Dirichlet Topological Defects

Sean M. Carroll1∗ and Mark Trodden2†

1 Institute
for Theoretical Physics
University of California
Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA.

2 ParticleAstrophysics Theory Group

arXiv:hep-th/9711099v3 1 Dec 1997

Department of Physics
Case Western Reserve University
10900 Euclid Avenue
Cleveland, OH 44106-7079, USA.

Abstract

We propose a class of field theories featuring solitonic solutions in which

topological defects can end when they intersect other defects of equal or higher
dimensionality. Such configurations may be termed “Dirichlet topological
defects”, in analogy with the D-branes of string theory. Our discussion focuses
on defects in scalar field theories with either gauge or global symmetries, in
(3+1) dimensions; the types of defects considered include walls ending on
walls, strings on walls, and strings on strings.

NSF-ITP/97-117 hep-th/9711099
CWRU-P16-97

∗ carroll@itp.ucsb.edu

† trodden@theory1.physics.cwru.edu.
 I. INTRODUCTION

It has long been appreciated that field theories with spontaneously broken symmetries
often support topological defects — solitonic solutions whose stability is guaranteed by a
topological conservation law. A variety of such defects can occur, depending on the pattern
of symmetry breaking in the model. When a symmetry group G is spontaneously broken
to a subgroup H, the types of defects supported depend on the homotopy properties of the
vacuum manifold, M = G/H. In a (d + 1)-dimensional spacetime, p-dimensional defects
(p < d) exist if the homotopy group πd−p−1 (M) is nontrivial. Thus, in 3 spatial dimensions
there will be planar defects (domain walls) if π0 (M) 6= 0, line-like defects (cosmic strings)
if π1 (M) 6= 0, and pointlike defects (monopoles) if π2 (M) 6= 0. (For reviews see [1].)
In addition to these basic defects, there are various composite solutions which combine
two of the types, generally when a (p − 1)-dimensional defect serves as the boundary of a
p-dimensional defect. Consider, for example, a sequence of symmetry breakings in which a
group G is broken to H × Z2 at some high scale, and subsequently to H at some lower scale,
where both G and H are connected and simply connected. Then π1 [G/(H × Z2 )] = Z2 , and
strings will be formed at the first phase transition. A closed loop in physical space around
the string, parameterized by xµ (λ) as λ goes from 0 to 1, defines a closed loop in field space
which can be written φ(λ) = g(λ)φ0 , where φ0 is the initial value of the field and g(λ) is a
path in the group G such that g(0) = 1. The group element g(1) corresponds not to the
identity in G, but to the non-identity element in the unbroken Z2 subgroup. When this group
is broken after the second phase transition, the path φ(λ) no longer describes a closed loop
in the vacuum manifold; rather, a domain wall must form with the string as its boundary [2].
Looked at another way, if we were unaware of the full symmetry group G, we would predict
the appearance of topologically stable walls due to the breaking H × Z2 → H; but in fact
the presence of G implies that these walls can end on cosmic strings. Indeed, such walls are
unstable to the nucleation of holes bounded by string loops (although the timescale for such
processes may be extraordinarily long). Similarly, models can be constructed [3] in which
strings end on monopoles, and can decay via the nucleation of monopole-antimonopole pairs
along their length. Finally, in some theories the evolution of one kind of defect can lead
to the creation or destruction of another kind; examples include domain walls sweeping up
monopoles [4] and collapsing textures nucleating monopoles or string loops [5].
In this paper we discuss configurations which are complementary to those mentioned
above — solutions in which defects can end when they intersect other defects of equal or

1
higher dimensionality, such as strings ending on domain walls. For such configurations,
we term the defects on which other defects end “Dirichlet topological defects”, in analogy
with the D-branes of string theory. The latter are extended objects on which fundamental
strings can end [6–9]. The models considered here are ordinary field theories, which support
topological solitons which resemble these objects in fundamental string theory. (Dirichlet
defects in this sense have been discussed previously: cosmic strings ending on domain walls
can arise in supersymmetric Yang-Mills theories [10] as well as in grand unified models
[4], while the well-known phenomenon of non-intercommuting cosmic strings provides an
example of strings ending on strings.) We will focus on the case of defects in bosonic field
theories in (3+1) dimensions; generalization to higher dimensions and theories with fermions
is left to future work.

II. WALLS ENDING ON WALLS

In any number of spatial dimensions, the simplest example of Dirichlet topological defects
consists of codimension-one defects ending on other codimension-one defects: for d = 3,
domain walls ending on domain walls. This example provides a paradigm for the models
considered in subsequent sections.
Walls arise upon the breakdown of discrete symmetries, and it is therefore unnecessary
to introduce gauge fields into our model at this stage. To form the Dirichlet wall (or D-wall)
(1)
we introduce a single real scalar φ, invariant under a symmetry group Z2 which acts on φ
via φ → −φ. If the potential energy is minimized at φ = ±v, the wall solution interpolates
from one domain with hφi = v to another with hφi = −v. We next introduce another real
(2)
scalar ψ1 , invariant under a distinct symmetry group Z2 which sends ψ1 to −ψ1 . In order
for ψ1 to lead to “fundamental” walls which can end on the D-wall, we require that the
potential be minimized at ψ1 = ±w when φ = v, and ψ1 = 0 when φ = −v. Such a potential
(1)
is not invariant under the original symmetry Z2 unless we include a third real scalar ψ2
(1)
which exchanges roles with ψ1 under the action of Z2 . That is, we consider a complete
(1) (2) (3)
symmetry group Z2 × Z2 × Z2 , with action

(1)
Z2 : {φ → −φ , ψ1 ↔ ψ2 } ,
(2)
Z2 : ψ1 → −ψ1 , (2.1)
(3)
Z2 : ψ2 → −ψ2 .

2
 ϕ = −ν ϕ=0 ϕ=ν

200 200 200

0 5 0 0 5
-200 -200 5 -200
0 0 0
-5 -5 -5
0 -5 0 -5 0 -5
5 5 5

FIG. 1. Shape of the potential as a function of ψ1 (right horizontal axis) and ψ2 (left horizontal
axis), for three different values of φ. When φ = v, hψ1 i = ±w and hψ2 i = 0, while when φ = −v,
hψ1 i = 0 and hψ2 i = ±w.

Such a symmetry allows for ψ1 -walls when hφi = v and ψ2 -walls when hφi = −v; each can
end on the Dirichlet walls where φ changes values.
Given the three scalar fields {φ, ψ1 , ψ2 }, a complete set of nonderivative interactions of
no higher than fourth order which are consistent with these symmetries includes φ2 , φ4 ,
(ψ12 + ψ22 ), (ψ14 + ψ24 ), ψ12 ψ22 , φ2 (ψ12 + ψ22 ), and φ(ψ12 − ψ22 ). It is convenient to write the most
general potential constructed from these terms in the form
h i2
V (φ, ψ1 , ψ2 ) = λφ (φ2 − ve2 )2 + λψ ψ12 + ψ22 − we 2 + g(φ2 − ve2 )
+ hψ12 ψ22 − µφ(ψ12 − ψ22 ) . (2.2)

We consider the parameter space in which λφ , λψ , h, ve2 and we 2 are all positive. The sign of
g is left unspecified, and we may take µ ≥ 0 without loss of generality (as a change in sign
of µ is equivalent to a field redefinition interchanging ψ1 and ψ2 ). At µ = 0, the potential is
the sum of three non-negative terms which may be simultaneously set to zero. It is therefore
easy to see that there exist eight vacua, in which φ = ±ve and (ψ1 , ψ2 ) are either (±w,
e 0)

or (0, ±w).
e As µ is increased to positive values, this degeneracy is broken, and it becomes

energetically favorable (for example) to have |ψ1 | = w = we + O(µ) and |ψ2 | = 0 when
φ = v = ve + O(µ).
The potential in the vicinity of its minima is plotted in Fig. 1. There are four vacua of
zero energy, of the form {φ = v, ψ1 = ±w, ψ2 = 0} and {φ = −v, ψ1 = 0, ψ2 = ±w}. The
vacuum expectation value (vev) h|φ|i = v solves a cubic equation

8λφ λψ v 3 − 6λψ gµv 2 − (8λφ λψ ve2 + µ2 )v − 2λ(g ve2 + we 2 )µ = 0 . (2.3)

3
The correct root of this equation is the one which reduces to ve at µ = 0. The vev w is given
in terms of v by
!1/2
2 2 2 µv
w = we + g(ve − v ) − . (2.4)
2λψ

In any of these vacua, the original Z2 × Z2 × Z2 is broken to a single Z2 and the vacuum
manifold is therefore M = (Z2 × Z2 × Z2 )/Z2 = Z2 × Z2 . Starting from a single vacuum
we can visit three different vacua, two of which are associated with Dirichlet walls of equal
energy, and the third of which is associated with a fundamental wall.
The energies of the two types of wall are complicated functions of the parameters in the
potential. However, there is a simple argument that provides an upper limit on the energy
density of the fundamental wall in comparison to the D-wall:

EF ≤ 2ED . (2.5)

To see this, consider the energy of the fundamental wall as a functional of the wall profile.
This is determined by the values of φ(x), ψ1 (x) and ψ2 (x) as x takes values from x1 , where
the fields are in (for example) the vacuum {φ = v, ψ1 = w, ψ2 = 0}, to x2 where the fields
are in the vacuum {φ = v, ψ1 = −w, ψ2 = 0}. This energy (per unit area) is given by
Z  
x2 1 1 1
EF = (∇φ)2 + (∇ψ1 )2 + (∇ψ2 )2 + V (φ, ψ1 , ψ2 ) dx . (2.6)
x1 2 2 2
The stable wall configuration is that which minimizes this energy. However, there are paths
in field space which go through the intermediate point {φ = −v, ψ1 = 0, ψ2 = w} and thus
correspond to configurations representing two parallel D-walls. There may be (and typically
will be) configurations with lower energy than this one, so the energy of the fundamental
walls is bounded above by the energy of two D-walls.
It would appear to be very difficult to find exact solutions representing a fundamental
wall ending on a D-wall. Not only do the configurations of the isolated walls involve the
interactions of all three fields, but the D-wall is not expected to be smooth at the point
where it is intersected by a fundamental wall; the tension from the latter will pull the D-
wall into a cusp configuration. However, it may be possible to find solutions to an effective
world-volume theory of the walls, and work in this direction has been undertaken for the
case of D-branes in fundamental string theory [11].

4
 III. STRINGS ENDING ON WALLS

The case of strings ending on D-walls in three spatial dimensions is an immediate gen-
eralization of the previous example. Strings arise most simply from the breakdown of U(1)
symmetries; we therefore promote the real scalars ψ1 and ψ2 to complex fields ψi = ρi eiθi ,
and the symmetries acting on them to U(1)’s, leaving the discrete Z2 (which breaks to give
the D-walls) unchanged. The complete set of symmetries is therefore

Z2 : {φ → −φ , ψ1 ↔ ψ2 } ,
U(1)1 : ψ1 → e−iω1 ψ1 , (3.1)
U(1)2 : ψ2 → e−iω2 ψ2 .

The two U(1)’s may be taken to be either global or gauge symmetries. In the latter case, ω1
and ω2 are functions of spacetime, and there are two gauge fields A(1) (2)
µ , Aµ , with the usual

transformation properties

A(i) (i)
µ → Aµ + ∂µ ωi (3.2)

and associated covariant derivatives

Dµ ψi = ∂µ ψi + iA(i)
µ ψi . (3.3)

Since the real scalar φ is uncharged under both U(1)’s, the kinetic term for φ is given in
terms of ordinary partial derivatives.
The appropriate potential is now
h i2
V (φ, ψ1 , ψ2 ) = λφ (φ2 − ve2 )2 + λψ |ψ1 |2 + |ψ2 |2 − we 2 + g(φ2 − ve2 )
+ h|ψ1 |2 |ψ2 |2 − µφ(|ψ1|2 − |ψ2 |2 ) . (3.4)

In the vacuum the real scalar φ takes the vev ±v and there may exist domain walls separating
these two values. When hφi = +v, the vacuum has |ψ1 | = v and ψ2 = 0, while when hφi = −v
the vacuum has |ψ2 | = v and ψ1 = 0. The values of v and w are as in the last section.
In this model, therefore, the unbroken symmetry group in the true vacuum is U(1), and
the vacuum manifold is M = [U(1) × U(1) × Z2 ]/U(1) = S 1 × Z2 , admitting walls and
strings. When hφi = +v, the complex field ψ1 can form cosmic strings with winding number
n, around which θ1 will change by 2πn. Such a string ends if it intersects a D-wall, since
hψ1 i = 0 on the other side. Analogous statements hold for the ψ2 field when hφi = −v.

5
 Domain Wall

Cosmic String

FIG. 2. A cosmic string ends on a Dirichlet domain wall in 3 spatial dimensions. The arrows denote
the magnetic flux.

In the core of a string the corresponding U(1) symmetry is restored. In the gauge case,
therefore, the gauge bosons associated with, for example, U(1)1 are massless both in the core
of a ψ1 -string on the hφi = v side of the D-wall, and anywhere on the hφi = −v side of the
D-wall. As usual, outside the ψ1 -string the gauge field is pure gauge, such that it cancels the
gradient energy of the scalars by enforcing the vanishing of the covariant derivative (3.3).
The gauge field is thus given by A(1)
µ = −∂µ θ1 . Consequently, there is magnetic flux through

the string (which we take to have winding number n), given by Φ(1) = −nπ. This flux
flows through the string until it hits the wall; on the other side of the wall the symmetry is
unbroken everywhere, and the magnetic field describes a monopole configuration emanating
from the point where the string intersects the wall. We sketch such a configuration in Fig. 2.
Configurations of the this type, with strings ending on walls, have recently been discussed
in the context of supersymmetric QCD [10]. There, the string consists of non-Abelian flux,
and the wall separates different chiral vacua, with shifted values of the QCD θ-parameter.
The intersections of strings and domain walls can be thought of as quarks. The structures
of these QCD configurations and the scalar field models discussed here are obviously very
similar, and the relationship between them deserves further investigation. (One difference
is that the flux in the strings considered in [10] does not propagate freely on the other side
of the wall, as the symmetry is still broken there; rather, it is confined to the wall itself. It
should not be difficult to extend models of the type considered in this paper to include such

6
situations.) They have also been shown to exist in certain grand unified theories [4]. Here,
conventional GUT monopoles can become bound to domain walls, and the monopoles will
become connected by strings if the color gauge group SU(3) is broken to Z3 .

IV. STRINGS AND STRINGS

A number of theories in which a cosmic string can end on another string can be found in
the literature. Generally speaking, three-string vertices can arise whenever the strings are
associated with elements a, b, and c of π1 (M), such that abc = 1. Configurations of this type
play an important role in models where π1 (M) is non-Abelian, and may have interesting
cosmological consequences (see for example [12]).
Nevertheless, it is interesting to consider theories of strings ending on strings which more
closely resemble those of the last two sections; that is, with two types of strings, one of which
may be thought of as fundamental and the other as Dirichlet (characterized by the fact that
fundamental strings can end on Dirichlet strings but not vice-versa). As we shall see, the
construction of such models closely parallels that of the theories with Dirichlet walls.
We once again consider three fields φ, ψ1 , and ψ2 , now with all three being complex
scalars, for a total of six real degrees of freedom. We impose two U(1) symmetries, under
which the fields have the following charges:

U(1)1 U(1)2

φ 2 0 (4.1)
ψ1 1 1
ψ2 1 −1

We also include a Z2 with action

ψ1 ↔ ψ2 . (4.2)

A general potential may be written in a form reminiscent of (but not identical to) our
previous examples:
 2 h i2
V (φ, ψ1 , ψ2 ) = λφ |φ|2 − ve2 + λψ |ψ1 |2 + |ψ2 |2 − we 2 + g(|φ|2 − ve2 )
 2
+h |ψ1 |2 − |ψ2 |2 − µ (ψ1∗ ψ2∗ φ + ψ1 ψ2 φ∗ ) . (4.3)

We describe the complex scalars in terms of their moduli and phases as φ = ρφ eiθφ ,
ψ1 = ρ1 eiθ1 , ψ2 = ρ2 eiθ2 . As before, for µ = 0 the potential is the sum of three non-negative

7
terms, which can be simultaneously set to zero by setting hρφ i = ve and hρ1 i = hρ2 i = w.
e

Turning on a small positive µ introduces a constraint on the phases: hθφ i = hθ1 i + hθ2 i. The
unbroken subgroup is Z2 , which in general is a combination of the original Z2 and a U(1)2
transformation. The vacuum manifold is therefore a torus, M = [U(1) × U(1) × Z2 ]/Z2 =
S 1 × S 1 , which may be parameterized by the angles θ1 and θ2 , determining the remaining
angle θφ .
Strings are characterized by elements of π1 (S 1 × S 1 ) = Z × Z. We can take the two
generators (1, 0) and (0, 1) to be given by paths from θi = 0 to θi = 2π, for i = 1, 2
respectively. (In each case θφ also ranges from 0 to 2π.) Due to the Z2 symmetry, strings
corresponding to either of the two generators have equal tensions. A string corresponding to
(1, −1), although it may be thought of as a superposition of strings with charges (1, 0) and
(0, −1), can have a lower energy than the two separately (since ρ1 equals ρ2 , and thus the
term in the potential of the form h[|ψ1 |2 − |ψ2 |2 ] vanishes) and therefore be stable against
decay; strings of this type are the fundamental strings, while those with charges (1, 0) or
(0, 1) are the D-strings.
The gauge transformations in U(1)1 and U(1)2 can be written in terms of functions
ω1 (xµ ) and ω2 (xµ ) as
   
φ e−2iω1 φ
   −i(ω1 +ω2 ) 
 ψ1  →  e ψ1  . (4.4)
ψ2 e−i(ω1 −ω2 ) ψ2
In the core of the (1, −1) string, we have hφi = v, hψ1 i = hψ2 i = 0, and the U(1)2 symmetry
(transformations with ω1 = 0) is restored. In a (1, 0) string there is an unbroken U(1)
parameterized by ω1 = ω2 , and in a (0, 1) string there is an unbroken U(1) parameterized
by ω1 = −ω2 .
Outside the string cores, the gauge fields are pure gauge such that they cancel the gradient
energy in the scalars. This means they enforce the vanishing of the covariant derivatives

Dµ φ = ∂µ φ + 2iA(1)
µ φ ,

Dµ ψ1 = ∂µ ψ1 + iA(1) (2)
µ ψ1 + iAµ ψ1 , (4.5)
Dµ ψ2 = ∂µ ψ2 + iA(1) (2)
µ ψ2 − iAµ ψ2 .

The gauge fields are thus given by

1 1
A(1)
µ = ∂µ (θ1 + θ2 ) = ∂µ θφ ,
2 2
1
A(2)
µ = ∂µ (θ1 − θ2 ) . (4.6)
2

8
 a

FIG. 3. A fundamental cosmic string ends on a Dirichlet string. The homotopy classes of the
indicated loops in π1 (S 1 × S 1 ) = Z × Z are [a] = (1, 0), [b] = (0, −1), and [c] = (1, −1).

Consequently, the magnetic fluxes through a string with winding number (n, m) are

Φ(1) (n, m) = (n + m)π ,

Φ(2) (n, m) = (n − m)π . (4.7)

In Fig. 3 we show a configuration with a fundamental string ending on a D-string. Around

the latter, the phase of φ changes by 2π; above the intersection point it is accompanied by
the phase of ψ1 (θ1 = θφ , θ2 = 0), while below the intersection point it is accompanied by
the phase of ψ2 (θ2 = θφ , θ1 = 0). The fundamental string is topologically equivalent to the
superposition of the two segments of the D-string (as it must be, since the loops a and b
together are topologically equivalent to loop c); around it the phases θ1 and θ2 change by
2π, while θφ is constant. It is easy to verify that the configuration shown conserves flux:
through a we have Φ(1) = π, Φ(2) = π; through b we have Φ(1) = π, Φ(2) = −π; and through
c we have Φ(1) = 0, Φ(2) = 2π.

9
 V. CONCLUSIONS

We have described a class of topological defects in classical field theories in (3+1) dimen-
sions, consisting of Dirichlet defects on which fundamental defects of lower dimension can
terminate. While the search for models supporting these configurations is inspired by the
appearance of D-branes in string theory, there are important differences between the two sets
of objects. In all of the theories we consider, the basic degrees of freedom are scalar fields
and gauge fields, out of which all of the higher-dimensional objects are constructed. Our
theories do not include the effects of gravity, and are not supersymmetric (although there
are no obstacles to the appropriate generalizations). Furthermore, the specific dependence
of D-brane energy on the string coupling constant is not a feature of our models, and the
Ramond-Ramond gauge fields to which D-branes couple are absent. Nevertheless, it may
be interesting to compare the dynamical behavior of Dirichlet defects to that of D-branes in
string theory, and search for models in which the similarities between the two systems are
even stronger.
One obvious direction in which to generalize the models considered here is to consider
q-dimensional defects ending on p-dimensional D-defects in d spatial dimensions. (There
are a variety of such objects in string theory and M-theory, with configurations governed
by charge conservation [13].) A number of interesting issues arise in this case, especially
for gauge symmetries. In three spatial dimensions, domain walls, strings and monopoles
all have finite energy (per unit volume) if they arise from the spontaneous breakdown of
gauge symmetries, while strings and monopoles in theories with global symmetries have
divergent energies. More generally, gauge defects of codimension greater than three have
divergent energies, as have global defects of codimension greater than one [14]. Although the
divergence of the energy is an important feature of such configurations, it does not render
them unphysical; certainly there is no obstacle in principle, for example, to the existence
of global strings in (3+1) dimensions. More importantly, to make topological defects of
dimension q in d spatial dimensions requires that πd−q−1 (M) be nontrivial, for example by
breaking SO(d −p) to SO(d −p −1) (for which M = S d−p−1 ). In such a model, the unbroken
symmetry group SO(d − p − 1) is non-Abelian for p ≤ d − 4; we then expect the low-energy
gauge theory to be strongly coupled, and the resulting defects to be confined.
Back in (3+1) dimensions, there are a number of issues remaining to be addressed. As
mentioned, the models we have constructed are purely bosonic, and it would be interesting to
consider supersymmetric versions (as has been done for non-hybrid defects [15]), as well as to
determine whether Dirichlet defects could arise in realistic particle physics models. Finally,
as with any species of topological defect, it is also natural to ask what the cosmological
consequences of the formation of these objects in the early universe might be.

10
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Andrew Chamblin, Gary Gibbons, Aki Hashimoto, Miguel Ortiz,
Joe Polchinski, John Preskill, Wati Taylor and Tanmay Vachaspati for helpful conversations.
The work of S.M.C. was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under grant
PHY/94-07195 and the work of M.T. was supported by the Department of Energy (D.O.E.),
the National Science Foundation (N.S.F.) and by funds provided by Case Western Reserve
University.

11
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