SECOND SEMESTER | A.Y.

2024-2025
AHU 100 - PHILIPPINE POPULAR CULTURE

PAULO S. PARUNGAO, MEd.

Course Instructor
• Define and comprehend the concepts of
media and communication theories.
• Integrate Culture Industry and the
communication theories within the
construct of the Philippine popular
culture.
• Demonstrate an in-depth understanding
of Philippine Pop Culture through media
and communication theories
GROUP ACTIVITY: "MEDIA INFLUENCE

Objective: Students will learn and demonstrate how

media affects public perception and behavior using
various communication theories.
Activity Title: "Media Simulation: The Power of
Communication "

Format: Group Presentation & Role-Playing

Duration: 45 minutes to 1 hour
•
 AGENDA-SETTING
DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
TWO-STEP FLOW OF COMMUNICATION
CULTIVATION
PUBLIC OPINION AND SPIRAL OF SILENCE
PARTICIPATORY CULTURE
 When major news
happens, the world’s
mass media
organizations take
notice.
College professors Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw
first introduced and developed the concept in 1972
after surveying North Carolina voters during the 1968
U.S. presidential election and discovering that what
people thought were the most important issues were
what the mass media reported as the most priority.
Centers on the ability of
mass media to signal to
the public what is
important!
• This theory refers to how
the media’s news coverage
determines which issues
become the focus of public
attention.
• The impact of media influences the
presentation of news and topics that
affect the public mind. When a certain
piece of news is given more priority
and attention than others, the
audience will instinctively see it as the
most significant and important news.
• The media sets the priorities of which
news appears first and then the next
based on how people believe and how
much impact it has on the audience.
 Media does not tell you
what to think ; but what
to think about!
THREE TYPES OF AGENDA-
SETTING THEORY
• This refers to how the media influence what the public
perceives as important.

• The media decide which issues to highlight, and over time,

these issues become the top concerns of the public.
•

•
 Media Agenda-Setting
• This refers to how news organizations decide what issues
to cover and prioritize.

• Editors, journalists, and media owners determine which

stories get published and how much prominence they
receive.
•

•
• This refers to how media coverage influences government
and policymakers in addressing certain issues.

• When the media emphasize a topic for an extended

period, policymakers may feel pressured to create laws or
policies to address public concerns.
•

•
The three types of agenda-setting Public, Media, and
Policy Agenda-Setting show how media shape public
discourse, influence news priorities, and impact
government decisions. Understanding these types
helps individuals critically assess the information they
consume and recognize how media power shapes
society.
 Media provides information
which is the most relevant
food for thought, portraits
the major issues of the
society and reflects people
minds.
 ------------CRITICISMS-----------

• One of the issues with the agenda-setting theory is

that it is difficult to measure.
Research on the theory has been largely inconclusive
in establishing a causal relationship between public
prominence and media coverage. And in 2018, with the
worldwide influence of the internet and social media,

for instead of being constrained by just relying on one

mass media is setting the agenda.

News Media Values

• News media values are the guiding principles that

journalists follow to ensure fair, accurate, and
relevant news reporting.

• These values help journalists decide which stories

are newsworthy and how they should be reported
Key News Media Values:
1.Timeliness – News should be current and relevant to the present
time.
2.Proximity – Stories that happen closer to the audience are
considered more relevant.
3.Impact – News that affects a large number of people gets more
coverage.
4.Prominence – Stories involving famous or influential people
receive more attention.
5.Conflict – Controversies, disagreements, and struggles attract
public interest.
6.Human Interest – Emotional and personal stories engage
audiences.
7.Oddity or Novelty – Unusual or surprising events make the news
more compelling.
Example:

A local newspaper prioritizing a story about

a typhoon affecting thousands of people
follows the value of impact and proximity.

A journalist covering a presidential speech

adheres to prominence and timeliness.
Media Bias

• Media bias occurs when news organizations

present stories in a way that favors one perspective,
ideology, or group over another, rather than
maintaining neutrality.

• This bias can be intentional (propaganda) or

unintentional (due to journalists' personal beliefs or
corporate influences).
Types of Media Bias:

1.Bias by Omission – Leaving out important information that

could present a different perspective.
2.Bias by Selection of Sources – Quoting only experts or
individuals who support one side of an issue.
3.Bias by Story Selection – Consistently covering stories that
favor one viewpoint while ignoring opposing viewpoints.
4.Bias by Placement – Putting certain stories in prominent
positions (e.g., front page) while burying others in less visible
sections.
5.Bias by Spin – Using language that influences how readers
perceive an issue (e.g., calling protesters "terrorists" vs.
"activists").
Gatekeeping
The process of selecting and filtering information to control what
audiences see and hear. Gatekeepers can be individuals or institutions
that monitor and evaluate the importance of events and decide which
ones to share.

Framing
How information is presented by gatekeepers, such as journalists, to
define and construct a particular meaning. Framing can affect how
audiences think about issues, rather than just what they think about.
Priming
Focuses on what information is presented, while framing focuses
on how it is presented. In practice, these two elements often
overlap.
Media Influence Theories
How Gatekeeping Works:

Information Gathering – Raw news and information are collected

from different sources (e.g., reporters, press releases, eyewitnesses).
Filtering & Selection – Gatekeepers decide which news or content
should be published based on relevance, impact, audience interest, and
editorial policies.
Framing & Presentation – The chosen news is structured, edited, and
presented in a way that shapes how the audience perceives it.
Distribution & Amplification – Media outlets distribute the selected
news to the public through television, newspapers, online platforms, or
social media.
Examples of Gatekeeping in Action

Traditional Media:
•A news editor decides to feature a political scandal on the front page
while placing an environmental issue on a minor page, influencing
public perception of priorities.
•A TV station chooses to air stories about celebrities instead of
economic issues to maintain audience engagement.
Social Media & Digital Platforms:
•Facebook and YouTube algorithms filter content and recommend
news articles based on user preferences, shaping what people see
online.
•Fact-checkers on social media remove false information to prevent
the spread of fake news.
 Government & Institutions:
•A government agency may restrict media coverage of
protests to prevent public unrest.
•A school administrator may filter which announcements or
news are shared with students to maintain a positive
institutional image.
Rodrigo Duterte Senate Probe

Media outlets, newspaper

publications, social media
platforms, and broadcasting
channels cover the news.
 HOW TO APPLY AGENDA-SETTING
THEORY IN POP CULTURE STUDIES?

Media influence
The media influences the public's
opinions and attitudes about topics.

Media control
The media controls reality by filtering
and shaping it.
Media bias
The media's agenda is influenced by its
biases on topics like politics, culture,
and the economy.
Media authority
The more media attention an issue
receives, the more important the public
perceives it to be.
Agenda-setting Theory in Philippine Pop Culture

• Celebrities and social media influencers post

content related to the elections
• Filmmakers producing BL/GL series to capture
the demands of the female audience
• Toy stores started selling labubu merchandise
as it gained widespread recognition
 DIFFUSION
OF INNOVATION
THEORY
Diffusion of Innovation was developed by Evett M. Rogers
in 1962 and is considered one of the oldest social science
theories. This theory explains the rate at which consumers
will adopt a new product or service.
The main players in the theory are innovators, early
adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards.
• The theory explains how an idea
or product gains momentum and
diffuses (or spreads) through a
specific population or social
system on a given time.

• The end result of this diffusion is

that people, as part of a social
system, adopt a new idea,
behavior, or product.
 Smartphones (iPhone)

The 2007 release of the iPhone 2G

represents a new technology
introduced to society, which can be
seen as one large social network.
The widespread adoption of the
iPhone starting in 2007 embodies
many of the network and sociology
principles in the diffusion of
innovation.
1. Knowledge – The individual/group becomes aware of
the innovation but lacks full information.

Example: A person hears about electric cars for the first

time.
2. Persuasion – The individual develops an interest and
seeks more information.

Example: They watch YouTube reviews and read articles

about electric cars.
3. Decision – The individual weighs the pros and cons and
decides whether to adopt or reject the innovation.

Example: They compare costs and benefits before

deciding to buy an electric car.

4. Implementation – The innovation is used, and its

effectiveness is tested.

Example: The person buys an electric car and uses it for

daily commuting.
5. Confirmation – The individual seeks validation and
may continue using the innovation or abandon it.

Example: After using the electric car for a year, they

are satisfied and recommend it to others.
1. Innovators (2.5%) – The first to try new ideas; risk-takers and
tech enthusiasts.

Example: Tech reviewers who buy the latest gadgets immediately.

2. Early Adopters (13.5%) – Opinion leaders who influence others

and help innovations gain popularity.

Example: Influencers or professionals who adopt new trends early.

3. Early Majority (34%) – Thoughtful consumers who wait for
feedback before adopting.

Example: People who buy smartphones after reading multiple reviews.

4. Late Majority (34%) – Skeptical individuals who adopt innovations

only after seeing widespread success.

Example: Traditional businesses that switch to digital payments only after

competitors do.

5. Laggards (16%) – The last to adopt an innovation, often resistant to

change.

Example: People who still prefer landline phones over smartphones.

• Innovators: Korean artists and entertainment companies
producing high-quality content.
• Early Adopters: Dedicated fans (e.g., ARMY for BTS) spreading the
music through social media.
• Early Majority: Wider international audiences discovering K-pop
through platforms like YouTube and Spotify.
• Late Majority: Mainstream media adopting K-pop into award
shows, ads, and films.
• Laggards: People finally engaging due to social pressure or
curiosity about its global reach.
Factors Affecting Diffusion

Relative Advantage – Is the innovation better than existing

alternatives?
•Example: Smartphones replaced landlines because of mobility and
features.

Compatibility – Does the innovation fit with cultural and social

values?
•Example: Online banking grew because it aligned with the need for
convenience.
 Complexity – Is the innovation easy or difficult to use?
•Example: Simpler apps spread faster than complex ones.

Trialability – Can people test the innovation before fully

adopting it?
•Example: Free trials for Netflix helped people decide to subscribe.

Observability – Are the benefits of the innovation visible to

others?
•Example: Seeing people use e-wallets (Gcash, PayPal) encourages
others to try.
 TECHNOLOGY
•Smartphones: Early adopters tried touchscreen phones first,
followed by the majority.
•Artificial Intelligence (AI): Initially used in tech industries, now
integrated into everyday apps.

BUSINESS & MARKETING

•E-commerce (Shopee, Lazada): Adoption grew as more people
saw its convenience.
•Cryptocurrency: Some people quickly adopted Bitcoin, while
others remained skeptical.
 HEALTHCARE
•Vaccination Programs: Early adopters got vaccinated first,
followed by the general population.
•Telemedicine: Online doctor consultations became popular
after the pandemic.

SOCIAL & ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS

•Sustainable Living: Early adopters promoted eco-friendly
lifestyles, influencing mainstream consumers.
•Remote Work: Initially a niche practice, it became widely
accepted after COVID-19.
Recognizing trends
Popular culture provides new music
genres, viral dance challenges, and re-
invention of fashion trends
Identifying key adopters
Celebrities, social media influencers,
and other famous personalities start
the trends
 HOW TO APPLY DIFFUSION OF
INNOVATION IN POP CULTURE STUDIES?

Understanding subculture
Popular culture creates a space for
fandoms and specific hobbies.

Identifying communication channels

Traditional and new media help in
spreading the trends for public
consumption.
• The spread of Kpop, Kdrama, and Hallyu craze
in the Philippines
• The influence of Japanese anime and manga
on the creativity of Filipinos
• The use of Google Classroom as learning
management system
The two-step flow model was formulated in 1948 by
Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet in
the book The People’s Choice, after research into voters’
decision-making processes during the 1940
U.S. presidential election.

The theory of the two-step flow of mass communication

was further developed by Lazarsfeld together with Elihu
Katz in the book Personal Influence (1955).
• The two-step flow of communication
suggests that information from media
first reaches opinion leaders, who
then influence the wider audience
through personal interactions.
• Personal influence refers to the
impact of interpersonal
communication on individuals'
attitudes and decisions, often
mediated by opinion leaders, who
interpret and filter mass media
influence before relaying it to others in
their social circles.
Instead of mass media shaping opinions
directly, information flows through two
steps:

Step 1: Mass media → Opinion Leaders

Step 2: Opinion Leaders → General Public

How the Two-Step Flow Works?

1️⃣ Opinion Leaders (influencers, experts,

community figures) consume media
content first.

2️⃣ They interpret, filter, and personalize

the information.

3️⃣ The general public receives information

indirectly from these leaders rather than
directly from media sources.
Senator Risa Hontiveros

She is a health and women's rights advocate, a

proud activist, and a champion of the basic
sectors, especially gender equality rights.

In November 2018, Hontiveros received the

Equality Champion Award from the Lesbian and
Gay Legislative Advocacy (Lagablab) Network for
her push for equality laws in the Senate,
especially the SOGIE Equality Bill (which stalled
in both the 17th and 18th Congresses), and her
fight against discrimination
 Jolina Magdangal

In her 35 years in show business, she’s

not only able to showcase her versatility
and brilliance as a multi-faceted
performer, but also her vibrant and
adorable personality through her
remarkably quirky and colorful fashion.
With how massively influential she has
been, especially to the Batang 90s who
grew up idolizing her, there’s indeed no
doubt why Jolina is hailed as the
Source: ABS-CBN “Philippine Pop Culture Icon.”
Entertainment
Identifying the opinion leaders
Famous personalities and experts can help in spreading
culture and making specific media content viral.

Examining the influence toward the public

The opinion leaders reinterpret media messages to make
them relatable or appealing to their followers.
• Celebrities post on social media that lead to a
wider recognition of trends by their followers
and fans worlwide
• Social media influencers start TikTok dance
challenges
• Online game streamers make Mobile Legends
not only entertaining but also profitable
CULTIVATION THEORY
George Gerbner, a professor of communication, proposed
the theory as part of the Cultural Indicators Project to
examine the influence of television on viewers in the 1960s.
The findings of Gerbner were later expanded upon and
developed by the American screenwriter Larry Gross.
• The Cultivation Theory, suggests that
long-term exposure to media,
especially television, shapes people's
perceptions of reality. The more people
consume media content, the more they
believe the world reflects what they see
on screen—even if it’s exaggerated or
inaccurate.
• Cultivation theory is a communication
and sociological framework that posits
that long-term exposure to media
shapes how the consumers of media
perceive the world as well as conduct
themselves in life (Nabi & Riddle, 2008).

• Cultivation theory holds that long-term

exposure to media shapes how the
consumers of media perceive the world
and conduct themselves (Ayesh Perera,
2021).
Key Concepts of Cultivation Theory

1. Mainstreaming – Heavy media

consumption reduces differences in
people's views, making them adopt a
common perception influenced by media
narratives.

Example: Watching crime dramas

frequently can lead people from different
backgrounds to overestimate the actual
crime rate.
2. Resonance – When media content aligns
with real-life experiences, its effects become
stronger.

Example: If a person lives in a dangerous

neighborhood and frequently watches
violent TV shows, their fear of crime is
amplified.
3. Mean World Syndrome – A belief that
the world is more dangerous, violent, or
cruel than it actually is, caused by excessive
exposure to violent media.

Example: Someone who watches daily news

reports about crime may think they are
constantly at risk, even if crime rates are
declining.
 HOW TO APPLY CULTIVATION THEORY
IN POP CULTURE STUDIES?

Analyze the media content

Identify the most common images, portrayals, and values in
the media. Look for patterns in television dramas, songs,
games, fashion trends, etc.

Examine media habits

Compare the viewing habits and the amount of time
spent on social media.
Cultivation Theory in Philippine Pop Culture

• Cooking shows, travel vlogs, and game

livestreams affect an individual as a consumer
of media
• Gen Z slangs and social media memes affect a
person’s perception of social, cultural, and
political issues
The word public in the
concept of “public opinion” is
to be interpreted in the sense
of “public eye,” “visible to all,”
and thus as social control.
Opinion refers to publicly visible
and audible expressions of
opinion as well as public
behavior regarding value-laden
issues.
Public opinion can be defined broadly as the collective
views of people in a society. It is a complicated concept
that takes into account the opinions of individual citizens,
groups, and elites. Public opinion is publicized through the
media, often by pundits who promulgate elite views.
Spiral of Silence is a political science and mass
communication theory proposed by the German political
scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann in 1974.

is the term meant to refer to the tendency of people to

remain silent when they feel that their views are in
opposition to the majority view on a subject.
According to the spiral of
silence theory, most people
have a natural - and mostly
unconscious - fear of social
isolation that prompts them
to constantly monitor the
behavior of others for signs
of approval or disapproval
(Britannica.com).
 HOW TO APPLY PUBLIC OPINION AND SPIRAL OF SILENCE
IN POP CULTURE STUDIES?

Analyze the collective opinion

Pop culture is meant to be consumed by the masses. Identify
the opinion of the majority vs minority in terms of popular
trends

Voice out opinions

Analyze how social media platforms (e.g., TikTok, X,
Facebook, etc.) can be utilized in advocacy campaigns
and other issues.
• ChatGPT and its usage by students as an
educational tool
• Social media promotion as a marketing
strategy

• Opinion of the masses on subculture: gaming,

cosplaying, photography, ice skating, etc.
The term participatory culture was first
introduced by Henry Jenkins in his 2006 book
Confronting the Challenges of Participatory
Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century.

The earliest example of participatory culture is

the study of fan culture or the cultural logic of
fan groups.
Participatory culture is a
way in which different
people or the society act
both as consumers and
contributors of meaning.

It is characterized by a
democratization of media
production and a blurring
of boundaries between
creators and audiences.
Participatory culture refers to a culture in which
individuals actively engage in creating, sharing, and
collaborating on content, rather than just passively
consuming media.

For example, there are opportunities for individuals to

easily create and share content, often through digital
platforms, with minimal technical or financial obstacles.
Expression and engagement
Pop culture allows audiences to create
and share their content for free while
maximizing the opportunity of being
monetized.
Social connection
Fans build connections and networks
through same interests and hobbies.
 HOW TO APPLY PARTICIPATORY CULTURE
IN POP CULTURE STUDIES?

Civic engagement
participants use their creative efforts for social causes,
activism, or community-building, using media as a tool for
change.

Global and multiplatform participation

The idea that participation is decentralized and can come
from individuals across different locations, making the
process more inclusive and global.
Participatory Culture in Philippine Pop Culture

• Creation of memes, contents, and vlogs on

social media (e.g., TikTok affiliates)
• Joining advocacy groups and protests inspired
by pop culture references (e.g., Pride March,
Pink Revolution)

• Planning a birthday celebration for a K-pop

idol with other Pinoy fans.
MAIN TAKEAWAY
Truly the Filipino rises to his finest
self during trying times, the more
trying the times, the finer the rising.
Or it is in times of disaster that the
Filipino ceases to be a disaster,
thinking of others first before self.

- CONRADO DE QUIROS
REFERENCES
• Reyes (1991). Reading Popular Culture. Ateneo de Manila
University. • Reyes (2000). Aliw: Selected Essays on Popular
Culture. De La Salle University Press, Inc.
• Tolentino et. al (2015). Kritikal na Espasyo ng Kulturang Popular.
Ateneo De Manila University Press.
• Tolentino (2013). Kabataang Kulturang Popular. University of
Santo Tomas Publishing.
• Tolentino (2016). Essays on Philippine Media Cultures &
Neocolonialisms.
• Torres-Yu (2016). Kilates. The UP Press, 2016.
• Arriola, J. L. (2019). Pelikulang komiks: Toward a theory of Filipino
film adaptation. Kritika Kultura. Ateneo de Manila University
Press.
• Fernandez, D. G. (1981). Philippine Popular Culture: Dimensions
and Directions The State of Research in Philippine Popular
Culture. Philippine Studies, 26-44.
• Lumbera, B. (1977). Popular Culture as Politics. Revaluation, 1977,
First published in International Popular Culture (Vol..I, No.1, Fall
1979).