of transistors & diodes together on a semiconductor called a Silicon chip.

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Integrated circuit
The processing speed increased to 5 Million instructions per second (5 MIPS).
The storage capacity of the computers (i.e., the RAM memory sizes) expanded to 2 MB.
They were smaller in size compared to 2nd generation computers.
The computers used a wide range of peripheral devices.
The computers could support more than user at the same time. They were also able to
support remote communication facilities.
Magnetic disks were developed for storage purposes.
The 1st microcomputer was produced during this period (1974).
Examples of 3rd Generation computers:
 IBM 360, 370;
 ICL 1900 Series;
 8-bit Microcomputers & PDP-11 Mainframe computers.

TH
4 Generation computers (1979 – 1989).
th
The 4 generation computers used Large Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits & Very Large
Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. These circuits were made by compressing more tiny
circuits and transistors into even smaller space of the silicon chip.

Very Large integrated circuit

The computers were small, and very fast. Their processing speeds increased to 50
Million instructions per second.
Had large storage capacity, i.e., their memory sizes expanded to several hundred
Megabytes.
Memories used included Magnetic disks, Bubble memories & Optical disks.

Examples of 4th Generation computers:

 IBM 308 and 4300;
 Amdahl 580
 Honeywell DPS-88
 Burroughs 7700, and the 16-bit & 32-bit microcomputers. The first microcomputer
was called Apple II.

5TH Generation computers (1990 – Present).

In this generation fall today’s computers.
The technologies used are Parallel architectures, 3-Dimensional circuit design & super
conducting materials.
These technologies have led to the development of computers referred to as

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Supercomputers, which are very powerful, and have very high processing speeds. Their
speeds are measured in Nanoseconds & Picoseconds.
They are able to perform parallel (or multi-processing) whereby a single task is split
among a number of processors.
The memory sizes range between 1 Gigabyte & 1 Terabyte.
The computers are designed using VLSI and the Microchip technology that has given
rise to the smaller computers, known as Microcomputers used today.
The computers have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex
programs that mimic human intelligence often referred to as Artificial Intelligence. Such
programs can help managers to make decisions and also provide critical expert
services to users instead of relying on human professionals.

Review Questions.
1. Briefly describe the history of computers.
2. (a). What do you mean by computer generations?
(b). Describe the FIVE generations of computers in terms of technology used and
give an
example of a computer developed in each generation.
(c). Compare computer memory sizes during the Five computer generation periods.
3. What was the most remarkable discovery during the second computer generation?
4. (a). Technology is the basis of computer classification. Based on this, explain
briefly the
difference between the first three computer generations.
(b). What is so peculiar in the fourth and fifth generation of computers?
5. Match the following generations of computers with the technology used to develop
them.

Generation Technology
First generation A). Very Large Integrated Circuit
Second generation B). Thermionic valves (Vacuum tubes)
Third generation C). Transistors
Fourth generation D). Integrated Circuits

6. Give four characteristics of First generation computer.

7. Write the following abbreviations in full:
(a). ENIAC
(b). VLSI
(c). IC
8. What is Artificial Intelligence?
Group 4 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE TYPE OF COMPUTER.
1) Type of processor (Central processing unit – CPU)
Microcomputers use microprocessors, which are manufactured on a single chip, as
their CPU.
In larger computers such as supercomputers, mainframe & minicomputers, the
processing is carried out by a number of separate, high-speed components instead
of a single processor.
2) Processing speed.
Every computer has a clock that drives its operations.
Larger computers have faster clocks and therefore can process many instructions
per second compared to small computers, which have slower clocks.
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3) Amount of Main memory (RAM).

All computers have some amount of RAM (Random Access memory), which is
used to hold the instructions required to perform a task.
Larger computers have more RAM and therefore can handle large volumes of data
& also support many and sophisticated programs which might require large
memory sizes.
4) Storage capacity of the Hard disk.
The storage capacity is the amount of space that is available for storing the
instructions required to manipulate data.
Larger computers have higher storage capacities than microcomputers.
5) Cost of the computer.
The cost of computers is directly related to the size. Microcomputers are less
costly compared to minicomputers, mainframes or Supercomputers.
6) Speed of Output devices.
The speed of an output device is determined by the amount of information that can
be printed in a specified amount of time.
The speed of microcomputer output device is less than that of the larger
computers in that:
For a microcomputer, the speed of its output device is measured by the number of
characters printed per second (cps). For larger computers, their output devices are
faster and their speeds are measured depending on the number of lines or pages
printed per minute (lpm / ppm).
7) Number of users who can access the computer at the same time.
Most microcomputers can support only 1, 2 or 3 users at the same time. However,
they can be networked to share resources.
Larger computers can support hundreds of users at the same time.
Review Questions.
1. Briefly explain five factors that can be used to determine the type of a computer.

Group 5 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified according to the following factors:
1. Physical size & processing power.
2. Purpose for which they are designed.
3. Functionality (Method/ mode of operation).

A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE.

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Computers can be classified into 5 main groups according to their size as:
 Supercomputers.
 Mainframe computers.
 Minicomputers.
 Microcomputers.
 Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks & Palmtops).

Supercomputers.
Supercomputers are the fastest, largest, most expensive & also the most powerful
computers available.
They are very fast in processing. They can perform many complex calculations in a
fraction of a second.
Most Supercomputers use multiple processors. In this case, a single task is split
among the processors for faster execution. However, all the processors are
controlled by a single central processor.
Supercomputers generate a lot of heat, & therefore require special cooling systems.
Sometimes, the whole CPU is deeped in a tank containing liquid Fluorocarbon to
provide cooling.
Supercomputers are very large & heavy, and are usually kept under special
environmental conditions (i.e., in a special room).
They are operated by computer specialists. A Supercomputer can be operated by
over 500 users at the same time.
Areas where supercomputers are used:
Supercomputers are mainly used for complex scientific applications that involve
many calculations & require a lot of computational power. Some of the applications
that use supercomputers include;
Weather forecasting.
Petroleum research.
Defence and weapon analysis.
Aerodynamic design and simulation.
Note. These tasks use large amounts of data, which need to be manipulated
within a very short time.
Examples of Supercomputers:
 CRAY T3D, NEC-500.

Mainframe computers.
Mainframes are less powerful & less expensive than supercomputers.
They are big in size but smaller compared to Supercomputers.
Are powerful computers with very high capacities of Main storage. They also have a
large backing storage capacity.
Have a very high processing speed, i.e., can process large amounts of data very
quickly.
They can support a large number of peripherals of different types (can support
between 5–300 terminals).
They can handle hundreds of users at the same time, e.g., they can be operated by
200 users at a time.
Mainframe computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems
whether scientific or commercial.
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Areas where mainframe computers are used:

Mainframe computers are mostly found in government departments, big
organizations and companies which have large information processing needs, e.g.,
they are used;
In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.
In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.
By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.
Examples of Mainframes:
 IBM 4381.
 ICL 39 Series.
 CDC Cyber series.

Minicomputers.
A Minicomputer is physically smaller than a mainframe. However, it can support the
same peripheral devices supported by a mainframe.
A Minicomputer can support several users at a time, e.g., can be operated by 6 users
at a time. Several workstations/ terminals are connected to one central
minicomputer so that the users connected can share its resources (C.P.U time,
storage, etc).
Minicomputers are easier to manufacture & maintain compared to mainframes.
Minicomputers are cheaper than the mainframes, but more costly than the
microcomputers.
They handle small amounts of data, are less powerful, & have less memory than the
mainframes.
Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.

Areas where minicomputers are used:

Minicomputers are used mainly in:
Scientific laboratories & research institutions.
Engineering plants/factories to control of chemical or mechanical processes.
Space industry.
Insurance companies & Banks for accounting purposes.
Smaller organizations as Network Servers.
Example of Minicomputer:
 PDP-8 built in 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation in U.S.

Microcomputers.
Microcomputers are the PCs mostly found today in homes, schools & many small
offices. They are called Personal Computers (PCs) because they are designed to be
used by one person at a time.
They consist of very few connected units, i.e. can support very few peripheral
devices (usually 1 or 2).
The data processing in microcomputers is done by a Microprocessor (a single chip
containing the Arithmetic Logic unit & Control unit).
Microcomputers are smaller in size & also cheaper than minicomputers. Their
design is based on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) that confines several physical
components into an IC.
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They are less powerful than minicomputers & their internal memory is smaller than
that of minicomputers.
Areas where microcomputers are used:
Microcomputers are commonly used in:
Training and learning institutions such as schools.
Small business enterprises, and
Communication centres as terminals.
Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following reasons:
1) Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.
2) Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).
3) Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.
4) Are more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power).
5) Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.
Examples:
 IBM PCs such as Apple Macintosh, Dells, Compaq, etc.

Laptops & Notebooks.

A Laptop is a PC sufficiently small & light such that a user can use it comfortably on
his/her lap. It is designed to be used by placing it on the lap.
- Laptops are very small in size & are portable. They are small enough to fit inside a
briefcase; still leaving room for other items.
- A Laptop computer operates mainly on electricity or by rechargeable batteries.
- Laptops normally have in-built disk drives & Flat screens (Liquid Crystal Displays).
- Can only support a limited number of peripheral devices.
- Have limited storage capacities.
Note. The smaller computers like Laptops tend to be more expensive than Desktop
computers because of the following reasons:
1) The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.
2) They are convenient because they are portable.
3) They have advanced power management capabilities (they consume less power
since a laptop can operate on rechargeable batteries).

Palmtops.
Palmtops are small enough to fit in the pocket, and can be held in the palm when
being used.
Have limited storage capacities.
Palmtops are mainly used as Personal Organizers, with some minimal
programs for calculations, Word processing, Spreadsheets, & E-mail.
Example of a Palmtop; Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

Desktop computer.
This is the name given to any computer designed to be used when placed on a desk
in an office environment.
They are not portable.

Examples of desktop computers:

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1) Home computer.
This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed for domestic
use. It has programs that are used typically for computer games or controlling
family finances.
2) Personal computer (PC).
This is a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work
or in the home mainly for business purposes.
A PC can support only 1 user at a time.
PCs are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises, and at home for
various applications like computer literacy, Games, Database management,
Accounting, Word processing, Telecommunications, etc.
A PC can be connected to a mini & mainframe computer so as to enable the
user access the facilities offered by the larger machines.
3) Workstation.
A workstation is usually a desktop computer with all the facilities but interlinked
to a network.
A typical workstation works in a similar way to a Personal computer. However, it
is more advanced than a typical PC in the following ways:
i). It is larger & more powerful than a PC. E.g., workstations use 32-bit
microprocessors, while PCs use 16-bit microprocessors.
ii). It has in-built capabilities for its interconnection & operation with other
computers, i.e., it is fully connected to a computer network as any other
computer on the network in its own right.
iii). It has high resolution graphics.
iv). It has a Multi-tasking operating system, i.e. it is able to run multiple
applications at the same time.

An Embedded computer.
This is a computer that is within another device or system but is not accessed
directly. E.g., there are embedded computers operating within Petrol pumps,
Watches, Cameras & Video recorders.

B. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE.

Digital computers can be classified further according to the tasks they perform
either as:
 General-purpose.
 Special purpose
 Dedicated computers.

General-purpose computers.
General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. They
use specifically written instructions (programs) to carry out the desired processing
tasks.
Example;
A single computer can be used to process documents, perform calculations, process
the Payroll, simulate the loading on a bridge, process Insurance policies, and play
games, among others.

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 Introduction to Computers
The programs used in a general-purpose computer are exchangeable. This means
that, to perform a particular task, the appropriate set of instructions required to
perform that particular task are loaded into the computer memory.
E.g., if you want to play a game, the appropriate program is loaded into the
computer’s memory & the computer is instructed to execute the instructions which
make up the game.
Examples of general-purpose computers: Mainframes, Minicomputers,
Microcomputers & Laptops used in most offices & schools.

Special-purpose computer.
A special-purpose computer is designed to handle/accomplish a particular specific
task only.
Such computers cannot perform any other task except the one they were meant to
do. Therefore, the programs which are used in a special-purpose computer are fixed
(hard-wired) at the time of manufacture.
For example;
In a computer Network, the Front End Processor (FEP) is only used to control the
communication of information between the various workstations and the host
computer.
A Special-purpose computer is dedicated to a single task; hence it can perform it
quickly & very efficiently.
Examples of special-purpose computers:
 Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.
 Mobile phones used for communication only.
 Calculators that carry out calculations only.
 Computers used in Digital watches.
 Computers used in Petrol pumps.
 Computers used in Washing machines.
 An Automatic pilot – a computer dedicated to the task of operating an aircraft.
 A Word processor – a special-purpose computer used in the production of office
documents, letters, etc.
Reasons why a Mobile phone is regarded to be a computer.
It is electronic.
Has a screen.
It has a Keypad.
Has a Memory.
It is programmable.

Dedicated computer.
A Dedicated computer is a general-purpose computer that is committed to some
processing task; though capable of performing a variety of tasks in different
application environments.
E.g., the computer can be dedicated to carrying out Word processing tasks only.

C. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONALITY.

Usually, there are two forms of data; Digital data, and Analogue data. Computers
can be classified according to the type of data they can process as either.
 Digital computers.

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 Introduction to Computers
 Analogue computers, or
 Hybrid computers.

Digital computers.
This is the most commonly used type of computers.
A Digital computer is a computer that operates on discrete data only. It can process
both numeric & alphabetic data within the computer, e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3…, A,B,C….
Their operation is based on 2 states, “ON” & “OFF” or on digits “1” & “0”. Therefore,
any data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital
form.
Their output is usually in form of numbers, alphabets, & symbols.
Digital computers are usually general-purpose computers; hence, they are widely
used in different areas for data processing.
Most of the devices found at homes today are digital in nature.

Digital computers are less accurate, i.e. may not solve all your problems since the
facilities provided are generalized.
Examples:
 A Television with a button which is pressed to increase or decrease the volume.
 Digital watches.
 Calculators.
 Microcomputers. They are said to be digital because they posses the ALU.

Analogue computers.
An Analogue computer is a computer that operates on continuous data.
They carry out their data processing by measuring the amount of change that occurs
in physical attributes/quantities, such as changes in electrical voltage, speed,
currents, pressure, length, temperature, humidity, etc.
An Analogue computer is usually a special-purpose device that is dedicated to a
single task. For example, they are used in specialized areas such as in:
Scientific or engineering experiments,
Military weapons,
Controlling manufacturing processes like monitoring & regulating furnace
temperatures and pressures.
Weather stations to record & process physical quantities, e.g., wind, cloud
speed, temperature, etc.
The output from analogue computers is in form of smooth graphs produced by a
plotting pen or a trace on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) from which the information can
be read.
Note: Analogue computers usually use one characteristic, e.g. a length, to give
information about another physical characteristic, such as weight.
Analogue computers are very accurate & efficient since they are dedicated to a
single task.
They are very fast since most of them use multiple processors.
Examples of analogue devices:
 The computer used to control a flight simulator for training pilots.
The computer responds to the Cockpit simulator control movements made by
the pilot to physically change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he were
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 Introduction to Computers
controlling an actual aeroplane.
 A Bathroom scale.
It uses the weight of a person to move a pointer smoothly/continuously over
calibrated scale, which shows the person’s weight.
 Thermometer.
It uses a volume of Mercury to show temperature. The Thermometer is
calibrated to give an exact temperature reading.
 Speedometer.
In Speedometer, the rotation of the wheel is converted to a voltage, which causes
a pointer to rotate over a dial calibrated in Km/h or Miles/h.
 A Petrol pump measures the rate of flow of Gasoline (petrol) & converts the
volume delivered to 2 readings; one showing the volume & the other showing the
cost.
 A Post-office scale converts the weight of a parcel delivered into a charge for
posting.
 A Monitor with knobs that are rotated to increase brightness.
 A Television with knobs that are rotated to increase or decrease the volume.
 A Radio with a knob that slides in a slot to increase volume.

Hybrid computers.
Hybrid computers are designed to process both analogue & digital data. They
combine both the functional capabilities of the digital and analogue computers.
Hybrid computers are designed by interconnecting the elements of a digital
computer & analogue computer directly into one processor, using a suitable
interfacing circuitry.
Hybrid computers are more expensive.
Example;
In a hospital Intensive Care Unit, an analogue device may be used to measure the
functioning of a patient’s heart, temperature and other vital signs. These
measurements may then be converted into numbers and send to a digital device,
which may send an immediate signal to the nurses’ station if any abnormal readings
are detected.

Comparison between a Computer and Calculator.

Computer Calculators
1. Costly due to the technology used. 1. Cheaper – they imitate simple computer
technology.
2. Bigger in size. 2. Comparatively smaller.
3. Operate at very high speeds. 3. Slower than computers.
4. Are more accurate – they give up to 4. Less accurate – most calculators give up
over 10 decimal places of accuracy. to 8 dp of accuracy.
5. Flexible – can be used in solving any 5. Mostly used for numerical calculations
problem. involving arithmetic/ mathematical
6. Work under the control of programs. operations
6. Calculators are non-programmable, but if
7. Support a variety of peripherals, e.g. programmable, the range is limited.
keyboard, mouse, light pen, printer, 7. They only use Display units & Keyboards
etc. of limited capabilities.
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 Introduction to Computers
8. Have large internal memory of 8. their internal memory is very small. Most
several KB’s. calculators only use Registers for
temporary storage during calculations.
9. Support large Backing storage 9. Some calculators have got some sort of
media. fixed Backing store, though very limited.
10. A calculator can serve only 1 user at a
10. A computer can support several time.
people at the same time.
11. Have got telecommunication 11. Have no telecommunication capabilities.
capabilities. 12. Do not require well-monitored
12. Require well-monitored environmental conditions.
environmental conditions.

Review Questions.
1. State three methods of classifying computers. In each case, list the different types
of computers.
2. What is a Personal computer?
3. Differentiate the following types of computers.
a). Supercomputer and Mainframe computer.
b). Minicomputer and a Personal computer.
c). Special-purpose (dedicated) computers and General-purpose computers.
d). Desktop computers and Laptop computers
4. Briefly describe terms “Analogue” and “Digital computers” as used in computer
science.
5. Give three examples of Special-purpose computers.
6. Name any FOUR classes of computers based on size and complexity.

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 Introduction to Computers

Group 6 ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

Computers have many advantages over other types of office and business equipments
that are used for data processing functions. Some of the advantages are:
1) Computers process data faster:
The processing speed of a computer when measured against other devices like
typewriters & calculators is far much higher.
2) Computers are more accurate & reliable:
Computers produce more accurate results as long as the correct instructions & data
are entered. They also have the ability to handle numbers with many decimal places.
3) Computers are more efficient:
A computer requires less effort to process data as compared to human beings or
other machines.
4) Computers can quickly and effectively store & retrieve large amounts of data.
5) They are very economical when saving information, for it can conserve a lot of
space.
6) Computers occupy very little office space.
7) Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
8) Computers are flexible:
A computer can perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined
procedure.
9) Computers are cheap:
They can be used to perform a number of organizational functions/ activities, which
are meant for individual persons, hence reducing the number of employees & the
costs.
10) Computers enhance security & confidentiality:
Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals.

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 Introduction to Computers
11) Have made communication easier.
12) Computers produce better information:
Computer output is usually tidy and error-free (accurate).
13) Computers reduce the problems of data or information duplication:
14) Computers can operate in risky environments, e.g. volcanic sites, dangerous
chemical plants, where human life is threatened:

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

1) Computers are very costly in terms of purchase & maintenance.
2) Computers can only be used areas where there is source of power.
3) Requires skilled manpower to operate, i.e., one has to have some knowledge so as
to operate a computer.
4) The records are usually kept in a form that is not visible or human-readable. This
makes it difficult to control the contents of the computer’s master file.
5) A computer, like any other machine can break down.
6) Information stored in computers can easily get lost due to power interruptions or
machine breakdown.
7) A computer doesn’t have its own intelligence, i.e., it cannot do any useful job on its
own, but can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
8) Installation of computers causes retraining or retrenchment of staff/ employees.
9) The computer technology is changing very fast such that the already bought
computers could be made obsolete/ out dated in the next few years.

In addition, this rapid change in the computer technology makes computers &
related facilities to become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
10) The emergence of computers has increased the rate of unemployment since they
are now being used to perform the jobs, which were done by human beings.
11) Computers have led to increase in computer crimes especially in Banks. The
computer criminals steal large amounts of funds belonging to various companies
by transferring them out of their company accounts illegally. In addition, they
destroy vital data used in running the companies.

AREAS WHERE COMPUTERS ARE USED.

The following are some of the areas where computers are used:
1. Supermarkets.
Supermarkets and other retail stores use computers for stock control, i.e., to
help them manage their daily activities.
The stock control system keeps record of what is in store, what has been sold, and
what is out of stock. The Management is automatically alerted when a particular
item or items are running out of stock and need to be reordered.
For calculating customer’s change.
For production of receipts.
It can be used as a barcode reader.

2. Industries.
The use of computers has made Industries more productive & efficient. They are
used:
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 Introduction to Computers
 To monitor and control industrial processes. The industries use remote controlled
devices called Robots. A Robot is a machine that works like a human being, but
performs tasks that are unpleasant, dangerous, and tedious to be done by human
beings.
 For management control, i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions.
 By companies as a competitive tool. E.g., they are used to assist in defining new
products & services. They also help industries form new relationships with
suppliers and therefore, enable the producers maintain a competitive edge against
their competitors.
 For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers.

3. Banks/Insurance industries
Computers are used by Banks & Insurance industries:
 To manage financial transactions. They use special cash dispensing machines
called Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) to enable them provide cash deposit &
withdrawal services.
 For processing of Cheques.
 For preparation of Payrolls.
 For better record keeping and processing of documents.
 To provide electronic money transfer facilities.
4. Process control.
Computers are used in production environments such as factories to control
chemical & mechanical processes. The computers are usually loaded with
specialized programs & each computer is designed to do a specific job.

5. Hospitals.
Computers are used in hospitals:
 To keep & retrieve patient’s medical records.
 For automatic diagnosis of diseases like Cancer, electro-cardiogram screening &
monitoring.
They are used to get a cross-sectional view of the patient’s body that enables
physicians to properly diagnose the affected part of the body with high levels of
accuracy.
 In medical equipments, e.g. blood pressure monitors, blood analyzers, etc.
 To control life-supporting machines in the Intensive Care Units (ICU).
 To enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise or labour,
thus reducing the transportation of patients & professionals.
6. Offices.
 For receiving & sending of messages through e-mails, fax, etc.
 Production of documents.
 Keeping of records.

7. Government Institutions.
Computers are used in government ministries & agencies:
 To store/keep records and improve the efficiency of work within the Civil service.
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 Introduction to Computers
If computers were not used, the large number of files in government registries
would make information recovery extremely difficult.
 To produce bills & statements.
8. Education.
Computers are widely used in the teaching & learning process. Learning and
teaching using computers is referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and
Computer Aided Teaching (CAT).
 Computers are used in learning institutions (schools & colleges) as teaching aids,
i.e. to help in teaching various subjects.
E.g., they are used to demonstrate experiments in subjects like Chemistry or
Physics using a special program that can illustrate them on the screen through a
process called Simulation.
 To assist the Long distance learning in universities usually referred to as the Open
University Concept.
 To analyze academic data.
 Computers are used in Aviation for training of pilots. Flight simulators are used to
monitor the control movements made by the pilot while the computer is used to
physically change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling
an actual aircraft.
9. Research.
Computers can be used for research in various fields. They are used by:
 Scientists to analyse their experimental data, e.g., in weather forecasting.
 Engineers & Architects to design & test their work.
 Computers have greatly assisted in space exploration.
 They are used to study the movement of stars.
 They have made manned & unmanned space exploration possible – they are
used to launch space vehicles and monitor the flights & activities both onboard
and around them.

10. Communication industry.

The integration of computers & telecommunication facilities has made the
transmission and reception of messages very fast and efficient.
 They are used in telephone exchanges to switch incoming & outgoing calls.
 For sending & receiving electronic messages, e.g. fax and e-mails, if connected to a
computer network.
11. Transport industry.
Computers are used in:
 Automobile traffic control, e.g., to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.
 Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.
 Shipping control. The computers are used for efficient management of fleets &
communication.
 Airports (Airline industry). The computers are used;
 To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the use of radar
equipment.
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 Introduction to Computers
 Making reservations (booking purposes).
 Storing flight information.
12. Police (Law enforcement agencies).
 Computers are widely used in fighting crime. The Police use computers to keep
databases on fingerprints and also analysed them.
 The Police also use computers for face recognition, scene monitoring & analysis,
which help them to arrest traffic offenders and criminals.
The information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and other
identification details helps law enforcers to carry out criminal investigations speedily.
13. Defence.
 Computers are used in electronic news gathering, efficient communication,
detecting and tracking of targets; in radar systems, warning systems & in guided
missile systems.
 Computers are used in military defence equipments, e.g. Fighter jets, Rockets,
Bombers, etc.
14. Multimedia applications.
 Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement purposes.
The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers
running slide shows & digital video clips taken using a Camcorder. An overlaid
voice is used to describe the product.
 Computers are used in music related equipment such as Synthesizers.
 In entertainment (i.e., games & movies), computers are used to add stereo sound &
digital video clips, which make games more realistic.
 In Education & Training, Multimedia discs are used as teaching aids for all types of
subjects.
15. Domestic and Entertainment systems.
Computers are used at homes:
 For watching movies, playing music and computer games.
 For storing personal information.
 For calculating and keeping home budgets.
 For shopping purposes. They provide people with lists of shopping items as well
as their prices. They also provide electronic money transfer facilities.
 In household items, such as, Microwave ovens, Televisions, etc.

16. Library services.

Computers can be used in a library:
To enable the library personnel to easily access & keep updated records of
books and other library materials.
To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.
17. Employment.
The emergence of computers has provided employment opportunities to very many
people.
Review Questions.
1. Explain exhaustively the importance of computers in the following areas:

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 Introduction to Computers
i). Industries.
ii). Hospitals.
iii). Education
iv). Research.
v). Communication industry.
vi). Law enforcement agencies.
vii). Domestic and Entertainment.
2. Explain various ways computers have been mostly used in our country.
3. List down and explain 6 uses of computers in our society.
4. Explain the similarities and differences between human beings and computer
systems.

Skip this: COMPUTER LABORATORY.

Definition:
A Computer laboratory is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate
installation of computers, and provide a safe conducive environment for teaching &
learning of Computer Studies.

SAFE USE & CARE OF COMPUTERS (COMPUTER HYGIENE)

Computer systems are expensive to acquire & maintain, and should therefore be
handled with great care. Most computer breakdowns are caused by failure to follow the
correct instructions on use of equipment, carelessness, and neglect.
Computer hygiene involves keeping the computers in good care & order.
Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory.
The following factors must be considered when preparing a computer laboratory:
1. Security of the computers, programs and other resources.
2. Reliability of the source of power.
3. Number of computers to be installed, and the amount floor space available.
4. The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.
Requirements of a Computer Laboratory.
i). Standard and Enough furniture.
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 Introduction to Computers
ii). Good ventilation.
iii). Reliable & Enough source of power supply.
iv). Free from Dust and Moisture.
v). Enough floor space.
vi). Proper cabling of electric wires.
vii). Fire fighting equipment.
viii). Good lighting equipment.
ix). Strong rooms & doors for the security of computers.
Review Questions.
1. Define a computer Laboratory.
2. Give three factors to be considered when preparing a computer laboratory.
3. What are the requirements of a computer laboratory?

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS & PRACTICES IN A COMPUTER LABORATORY.

After establishing the computer laboratory, a number of safety precautions, rules, and
practices need to be observed in order to avoid accidental injury to the users, damage of
computers or lack of a conducive environment for teaching and learning.
The safety precautions and practices include;
1. BEHAVIOUR IN THE COMPUTER LABORATORY.
The following rules must be followed in and around a computer laboratory.
a). Entering the computer room.
 Only authorized people should enter the computer room.
 Remove your shoes before entering the computer room to prevent dust.
 Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because; smoke &
dust contain small abrasive particles that can damage computer
components and cause wearing of the moving parts.
 Do not carry foods such as Toffees, chocolates, chewing gums, &
drinks/beverages to the computer room.
Food particles may fall into the moving parts of the computer and damage
them. Liquids may spill into the computer parts causing rusting or electrical
faults.
 Collect any waste materials (e.g., paper bits) which might be lying in the
computer room & put them into the dustbin.
 Avoid unnecessary movements, because you may accidentally knock down
the peripheral devices.
 Computer users should be trained on how to use computers frequently.
 Computer illiterates should not be allowed to operate the computers.
 Shut the door of the computer room properly.

b). Starting and shutting down the computer.

 Always follow the proper procedure for starting & shutting down the
computer to avoid loss of data and damage to computer programs.
 Avoid turning the computer on & off frequently as it is harmful. Every time a
PC is turned on, the internal components get heated and again cool down
when the computer is turned off. As a result, the circuit boards expand &
contract and this can badly affect the solder-joints of the computer.
 Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripheral devices
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 Introduction to Computers
without permission and particularly when the computer’s power is still on.

2. PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE AND ACCIDENTS.

Fire outbreaks in the laboratory can be caused by either:
a). Inflammable chemicals, such as those used for cleaning & servicing the
computer equipment.
b). Electrical faults, such as open wires or cables.
c). Smoking.
 Keep the chemicals away in a store after using them to avoid any accidents.
 Ensure that all electrical wires are properly insulated. Open wires or cables must
be properly covered with an Insulating tape or replaced with new ones as they
can cause fire leading to damage of equipment.
 The computer room must always have a gaseous fire extinguisher especially
those containing Carbon dioxide in case of any accidents.
Note. Water based or Powder extinguishers should not be used in the computer
room because; they can cause damage to computer components.
Water causes rusting of the metallic parts and short circuits, while Powder
particles normally settle on storage devices and may scratch them during
read/write operations.
 Any incidence that may result in damage to equipment should be reported to the
person in charge of the laboratory.
 No student should attempt to repair the equipment as this may lead to complete
damage of the equipment.

3. INSULATION OF CABLES.
 All power cables in the computer room must be properly insulated and laid away
from busy pathways in the room (i.e., preferably along the walls). This prevents
the user from stumbling on the cables, which might cause electric shock or
power interruptions.
 System cables should be of the best quality & type, and should also be properly
clipped (fixed).
 The cables should be handled carefully especially at the ends to avoid breaking
the pins.

4. STABLE POWER SUPPLY.

Computers are delicate devices that require a stable source of power.
 Ensure that there is a steady flow of input power to the computer in order to
prevent loss of data or information & also prevent damaging the computer’s
secondary storage media.
Note. Power from main supply is not always stable and may sometimes experience
power surges or under voltage (also referred to as Brownout). To protect the
computer from being damaged due to power instabilities especially in areas where
power fluctuates, avoid connecting it directly to the main supply. Instead, it is
important to connect the computer to a special power correction equipment or
device such as a Stabilizer or Uninterrupted power supply /source (UPS), then
connect the UPS to the main supply.

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 Introduction to Computers

The UPS gets charged when the main power is on. When the main power goes off,
the UPS gives some sound (usually a beep) to alert the user.
Functions of the UPS
1. It regulates power from an unstable power source to the required clean stable
voltage.
2. It prevents power surges and brownouts that might destroy the computer.
3. It temporarily provides power to the computer in case of the main power failure.
This allows the user to save his/her work and shutdown the computer using the
correct procedure.
4. Alerts the user of any power loss (by beeping).
To ensure that work continues even in the absence of main power, organizations
that give important services such as banks, schools, & hospitals usually install
devices that provide alternative sources of power such as standby generators, solar
panels, rechargeable batteries, etc that automatically comes on in case of a power
failure. Such devices are referred to as Power backups.
However, note that, power from a generator must pass through a UPS before being
fed to the computer, because it is also not stable.
 Ensure that all power or electrical sockets are firmly fixed.

5. BURGLAR PROOFING.
Physical access to the computer room should be restricted to ensure that only
authorized persons get access to the computers.
To prevent unauthorized access to the computer room, the following controls should
be implemented:
Fit strong metallic grills and locks on the doors, windows & roofs (in case the
roofing is weak).
Lock the doors, (i.e., keep the computers in a strong room, which should remain
firmly locked when not in use).
Avoid welcoming strangers into the computer room.
Use of Personal Identification cards.
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 Introduction to Computers
Use of fingerprint identification.
Install security alarms at strategic access points so as to alert the security
personnel in case of a break in.
Use of special voice recorders that would be able to analyse the voice of a
trespasser & check against the database containing the voice patterns of valid
users.
Secure/protect the computers with Passwords to minimize chances of theft.

6. VENTILATION.
Both computers and human beings emit heat energy into the environment.
Therefore, the computer room must have good circulation of air to avoid overheating
and suffocation.
Proper ventilation enables the computers to cool, and therefore, avoids damaging
the electronic parts.
The following facilities can ensure proper ventilation in a room:
The room should have large & enough windows & doors.
Installing an air-conditioning system.
Installing cooling fans.
Avoid overcrowding of either machines or people in the room.

7. DUST CONTROL
 Set up the computer laboratory in a location away from excessive dust.
 Remove your shoes before you enter the computer room to prevent dust.
 The computer room should be fitted with special curtains that would reduce entry
of dust particles.
 The floor should be covered with Carpets in order to absorb dust, and also
absorb the noise made by chairs.
 Cover the computer devices with Dust covers when not in use or when cleaning
the computer room.
NB: If the environment is dusty, the computers should be regularly serviced to get
rid of harmful dust.
The service should include; blowing dust from the System unit, cleaning the floppy
drives, cleaning the Keyboard, cleaning the Monitor externally, and also cleaning all
peripheral devices such as Printers and Mouse.

8. DUMP CONTROL.
Humidity in the computer laboratory must be regulated to remain at an optimum 50%.
If the humidity is low, it allows static electricity to build up and causes damage to
sensitive electronic components. Similarly, high humidity of over 70% causes rusting
of the metallic parts of the computer system.
To eliminate low humidity, place humidifiers in the room, while high humidity can be
controlled by installing dehumidifiers in the room.

9. HANDLING OF MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT.

Computer devices must be handled with a lot of care as they are extremely fragile
and can easily get damaged. Dropping or bumping can cause permanent damage on
the device, e.g., to transport the System unit always handle it on its frame.
 Always use the manufacturer’s shipping carton when transporting the devices.
 Do not place heavy objects on the computers.
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 Introduction to Computers
 Protect the computer devices especially the Monitor & the disks from any
electrostatic discharge.
 The computer devices should not be exposed to direct sunlight or warm objects.
This causes the internal components of the computer to get heated, and as a
result, effects the computer’s solder-joints.
 Students should only perform operations on the computer that they are sure of
and under supervision. If in doubt, the student should ask to ensure that no
damage is caused due to lack of proper knowledge.
 Computer equipment should be regularly checked and serviced.

Floppy disk management.

Floppy disks are used to store data, and if properly taken care of, they reduce the
likelihood of destroyed or corrupted data.
Note. Data is very difficult & expensive to reconstruct, unlike application software,
which can easily be re-loaded.
Handling precautions for diskettes.
1). Insert the diskette in the drive with the correct side up & in the correct direction.
The diskette should slide in easily (with no force at all) until it locks in the drive.
To remove the diskette out of the drive, press the Eject button.
2). Don’t touch the exposed surface of the diskette when inserting or removing it.
3). Don’t remove the diskette from the drive if the drive light is shining. This
indicates that the diskette is in use, and removing it might damage the files on
the diskette.
4). Never leave the diskette in the computer after finishing its job.
5). Ensure that all your diskettes are labelled carefully using meaningful names that
indicate the right contents of the diskette. The labels should be applied at the
slightly depressed region at the top surface of the diskette.
Labelling prevents confusing the data in the different diskettes, and also mixing
diskettes that are used everyday with those used for long-term storage of
important data.
6). Use a soft writing material such as a soft felt pen to write on the diskette.
7). Use the shutter at the bottom of the diskette to write-protect it in order to
protect the data stored in it.
Note. To write-protect the diskette, the shutter is pushed up until the hole is
covered & no data can be written to the diskette. To write to the diskette, the
hole must be left open.
8). Avoid overusing the diskette. If used for long (usually over 6 months), its
surface wears out.
9). Never place heavy objects on the diskette to avoid damaging it.
10). Keep your disks safely away from extreme temperatures or direct sunlight, i.e.,
avoid placing the diskette near possible heat sources, e.g. on top of monitor
displays.
11). Keep floppy disks away from any magnetic media, e.g., near power supplies &
magnets. They can corrupt the data.
12). Never carry disks in loose bags or in pockets to prevent dust from getting in &
harming them.
Store your diskettes in disk banks or a proper storage jacket. Use envelopes or

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enclosed polythene when carrying them.
13). Always store the disks vertically in the storage box/container.
14). Never use clips or staples to hold the disks to avoid damaging them.
15). Do not bend the diskette, or leave it lying on top of the desk.
16). Protect the diskettes against computer viruses, i.e. you should not use foreign
diskettes in your computer, especially if you suspect that they might have
viruses in them.
Use of Printers.
1. Different printers have different sensitivity to printing papers. Using the wrong
quality paper in a particular printer can make the paper get stuck.
2. Printers are very specific to manufacturer’s cartridges & ribbons. Use of clones
or imitations (i.e., the wrong make & model) can damage the printer mechanism.
3. Avoid refilling of cartridges or re-inking of Ribbons. This can spoil the printer due
to leakage or use of poor quality materials.

10. LABORATORY LAYOUT.

 The computer laboratory should have enough floor space to facilitate free
movement from one place to another.
 The laboratory furniture must be well arranged to prevent accidents.
 Your working surface must be large enough to hold the computer equipment &
any other additional items required. This prevents squeezing the devices
together & also minimizes breakages.
 The sitting arrangement of users should be proper.

11. STANDARD FURNITURE & POSTURE.

 The table/bench on which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough
to bear the weight and accommodate all the peripheral devices.
 The seat for the user must be comfortable, and have a straight backrest that
allows someone to sit upright. This prevents muscle pains & backaches caused
by poor sitting posture.
 Adjust the furniture to meet your needs for comfort.
For example;
Adjust the height of the chair or working surface so that your forearms are
parallel with the floor and your wrists are straight.
The seat must be high enough relative to the table to enable the user use the
hands on the keyboard comfortably.
The eyes must be at the same level with the top of the screen when the user
is seated upright.
 You should be able to maintain your proper arm position and place your feet firmly
flat on the floor.
 Adopt a relaxed, upright working posture. Avoid slouching (bending) forward or
leaning far backwards.
 The Chairs should have low back support & footrest and should also be adjustable.
Keyboard, Mouse and Input devices.
Place frequently used work materials within easy reach.

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For example;
 The Keyboard, Mouse & other input devices should be positioned such that your
hands are in a relaxed, comfortable position.
 Position the Keyboard directly in front of you. This makes it possible to type with
your shoulders relaxed and your upper arms hanging freely at your sides.
 Position the Mouse at the same level as the keyboard.

12. LIGHTING & VISION CARE.

A computer room must be well lit to avoid eyestrain that eventually leads to
headaches, stress, and fatigue. Similarly, when you work at your computer for long
periods of time, your eyes may become irritated. Therefore, special care should be
given to your vision.
 Tilt the computer so that the display faces away from the windows. This will
minimize glare (or bright reflections) on the screen.
 Position the lighting equipment or sources of light such that glare (or bright
reflections) on the display are minimized. Where necessary, use indirect lighting
to avoid bright spots on the display.
 Use/fit radiation filter screens that are specially tinted to reduce the light that
reaches the eye.
 Avoid using a flickering monitor. This causes extreme eyestrain that can damage
your eyesight.
 The wall paints used should not be very bright as they reflect too much light
causing eyestrain.
 Use the brightness & contrast controls on the Monitor to adjust the brightness of
the computer monitor until the eyes feel comfortable, and also to improve image
quality of your display.
 Turn off the screen when not in use or reduce its brightness in order to prevent
screen burnout.
 If the room has windows, use blinds or shades to control the amount of daylight
in the room.
 Take frequent breaks and rest your eyes.
 You should have glasses that are specifically suited for working with the
computer display.
 Keep your glasses and the display clean.
 Have your eyes examined regularly by a vision care specialist.
 The distant between the user & screen should be between 450 – 500 mm.

Review Questions.
1. List down THREE safety precautions one should observe when entering a Computer
laboratory.
2. Why must foods and beverages be kept out of the computer room?
3. Discuss TWO main causes of fire or accidents in the computer laboratory and give
the precautions that should be taken to guard against them.
4. (a). Give Six safety precautions you should take when handling diskettes.
(b). Where should the arrow on a diskette point when being inserted into the floppy
drive.
5. List THREE things that can spoil a Printer if they are not of the correct specification,
and explain what damage may be caused.
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 Introduction to Computers
6. Why are powder based and water-based fire extinguishers not allowed in the computer
room?
7. Identify three facilities that will ensure proper ventilation in a room.
8. Give THREE reasons why it is important to regularly service the computer.
9. Explain precisely how the Keyboard, mouse, and other Input devices should be
arranged to avoid strain while working on the computer.
10. (a). What name is given to alternative sources of power in a computer.
(b). Name any THREE sources of power in a computer system.
11. State two reasons why a computer needs to be connected to a stable power supply.
12. State two functions of the UPS.
13. State two reasons that are likely to cause eye-strain in the computer room.
14. Identify three proper sitting postures while using the computer.

Group 7STARTING-UP (BOOTING) A COMPUTER.

1. Before switching on a computer, make sure that all the components are properly
connected, and that the computer is connected to an active power source.
2. Turn on the switch at the source of the power supply. If your computer is connected
to a constant voltage Stabilizer or an Uninterrupted power supply (UPS), turn it on
after switching the main supply.
3. Turn on the switches on the System unit and the Monitor. Switch on the power
button on the Monitor first, then followed by that of the System unit.
After the power is on, the computer automatically goes through a process called
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 Introduction to Computers
Booting. Booting is a term used to describe the starting up of a computer. It is the
entire process that makes the computer ready for use.
Types of Booting.
There are 2 types of booting, namely;
a). Cold booting.
b). Warm booting.
Cold booting.
This happens when a computer that was originally off is switched on by pressing the
power button on the system unit.

Warm booting.
This happens when a computer that was originally on is forced to restart by pressing the
Restart button on the System unit or by pressing a combination of keys on the keyboard
(Ctrl+Alt+Del).
In Windows operating systems, one can use the Restart option on the Shutdown dialog
box to perform a warm boot.
When Power is switched on, the computer starts by checking all its components to
determine whether they are available for use and whether they are functioning correctly.
It does this by executing a small program called the Power-On-Self-Test (POST) that is
permanently stored in ROM.
POST prepares the computer for use by instructing it to perform a number of diagnostic
tests when booting up. It instructs the computer to check the memory (RAM) to make
sure it is operating correctly; check the CMOS (BIOS), Hard disk controller, Floppy disk
drive controller & the Keyboard.
During this process, some monitors display information showing the status of each
device being tested. If a problem is found, e.g., in case one of the devices is faulty or
missing, the process will halt and display an appropriate error message on the screen
indicating to the user where the problem is located. Sometimes, an error code is
displayed with the message, or an abnormal number of beeps are sounded.
The special program that directs the POST process is called the Basic Input Output
System (BIOS).

Shutting down a computer.

After finishing working with the computer, the user must follow the correct procedure of
shutting down the computer in order to ensure that loss of data, damage of programs
and computer components does not occur.
1. Save all the work done on the computer, and close all programs that may be
currently running.
2. Remove any floppy disk you might have inserted in the computer.
3. Follow the proper shut-down procedure required before switching off the computer.
For example;
To turn off any computer running Windows operating systems:
a). Click the Start button on the screen, then select Shut Down from the list.
b). In the prompt that appears, select Shut down, then press the Enter key on the
keyboard.
c). After a few seconds, the message “It is now safe to turn off the computer”
appears on the screen. Switch off the System unit, then the Monitor.

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 Introduction to Computers
Note. Some system units switch themselves off automatically. In such a case,
press the button on the Monitor to turn off the screen.
4. Press the button on the monitor to turn off the screen.
5. Switch off your Printer and any other output devices.
Review Questions.
1. (a). What is meant by the term ‘booting up’?
(b). Differentiate between cold booting and warm booting.
2. Write down the procedure to be followed when switching on a computer.
3. Complete the abbreviation ‘POST’ in computer technology and explain briefly its
purpose.
4. List down the steps that must be followed before switching off the computer.

Group 8 KEYBOARD.
The Keyboard is a computer input device by which data & instructions is typed into the
computer memory.
It enables the user to enter data & instructions into the computer by pressing its keys.

Types of Keyboard.
1. Standard Keyboard – has 99 keys.
2. Enhanced Keyboard – has between 102 & 105 keys.

KEYBOARD LAYOUT.
The Keyboard of a computer consists of keys similar to those of a typewriter. It
contains the usual range of alphabetic characters (A – Z), digits 0 – 9, and other
symbols frequently used to represent data items. However, it has some command keys
for giving special instructions to the computer.

Data & programs are input into the computer by pressing the appropriate keys. When
you type data into the Keyboard devices, it converts it into machine-sensible forms.

SECTIONS OF THE KEYBOARD.

Most Keyboards have a total of 101 keys, which are divided into 5 different groups: -
(a). Function/ Command keys.
These are the keys located along the top of the Keyboard marked F1 up to F12.
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 Introduction to Computers
They are used to issue commands into the computer.
Each of these keys is used to perform a special function in various application
packages, e.g., F1 is used in most applications for help.
Function keys are used differently by different applications, i.e. their functions vary
with different programs, and are therefore sometimes called Programmable Keys.
(b). Alphanumeric keys.
This section consists of alphabetic & numeric keys. Alphanumeric keys are mostly
used for typing of text.
It has the 26 letters of the English alphabet marked on them in capital letters, and
Number keys arranged in their natural order from 0 – 9. Along with these keys are
Punctuation marks (comma, full-stop, etc) and some Symbols.
At the bottom of the alphanumeric keys, is the Space bar, which is used to separate
words or sentences from each other (or to create a blank space after typing each
word).
(c). Numeric Keypad keys.
It is on the rightmost part of the Keyboard. It has keys with digits (numbers) 0 - 9
marked on them in rows from the bottom upwards.
The keypad also has some mathematical symbols marked on its keys. They
include: the multiplication sign (*), subtraction sign (-), addition sign (+), division
sign (/) & the decimal point (.).
The Keypad is used for fast entry of numeric data into the computer.
Note. The numbers on the Numeric keypad can only be used when the Num Lock
key is turned on.
(d). Directional (or Cursor positioning) keys.
They are used to move the Cursor (insertion point) within the window of an
application.
They include; Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, & the four Arrow Keys.
 Arrow keys:
To move the cursor one character to the right in a Word processing document,
press the Right arrow key; to move the cursor one character to the left, press the
Left arrow key.
To move the cursor one line up, press the Up arrow key; to move the cursor one
line down, press the Down arrow key.
 Page Up & Page Down:
To move the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages, press
the Page Up key; to move the cursor down one page, press the Page Down key.
 Home & End keys:
To move the cursor to the beginning of the current line, press the Home key; to
move the cursor to the end of the current line, press the End key.

Editing keys.

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 Introduction to Computers
They are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These are:
i). Backspace key.
It has a backward arrow ( ) marked on it.
√ Used to erase characters to the left of the cursor (i.e., from right to left on
the same line).
When pressed, it makes the cursor move one space backwards and the
immediate letter or number to the left is erased.
ii). Delete (Del) key.
It is used to erase characters to the right of the cursor, (i.e., from left to right).
iii). Insert (Ins) key.
√ Used in a word processor to switch between the Insert mode & Overtype
mode. When pressed, it helps the user to insert text in the middle of a
sentence or replace a character at the cursor position (i.e., overwrite the
text).
(e). Special PC operation keys.
They are used in combination with the other keys or on their own to perform special
functions/tasks, or to give special instructions to the computer.
Examples; Esc, Tab, Caps Lock, Shift, Ctrl, Alt, Enter, Num Lock, Scroll Lock.
TAB key ( ).
It is used in certain programs such as Word processors to move the text cursor or
a certain text at set intervals on the same line to the required position on the screen,
e.g., 10mm, 20mm, etc.
A Cursor is a blinking underscore ( __ ) or a vertical beam (I ) that shows where the
next character to be typed will appear.
CAPS Lock.
Used to switch between capital (uppercase) letters & small (lowercase) letters.
When pressed on, an indicator with a Green light appears on the top-right hand
corner of the Keyboard, and all the text typed will appear in capital letters. When
pressed off, all the text typed will appear in small letters.
SHIFT key ( ).
This special key works in combination with other keys.
√ It can be used to get single capital letters. Hold down the SHIFT key & press an
alphabet key to get the letter in its capital form.
√ It is used to get the punctuation marks on top of the Number keys or the
symbols on top of certain keys especially on the alphanumeric section.
To get the punctuation mark on top of a number key or the symbol on top of a
certain key; press & hold down the SHIFT key before pressing the required key.
ENTER key (↵).
√ It is used as a RETURN key. When pressed at the end of a text line or paragraph
in a word processor, it forces the text cursor to move to the start/ beginning of
the next line or paragraph.
√ It is used to issue completion commands to the computer. It is used to instruct
the computer to carry out (execute) a command that has been typed or selected
on the screen.
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 Introduction to Computers
ESCAPE (ESC) key.
It generates special code for the computer. In some programs, it is used when you
want to quit doing some task, i.e. escape from or to cancel a task.
CONTROL (CTRL) key.
It controls various functions in combination with other keys, e.g. CTRL+”S” is used
to give the command for saving the text/object.

Commonly confusing keys.

Some key shapes cause much confusion. If you use the wrong key, the process you
are working on may not work as expected, but it may be very difficult to determine
what is wrong.
The I, 1, l and o, O, 0 keys.
Look closely to spot the difference between capital “I”, one (1) and “l” (lowercase “L”),
and between small “o”, capital “O” and zero “0”.
The Slash (/) and Backslash (\) keys.
The slash (“/”) is used as:
A division symbol when writing a formula.
A command key to get into the menus in Lotus 1-2-3.
To separate parts of a path in a UNIX file name.
The backslash (“\”) is used:
In Lotus 1-2-3 to fill a cell with a character.
In MS-DOS to separate parts of a path in a file name.
The Space, Hyphen ( -) and Underscore ( _ ) Keys.
The Space is entered using the Spacebar on the keyboard.
Note. A blank space is a printing character; it takes up memory, has an ASCII code,
and is printed on the screen in the same manner as any other character.
The Hyphen key (dash or minus) & the Underscore (underline) are on the same
physical key top. To get the underscore, use the SHIFT.
The Underscore is often used in places where a space is needed to separate
individual words, but is not legal in the context. E.g., the filename TAX 1990 is illegal
in MS-DOS because of the blank space between TAX and 1990, but TAX_1990 is
legal. The Underscore takes the places of the blank space.
Single & Double quote, Accent grave, and Tilde.
Single quote (‘) & Double quote (“).
Both symbols are on the same physical key top. To get the double quote, use the
SHIFT.
Accent grave (`) & Tilde (~) are found on the same key top. The Tilde is used in
Mathematics, foreign languages, or in UNIX operating system to indicate the home
subdirectory.
The Parenthesis ( ), Square brackets [ ], & Curly braces { }
Each of these symbols is used differently depending on what program you are
running.
Mathematical symbols (+, -, *, /, ^).
Slash (/) - used for division,
Asterisk (*) - for multiplication,
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 Introduction to Computers
Plus (+) symbol - for addition,
Minus (-) symbol - is used for subtraction,
Up carat (^) - indicates exponential (raising to a power).
Practical Keyboard skills.
When using the keyboard, observe the following typing rules:
1). Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground, maintaining an alert posture.
2). Place the material to be typed on your left in a position you can read without strain.
3). Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the Home keys.
Home keys are the keys on which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press
other keys. The home keys for the left hand starting with the small finger are A, S,
D, F with the thumb on the Spacebar, while those of the right hand are the
apostrophe (‘), semicolon (;), L, K with the thumb on the Spacebar.
4). Start typing the text slowly at first, making sure you are using all the ten fingers,
and that you press the key nearest to the home keys with the closest finger, e.g., to
press Q, use the small finger on the left hand, while to press J, use the index finger
on the right hand.
Descriptive Questions.
1. Define a Keyboard.
2. (a) Give the TWO types of Keyboards found in the current market.
(b) State and briefly explain the functions of five categories of keys found on a
standard keyboard.
3. State the use of each the following section or combination of keys on the keyboard:
a). Function keys.
b). Numeric keypad.
c). Arrow keys.
d). Control key.
4. Name 3 main sections of the Keyboard that are used in typing.
5. What is the difference between Function keys and Special PC operation keys?
6. State the functions of the following keys on the keyboard.
i). Caps Lock.
ii). Spacebar.
iii). Shift Key.
iv). Enter Key.
v). Backspace.
vi). Delete.
vii). Escape.
viii). Num Lock.
7. Give two uses of the SHIFT key.

MOUSE.
A Mouse is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer
by controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.
A Mouse consists of 4 parts: -
1). A Casing - to assist in holding the mouse in the hand.
2). A Roller ball – used to slide/move the mouse on a flat surface. It also enables the
cursor to move on the screen as required.
3). The Sensor Buttons (Right & Left) – used for making selections.
4). A Cable - connects the mouse to the System unit.
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Using the Mouse.

To use a mouse, hold it in your hand and move it across a flat surface or on top of a
table. When you move the mouse, an arrow-shaped pointer called the Mouse pointer
moves across the computer screen in the same direction. The pointer is usually
controlled by moving the mouse.
To select an option/ item on the screen;
Position the tip of the pointer (cursor) over the item to be selected;
Press a button on the mouse to make your selection.
When using the mouse, observe the following rules:
a). Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface.
b). Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two rightmost
fingers.
c). The index finger should rest on the left button, while the middle finger rests on the
right button.
Terminologies associated with the use of a Mouse.
Point: - this means moving the mouse until the tip of the pointer on the screen is over
the item you want to select.
To select an item on the screen, point the item, then press a mouse button. Use the Left
button (Primary button) for most tasks or the Right button (Secondary button) to quickly
accomplish common tasks.
Clicking: - pressing & releasing the left mouse button once. A click usually selects an
object/item on the screen.
Double-clicking: - pressing the left button twice in a row (in a quick succession) without
moving the mouse. Double-clicking usually opens a file or starts a program.
Right-clicking: - pressing the right mouse button once (or, selecting an item by use of
the right mouse button).
A right click usually displays a list of commands from which the user can make a
selection. This list of commands is called a Shortcut menu or Context-sensitive menu.
This is because; the commands on this menu apply to the specific item that has been
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 Introduction to Computers
right-clicked.
Shortcut menu:
 A list of commands that appears when you right-click an object.
 A menu that shows a list of commands specific to a particular right-clicked item.
Drag and drop: This is whereby the user moves an item from one location on the screen
to another.
To move an item on the screen by dragging;
1. Point to the item you want to drag.
2. Press & hold down the left mouse button.
3. Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen while
still holding down the mouse button.
4. Release the mouse button to ‘drop’ the item in its new location.
Review Questions.
1. What makes a mouse move a pointer on the screen?
2. State THREE advantages of using a Mouse instead of a keyboard.
3. Explain the meaning of the following terms associated with the use of a mouse:
(a). Mouse pointer.
(b). Clicking.
(c). Double-clicking.
(d). Right-clicking.
(e). Drag and drop.
4. Distinguish between:
(a). Click and right-click.
(b). Double-clicking and dragging.
5. What is a Shortcut menu?

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