Modern University

For Technology and Information

Electrical Engineering Department

Lectures Notes of
Fluid Power Systems
MENG 213

Prepared By
Dr: Mohamed H. Khobeiz
2023
Faculty Mission

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Egypt.

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fields of engineering education and scientific research, via academic
specialization and distinguished programs, that fulfill the needs of society
and contribute to sustainable development.

1
 COURSE OUTLINE

Chapter Title Page

1. Introduction to Hydraulic and Pneumatics 3

2. Properties of Hydraulic Oil 11

33
3. Energy Losses in Hydraulic Systems
46
4. Hydraulic Pumps
59
5. Hydraulic Motors
74
6. Hydraulic Actuators
86
7. Hydraulic Control Valves
130
8. Hydraulic Circuit Design
142
Appendix A: Standard Symbols for Hydraulic Components
151
9. Sheets

References

1. Fluid Power Engineering, H. N. GM. Galal Rabie, 2000

2. Fluid Power with Applications, Anthony Esposito, 2014
3. Fluid Power control, NPTEL

2
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS AND

PNEUMATICS
1.1 Introduction

In the industry we use three methods for transmitting power from one point to another.
Mechanical transmission is through shafts, gears, chains, belts, etc. Electrical transmission is
through wires, transformers, etc. Fluid power is through liquids or gas in a confined space. In
this chapter, we shall discuss a structure of hydraulic systems and pneumatic systems. We
will also discuss the advantages and disadvantages and compare hydraulic, pneumatic,
electrical and mechanical systems.

1.2 Fluid Power and Its Scope

Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control and transmission of
forces and movement of mechanical element or system with the use of pressurized fluids in a
confined system. Both liquids and gases are considered fluids. Fluid power system includes a
hydraulic system (hydra meaning water in Greek) and a pneumatic system (pneuma meaning
air in Greek). Oil hydraulic employs pressurized liquid petroleum oils and synthetic oils, and
pneumatic employs compressed air that is released to the atmosphere after performing the
work.

3
 1.3 Advantages of a Fluid Power System

The advantages of a fluid power system are as follows:

1. Fluid power systems are simple, easy to operate and can be controlled accurately:
Fluid power gives flexibility to equipment without requiring a complex mechanism.
Using fluid power, we can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position large
forces/components with great accuracy using simple levers and push buttons. For
example, in Earth-moving equipment, bucket carrying load can be raised or lowered by
an operator using a lever. The landing gear of an aircraft can be retrieved to home
position by the push button.

2. Multiplication and variation of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a

fraction of a kilogram to several hundreds of tons.
3. Multifunction control: A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power
and control for numerous machines using valve manifolds and distribution systems. The
fluid power controls can be placed at a central station so that the operator has, at all times, a
complete control of the entire production line, whether it be a multiple operation
machine or a group of machines. Such a setup is more or less standard in the steel mill
industry.
4. Low-speed torque: Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can produce a large
amount of torque while operating at low speeds. Some hydraulic and pneumatic motors
can even maintain torque at a very slow speed without overheating.
5. Constant force or torque: Fluid power systems can deliver constant torque or force
regardless of speed changes.

6. Economical: Not only reduction in required manpower but also the production or
elimination of operator fatigue, as a production factor, is an important element in the use
of fluid power.
7. Low weight to power ratio: The hydraulic system has a low weight to power ratio
compared to electromechanical systems. Fluid power systems are compact.
8. Fluid power systems can be used where safety is of vital importance: Safety is of
vital importance in air and space travel, in the production and operation of motor vehicles, in
mining and manufacture of delicate products. For example, hydraulic systems are
responsible for the safety of takeoff, landing and flight of aeroplanes and space craft.
Rapid advances in mining and tunneling are the results of the application of modern
hydraulic and pneumatic systems.

4
 1.4 Basic Components of a Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid

for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work. Figure 1.1 shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic
components.

Load
Motor 1 – Off 2 – Forward 3– Return

1
3 2
Pressure
Filter regulator

Pump

Direction
control
valve
Actuator
Oil tank

Figure 1.1 Components of a hydraulic system

Functions of the components shown in Fig. 1.1 are as follows:

1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical
power to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic
cylinder) or rotary type(e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion,
respectively.
2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the
hydraulic circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing
through the circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and
efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the
hydraulic fluid.
5
 The piping shown in Fig. 1.1 is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the storage
tank to one side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank.
Fluid is drawn from the tank by a pump that produces fluid flow at the required level of
pressure. If the fluid pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns back to
the reservoir and remains there until the pressure acquires the required level.

Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.

1. When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port A and thus the load is raised.

2. When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port B and thus the load is lowered.

3. When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder(thereby holding it in
position) and dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return to tank via
the pressure relief).

In industry, a machine designer conveys the design of hydraulic systems using a circuit
diagram. Figure 1.2 shows the components of the hydraulic system using symbols. The
working fluid, which is the hydraulic oil, is stored in a reservoir. When the electric motor is
switched ON, it runs a positive displacement pump that draws hydraulic oil through a filter
and delivers at high pressure. The pressurized oil passes through the regulating valve and does
work on actuator. Oil from the other end of the actuator goes back to the tank via return
line. To and fro motion of the cylinder is controlled using directional control valve.

6
 Cylinder
Extended

Retract

Motor Directional control valve

Pump

Pressure regulator
Filter

Breather

Reservoir

Figure 1.2 Components of a hydraulic system (shown using symbols).

The hydraulic system discussed above can be broken down into four main divisions that are
analogous to the four main divisions in an electrical system.

1. The power device parallels the electrical generating station.

2. The control valves parallel the switches, resistors, timers, pressure switches, relays, etc.

3. The lines in which the fluid power flows parallel the electrical lines.

4. The fluid power motor (whether it is a rotating or a non rotating cylinder or a fluid power
motor) parallels the solenoids and electrical motors.

1.5 Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid
for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work. Figure 1.3 shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic
components.

7
 Power Opens when set
supply pressure is reached
Load

Pressure 1 – Off 2 – Forward 3- Return

switch 1
Motor 3 2
Storage
Air cooler reservoir
Air filter

Air compressor

Direction
control
Air from
valve
atmosphere
Air actuator
Air to atmosphere

Figure 1.3 Components of a pneumatic system.

The functions of various components shown in Fig. 1.3 are as follows:

1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform
useful work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.

Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an air
compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is
provided to cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The treated
pressurized air then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir, a
pressure switch is fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reaches
the required level, respectively.

The three-position change over the valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a way
similar to its hydraulic circuit.

8
1.6 Comparison between Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems
Usually hydraulic and pneumatic systems and equipment do not compete. They are so dissimilar
that there are few problems in selecting any of them that cannot be readily resolved.
Certainly, availability is one of the important factors of selection but this may be outweighed
by other factors. In numerous instances, for example, air is preferred to meet certain
unalterable conditions, that is, in“hot spots” where there is an open furnace or other potential
ignition hazard or in operations where motion is required at extremely high speeds. It is often
found more efficient to use a combined circuit in which oil is used in one part and air in
another on the same machine or process. Table 1.1 shows a brief comparison of hydraulic and
pneumatic systems.

Table 1.1 Comparison between a hydraulic and a pneumatic system

S. No. Hydraulic System Pneumatic System

It employs a pressurized liquid It employs a compressed gas, usually

1. air, as a fluid
as a fluid

2. An oil hydraulic system operates at A pneumatic system usually operates

pressures up to 700 bar at 5–10 bar
3. Generally designed as closed system Usually designed as open system

The system slows down when leakage Leakage does not affect the system
4.
occurs much

5. Valve operations are difficult Valve operations are easy

6. Heavier in weight Lighter in weight

Pumps are used to provide Compressors are used to provide

7. compressed gases
pressurized liquids

8. The system is unsafe to fire hazards The system is free from fire hazards

Automatic lubrication is provided Special arrangements for lubrication

9.
are needed

9
 1.7 Comparison of Different Power Systems

There are three basic methods of transmitting power: electrical, mechanical and fluid
power. Most applications actually use a combination of the three methods to obtain the most
efficient overall system. To properly determine which method to use, it is important to
know the salient features of each type. For example, fluid systems can transmit power
more economically over greater distances than mechanical types. However, fluid
systems are restricted to shorter distances compared to electrical systems. Table 1.2
lists the salient features of each type.

Table 1.2 Comparison of different power systems</table>

Property Mechanical Electrical Pneumatic Hydraulic

Input energy I C engines I C engines I C engines I C engines

source
Electric motor Water/gas turbines Pressure tank Electric motor

Air turbine
Energy transfer Levers, gears, Electrical cables Pipes and hoses Pipes and hoses
element shafts and magnetic field
Energy carrier Rigid and elastic Flow of Air Hydraulic
objects electrons liquids
Power-to-weight Poor Fair Best Best
ratio
Torque/inertia Poor Fair Good Best
Stiffness Good Poor Fair Best
Response speed Fair Best Fair Good
Dirt sensitivity Best Best Fair Fair
Relative cost Best Best Good Fair

Control Fair Best Good Good

Motion type Mainly rotary Mainly rotary Linear or rotary Linear or rotary

10
 Chapter 2
PROPERTIES OF Hydraulic Oil

1. Density, Specific Weight, Specific Volume and Specific Gravity

1.1 Density

Density (ρ) is defined as mass per unit volume, that is,

Mass m  kg 
   3 (1.1)
Volume V  m 

The density characteristics of typical hydraulic fluids are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Density characteristics of hydraulic fluids

Density
Fluid (kg/m3)
Shell Tellus ISO 32 mineral oil 875
Shell HFB 60%oil,40%oil 933
Shell HFC 60%glycol,40%water 1084
Shell HFD phosphate ester 1125
Shell Naturelle HFE 32 918

It is well known that density increases with pressure and decreases with temperature. Figure
1.1shows such a characteristic for an ISO 32 mineral oil.

Figure 1.1 Characteristics of ISO 32 mineral oil.

1.2 Specific Weight

Specific weight () is defined as weight per unit volume, that is,

Weight  N 
   (1.2)
Volume  m3 

11
Density and specific weight are related by


    g
g

where g is acceleration due to gravity. Now

Dimension of  N / m3 (kgm / s 2 ) / m3 kg
Dimension of      3
Dimension of g m / s 2 m / s2 m

Note that the density () is absolute, since it depends on mass, which is independent of
location. The specific weight (), on the other hand, is not absolute, since it depends on the value
of gravitational acceleration (g), which varies with location, primarily latitude and elevation
above mean sea level. The densities and specific weights of fluids vary with temperature.
Table 1.2 gives specific weight of common fluids. The specific weight of a liquid varies only
slightly with pressure, depending on the bulk modulus of the liquid; it also depends on
temperature and the variation may be considerable. Since the specific weight () is equal to g, the
specific weight of a fluid depends on the local value of the acceleration due to gravity in addition to
the variation in temperature and pressure.

Table 1.2 Specific weight in (kN/m3) of common liquids at 20°C, 1013 millibar abs with g = 9.81
m/s2

Carbon tetrachloride 15.6

Ethyl alcohol 7.76

Gasoline 6.6

Glycerin 12.3

Kerosene 7.9

Motor oil 8.5

Seawater 10.03

Water 9.79

1.3 Specific Volume

Specific volume (SV) is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid. We commonly apply it
to gases and usually express it in m3/kg. Specific volume is the reciprocal of density. Thus,

1
SV  (1.3)


12
1.4 Specific Gravity

Specific gravity (SG) of a given fluid is defined as the specific weight of the fluid divided by
the specific weight of water, that is

 oil
SG oil 
 water

 oil
 SG oil  (1.4)
 water at standard temperature
SG of a liquid is a dimensionless ratio. Physicists use 4°C as the standard temperature, but
engineers often use 15.56°C. In the metric system, the density of water at 4°C is 1.00 g/cm3,
equivalent to 1000 kg/m3, and hence the SG (which is dimensionless) of a liquid has the same
numerical value as its density expressed in g/mL or Mg/m3.

The SG of a gas is the ratio of its density to that of either hydrogen or air at some specified
temperature and pressure, but there is no general agreement on these standards, and so we
must explicitly state them in any given case. Since the density of a fluid varies with
temperature, we must determine and specify specific gravities at a particular temperature.

Example 1.1
Air at 20°C and atmospheric pressure has a density of 1.23 kg/m3. Find its specific gravity.
What is the ratio of the specific gravity of water to the specific gravity of air at 20°C and
atmospheric pressure? What is the significance of the ratio?
Solution: GivenT = 20°C, air density ( air ) 1.23 kg / m3 , water density
( water )  1000 kg / m3 . Specific gravity of air is given by
air
 1.23103
 water

We know that specific gravity of water = 1. So

Specific gravity of air 1

  813
Specific gravity of water 1.23 103

Therefore, water is 813 times heavier than air.

Example 1.2
The specific weight of oil mixture at ordinary pressure and temperature is 9.81 kN/m3. The
specific gravity of mercury is 13.56. Compute the density of oil mixture and the specific
weight and density of mercury.

Solution: Given specific weight of oil mixture  oil = 9.81. The density of oil is

13
  oil 9.81
oil    1.00 mg/m3  1.00 g / mL
g 9.81

The specific weight and density of mercury are, respectively,

 mercury  Smercury oil  13.56(9.81)  133.0 kN / m3

mercury  Smercury oil  13.56(1.00)  13.56 kN / m3

Example 1.3
A cylinder container has a diameter of 0.5 m and a height of 1 m. If it is to be filled with a
liquid having a specific weight of 2000 N/m3, how many kg of this liquid must be added?

Solution: Given diameter (d )  0.5 m, height (h)  1 m . The volume is given by

 d 2h
Volume (V )   0.19635 m3
4

Also it is given that specific weight () is 2000 N/m3. Now

Weight  V   0.19635 2000  392.7 N

The mass is given by

W
Mass   40 kg
g

Example 1.4

One liter of SAE30 oil weighs 8.70 N. Calculate its specific weight, density and specific
gravity.

Solution: Given volume (V )  1 liter  103 m3 , weight (W )  8.7 N . The specific weight is

W 8.7
   8700 N / m3
V 103

and mass density is


oil   887.755 kg / m3
g

Therefore,

oil 8878.75
SG oil    0.889
water at standard temperature 1000

14
2. Pressure

Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It is the amount of force acting over a unit area, that
is

Force F
P  (1.5)
Area A

The pressure developed at the bottom of a column of any liquid is called hydrostatic pressure
and is given by

P   gh (1.6)

where P is the hydrostatic pressure or the pressure at the bottom of liquid column in Pascal or
3 2
N/m2,  is the density of liquid in kg/m , g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s and h is
the level of the column of liquid in meters.

Since

mgh Wh
P   gh  
V V
and P  h

where  is the specific weight of liquid in N/m3, we have P (N/m2 )   (N/m3 ) h (m) .

2.1 Pressure at the Bottom of a Column of Liquid

Let us now refer to Fig. 1.2, which shows the pressure head developed at the bottom due to
the column of liquid. Let h be the height of the liquid column and W be the weight of the
liquid. Let the liquid have a specific weight  and volume V:

F W W V W V
P     
A A A V V A

(  V ) (  A  H )
 
A A

 P  H (1.7)

Figure 1.2 Pressure developed by a column of fluid.

15
Observing the equation, it can be concluded that pressure does not depend on the
cross-sectional area of the liquid column but only on the column height and specific weight
of the liquid. Changing the cross-sectional area of the liquid column changes the weight of
the liquid by a proportional amount. Hence, F/A (pressure) remains constant.

2.2 Atmospheric Pressure and Absolute Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted against a surface by the weight of air
above that surface in the Earth’s atmosphere. In most circumstances, atmospheric pressure is
closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above
the measurement point. Low-pressure areas have less atmospheric mass above their
location, whereas high-pressure areas have more atmospheric mass above their location.
Similarly, as elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, such that the
pressure decreases with increasing elevation. The standard atmosphere is a unit of
pressure that is equal to 101325 Pa or 101.325 kPa. The following units are equivalent,
but only to the number of decimal places displayed: 760 mmHg (torr), 29.92 in Hg, 14.696
psi, 1013.25 mbar/hPa. One standard atmosphere is the standard pressure used for pneumatic
fluid power (ISO R554) and in the aerospace (ISO 2533) and petroleum (ISO 5024)
industries. Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum such as that existing
in outer space.

2.3 Gauge pressure and absolute pressure

Gauge pressure is measured relative to the atmosphere, whereas absolute pressure is measured
relative to a perfect vacuum such as that existing in outer space.

A chart showing the difference between gauge and absolute pressure is given in Fig. 1.3. Let
us examine the two pressure levels P1 and P2.

1. Relative to a prefect vacuum, they are:

 P1 = 0.7 bar (absolute), that is, a pressure less than an atmospheric pressure.
 P2 = 2 bar (absolute), that is, a pressure greater than an atmospheric pressure.
2. Relative to atmosphere, they are:
 P1 = −0.3 bar (gauge, suction or vacuum).
 P2 = 1 bar (gauge).

As can be seen from Fig. 1.3, the following rule can be used in pressure conversion
calculations:

Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure

It should be noted that vacuum or suction pressures exist in a certain location of fluid power
systems (e.g., in the inlet or suction lines of pumps). Therefore, it is important to understand
the meaning of pressures below atmospheric pressure. One way to generate a suction pressure
is to remove some of the fluid from a closed vessel initially containing fluid at atmospheric
pressure.

16
 1 bar gaugepressure

Atmospheric pressure Zero gauge pressure

0.3 bar gaugepressure

2bar absolute
pressure

1 bar absolute
0.7 bar absolute
pressure
pressure Absolute zero pressure (complete
vacuum)

Figure 1.3 Difference between absolute and gauge pressure.

Example 1.5

For the fluid power automobile lift system of Fig. 1.4, the hydraulic piston has a 250-mm
diameter. How much of oil pressure (kPa) is required to lift a 13300 N automobile?

Control valve

Air from
compressor
Piston
AIR

OIL

Figure 1.4

17
Solution: Given force F = 13300 N, diameter (d) = 0.25 m, area (A) = 0.0491 m2.The gauge
pressure is

F 13300
Pressure ( P)    270.876 kPa
A 250

Example 1.6

For the fluid power automobile lift system of Fig. 1.5, the air pressure equals 550 kPa gauge. If the
hydraulic piston has a diameter of 250 mm, what is the maximum weight of an automobile that
can be lifted? The specific gravity of oil is 0.9. What percentage error in the answer to this
problem occurs by ignoring the 1-m head of oil to between the air and interface surface
and bottom surface of the piston? Density (  )  900 kg / m3 .

Control valve

Air from
compressor
1m Piston
AIR

Oil

Figure 1.5

Solution: Given pressure of

air ( Pair )  550 kPa . We know that

Pair  Pressure at piston ( Ppiston )  Pressure due to1 m oil head

 550103  Ppiston   gh

 Ppiston  550 103  900  9.811  541.18 kPa

If we ignore 1-m oil head, then Ppiston  550 kPa. Then, error in solution is calculated as

550  541.18
%error  100  1.63%
541.18

18
3. Compressible and Incompressible Fluids

Fluid power deals with both incompressible and compressible fluids, that is, with oil and air of
either constant or variable density. Although there is no such thing in reality as an
incompressible fluid, we use this term where the change in density with pressure is so small as
to be negligible. This is usually the case with liquids. We may also consider gases to be
incompressible when the pressure variation is small compared with the absolute pressure.

Ordinarily, we consider liquids to be incompressible fluids; yet sound waves, which are really
pressure waves, travel through them. This provides the evidence of the elasticity of liquids.

The flow of air in a ventilating system is a case where we may treat a gas as incompressible,
for the pressure variation is so small that the change in density is of no importance. However,
for a gas or steam flowing at a high velocity through a long pipeline, the decrease in pressure
may be so high that we cannot ignore the change in density. For an airplane flying at a speed
below 100 m/s, we may consider the air to be of constant density. But as an object moving
through air approaches the velocity of sound, which is of the order of 1200 km/h depending
on temperature, the pressure and density of the air adjacent to the body become materially
different from those of the air at some distance away.

4. Bulk Modulus (Volume Modulus of Elasticity)

Bulk modulus is a measure of the compressibility of a liquid and is required when it is desired
to calculate oil volume changes for high pressure and large system volumes such as forging
pressures or natural frequencies generally caused by the interaction of fluid compressibility
and moving mass. Bulk modulus is analogous to the modulus of elasticity for solids; however,
for fluids, it is defined on a volume basis rather than in terms of the familiar one-dimension
stress–strain relation. The compressibility (a change in volume due to a change in pressure) of
liquid is inversely proportional to its bulk modulus. For liquids, the value of bulk modulus is
1.72 × 106kPa. The volume modulus of mild steel is about 170000 MPa. Taking a typical
value for the volume modulus of cold water to be 2200 MPa, we see that water is about 80
times as compressible as steel. The compressibility of liquids covers a wide range. Mercury,
for example, is approximately 8% as compressible as water, whereas the compressibility of
nitric acid is nearly six times that of water.

Example 1.7

A 500 cm3 sample of oil is to be compressed in a cylinder until its pressure is increased from 1
to 50 atm. If the bulk modulus of oil equals 1750 MPa, find the percentage change in its
volume.

Solution: Given volume (V) = 500 cm3, P1 1 atm, P2  50 atm and B  1750 MPa . We
know that
P
B
V / V
V P 49 1.0131000000
  
V B 1750000000

Reduction in volume = −0.2836 %, which implies that oil is incompressible.

19
 The bulk modulus of pure oil is nearly constant when operating
at a certain temperature and pressure. However, when the oil in-
cludes bubbles of gases, air, or vapors, the bulk modulus of this mix-
ture decreases due to the high compressibility of gases. If the total
volume of mixture is VT, the gas volume is αVT, and the oil volume is
(1 − α)VT, an equivalent bulk modulus Be of the mixture is deduced as
follows:
The compression of gases is governed by

PV n = const

Then, V n dP + nV n −1 P dV = 0

dP
or Bg = − = nP
dV/V

Assuming that the oil-gas mixture is subjected to a pressure vari-

ation ΔP, then the variations of volumes are

αVT
ΔVg = − ΔP
nP

(1 − α)VT
ΔVo = − ΔP
B

ΔP
Be = −
(Δ Vo + Δ Vg )/VT

nBP
Thus, Be =
nP(1 − α) + Bα

and Be nP
B= =
B nP(1 − α) + Bα

or 1 α 1−α
= +
Be nP B

where α = Ratio of gases volume to the total volume, at atmospheric

pressure
n = Polytropic exponent = 1 to 1.4
P = System absolute pressure, Pa
ΔVg = Change in gas volume due to compressibility, m3
ΔV o = Change in oil volume due to compressibility, m3
Be = Equivalent bulk modulus of mixture, Pa

20
FIGURE 1.5 Effect of entrained free air and operating pressure on the bulk
modulus of a typical mineral-based hydraulic oil, calculated.

The nondimensional bulk modulus, B = Be /B, was calculated.

The calculation results are plotted in Fig. 1.5. This figure shows
that the entrained air reduces considerably the bulk modulus of
the mixture. Moreover, the entrained air results in noise, shuddering
movements, and a large rise in temperature, in addition to the diesel
effect. The diesel effect is the spontaneous combustion of an air-gas
mixture. If the mineral oil, containing air bubbles, is rapidly
compressed, the air bubbles become so hot that a spontane-ous
combustion may occur. Hence, at specific points, a large increase in
temperature and pressure occurs, which may damage the seals on
the hydraulic components. In addition, the age of the fluid will be
reduced.

21
Example 1.8

A positive displacement pump with a delivery of 1 L/min is fed into a pipe with a total volume
of 1 L. If the end of the pipe is suddenly blocked, calculate the rise in pressure after 1 s. (The
bulk modulus of the fluid being pumped may be taken as 2000 MPa; neglect any change in the
volume of the pipe.)

Solution: Bulk modulus is given as

P
B
V / V

where ΔP is the change in pressure, ΔV is the change in volume and V is the original volume.
Now

1
V  Pump flow in 1 s  L
60

Hence,

 V  2000
P  B    33.3 MPa
 V  60

This rapid rise in pressure illustrates the necessity of having some form of control to limit the
rise in pressure in a system should a pump be deadheaded. The control may be built into the
pump or may be an external pressure-limiting device such as a relief valve.

Example 1.9

An 8 L sample of oil is compressed in a cylinder until pressure increases from 0.7 to 2.7 MPa.
If the bulk modulus equals 80 MPa, find the change in the volume of oil.

Solution: Given initial volume V = 8 L = 0.008 m3 and change in pressure ∆P =2.7 − 0.7 = 2
MPa. Bulk modulus is given by

P
B
V / V
So, change in volume

 P   2 3
∆V = −V   = −0.008   = −0.002 m
 B   80 

5. Reynolds Number

It is a dimensionless number referred to as a compressible or incompressible fluid flow. It was

postulated by a British engineer Osborne Reynolds. The Reynolds number set criteria by
which the fluid flow regime may be distinguished:

22
 v D
Re 


where is the density (kg/m3), v is the velocity of fluid (m/s), D is the diameter of the pipe (m)
and µ is the absolute or dynamic viscosity (Pa s or ms/m2).

6. Types of Fluid Flow

Based on the range of Reynolds number, the flow of fluid is classified as laminar
flow, transition flow and turbulent flow.

1. Laminar flow: In the laminar flow region, the flow is characterized by the smooth motion
of the laminae or layers. When there is no macroscopic mixing of adjacent fluid layers for the
flow in the laminar regimes, the Reynolds number is less than 2000.

2. Turbulent flow: In the turbulent flow region, the flow is characterized by the random
motion of the fluid particles in three dimensions in addition to mean motion. There is
considerable macroscopic mixing of adjacent fluid layers and significant velocity fluctuations.
For the turbulent flow, the Reynolds number is greater than 4000.

3. Transition flow: In the transition flow region, the flow is in transition between laminar and
turbulent flows. The Reynolds number lies between 2000 and 4000.

7. Ideal Fluid

An ideal fluid is usually defined as a fluid in which there is no friction; it is inviscid (its
viscosity is zero). Thus, the internal forces at any section within it are always normal to the
section, even during motion. So these forces are purely pressure forces. Although such a fluid
does not exist in reality, many fluids approximate frictionless flow at a sufficient distance
from solid boundaries, and so we can often conveniently analyze their behaviors by assuming
an ideal fluid.

In a real fluid, either liquid or gas, tangential or shearing forces always develop whenever
there is a motion relative to body, thus creating fluid friction, because these forces oppose the
motion of one particle past another. These friction forces give rise to a fluid property called
viscosity.

8. Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear or angular deformation. Motor
oil, for example, has a high viscosity and resistance to shear; it is cohesive and feels “sticky,”
whereas gasoline has a low viscosity. The friction forces in a flowing fluid result from the
cohesion and momentum which are interchangeable between molecules. The viscosity
of typical fluids depends on temperature. Figure 1.6 indicates how the viscosities of
typical fluids depend on temperature. As the temperature increases, the viscosities of all
liquids decrease, whereas the viscosities of all gases increase. This is because of the
force of cohesion, which diminishes with temperature, predominates with liquids, whereas
with gases,

23
the predominating factor is the interchange of molecules between the layers of different
velocities. Thus, a rapidly moving gas molecule shifting into a slower moving layer tends to
speed up the latter, and a slow-moving molecule entering a faster moving layer tends to slow
down the faster moving layer. This molecular interchange sets up a shear or produces a
friction force between adjacent layers. At higher temperatures, molecular activity increases,
thereby causing the viscosity of gases to increase with temperature.

Gases
Viscosity

Liquids

Temperature

Figure 1.6 Trends in viscosity variation with temperature.

Consider a classic case of two parallel plates (Fig. 1.7), sufficiently large that we can neglect
edge conditions, a small distance Y apart, with fluid filling the space in between. The lower
plate is stationary whereas the upper one moves parallel to it with a velocity U due to a force
F corresponding to some area A of the moving plate.

F,U
Upper Boundary
dy Velocity
Y
profile Lower Boundary
y

u du

(a)

24
 U

F, U

u Velocity Profile
Y profile
y Slope = dy/dx

(b)

Figure 1.7 Velocity profiles across parallel plates: (a) Linear (no bulk flow) and
linear (bulk flow to right).
(b)
At the boundaries, the particles of a fluid adhere to the walls, so their velocities are
zero relative to the walls. This is the so-called no-slip condition that occurs in all viscous
fluids. Thus, in Fig. 1.7, the fluid velocities must be U when in contact with the plate at
the upper boundary and zero at the lower boundary. We call the form of velocity variation
with distance between these two extremes, as depicted in Fig. 1.7, a velocity profile. If
the separation distance Y is not too large, the velocity profile is linear, as shown in Fig.
1.7(a). If, in addition, there is a small amount of bulk fluid transport between the plates,
which could result from pressure-fed lubrication, for example, the velocity profile becomes
the sum of the previous linear profile and a parabolic profile as shown in Fig. 1.7(b); the
parabolic additions to the linear profile are zero at the walls and maximum at the centerline.
The behavior of the fluid is much as if it is consisted of a series of thin layers, each of
which slips a little relative to the next.

For a large class of fluids under the conditions of Fig. 1.7(a), experiments have shown that

AU
F 
Y
We see from similar triangles that we can replace U/Y by the velocity gradient du/dy. If we
now introduce a constant of proportionality µ, we can express the shearing stress τ between
any two thin sheets of fluid by

F U du
 µ µ (1.8)
A Y dy

This equation is called Newton’s equation of viscosity, since Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
first suggested it. Although better known for this formulation of the fundamental laws of
motion and gravity for the development of differential calculus, Newton, an English
mathematician and natural philosopher, also performed many pioneering studies in fluid
mechanics. In transposed form, Eq. (1.8) defines the proportionality constant

τ
µ
du / dy

25
where µ is known as the coefficient of viscosity, the dynamic viscosity or simply the
viscosity of the fluid. “Absolute viscosity” shall be used to help differentiate it from another
viscosity that will be discussed shortly.

In the beginning of this chapter, we noted that the distinction between a solid and a fluid lies
in the manner in which each can resist shearing stress. A further distinction among
various kinds of fluids and solids will be clarified by referring to Fig. 1.8. In the case of a
solid, shear stress depends on the magnitude of the deformation, but Eq. (1.8) shows that in
many fluids, shear stress is proportional to the time rate of deformation.

Elastic solid
Shear stress ()

Newtonian fluid

Non-Newtonian fluid
Ideal plastic
Ideal fluid

du/dy

Figure 1.8 Velocity profiles – linear (bulk flow to right).

A fluid for which the constant of proportionality does not change with the rate of deformation
is called a Newtonian fluid, and this is plotted as a straight line in Fig. 1.8. The slope of this
line is the absolute viscosity µ. The ideal fluid with no viscosity falls on the horizontal axis,
whereas a true elastic solid is plotted on the vertical axis. A plastic that sustains a certain
amount of stress before suffering a plastic flow corresponds to a straight line intersecting the
vertical axis at the yield stress. There are certain non-Newtonian fluids in which µ varies with
the rate of deformation. These are relatively uncommon in engineering usage, so we restrict
the remainder of this text to the common fluids that under normal conditions obey Newton’s
equation of viscosity. Note that

Dimension of τ (N / m2 ) N s
Dimension of µ    2
Dimension of (du / dy ) s1 m

A widely used unit of viscosity in the metric system is the poise (P) named after Jean Louis
Poiseuille (1799–1869). Poiseuille, a French anatomist, was one of the first investigators of
viscosity. A poise = 0.10 Ns/m2. A centipoise (=0.01 P) is frequently a more convenient unit.
It has a further advantage in that the viscosity of water at 20.2°C is 1 cP. Thus, the value of
viscosity in centipoise is an indication of the viscosity of a fluid relative to that of water at
20.2°C.

26
In many problems involving viscosity, the absolute viscosity is divided by density. This ratio
defines the kinematic viscosity,  <COMP: Greek letter nu>, so called because force is not
involved, the only dimensions being length and time, as in kinematics. Thus,


 (1.9)


Usually, the kinematic viscosity (  ) is measured in m2/s. Previously, in the metric system, the
common units were cm2/s, also called the stoke (St), after Sir George Stokes (1819–1903), an
English physicist and pioneering investigator of viscosity. Many physicists found centistoke
(cSt) a more convenient unit to work with.

A comparison of kinematic viscosities of fluids is shown in Fig. 1.9(a) for low operating
pressures. A more detailed characteristic of an ISO 32 mineral oil is shown in Fig. 1.9(b),
illustrating the important effect of both temperature and pressure. The data shown in Fig. 1.10
make it clear that experimental testing must specify both pressure and temperature so that
related studies may be compared with at least a minimum of confidence. It is common that
computer dynamic simulations of hydraulic systems usually assume a mean temperature in a
sense that the temperature does not vary significantly during the milliseconds to second of
transient behavior. However, it may be necessary to model the effect of pressure on viscosity
if large fluctuations in pressure are expected, although its effect may well be of secondary
significance.

(b)
300

250 700 bar

200 350 bar

Viscosity (cSt)

Atmos
150

100

50

0 --------------------------------------------------
0 50 100 150

Temperature (oC)

Figure 1.9 ypical kinematic viscosities for a range of fluids. (a) Some fire-resistant fluids.
(b) An ISO 32 mineral oil.

27
Example 1.10

A 4.5 N force moves a piston inside a cylinder at a velocity of 3 m/s as shown in Fig.
1.10. The piston of 10.16 cm diameter is centrally located in the cylinder having an
internal diameter of 10.17 cm. An oil film separates the piston from the cylinder. Find the
absolute viscosity of the oil.

50 mm

F = 4.5 N Piston v = 3 m/s

Figure 1.10

Solution: Given force on the piston = 4.5 N, piston diameter (d) =10.16 cm, velocity (v) = 3
m/s, cylinder diameter (D) = 10.17 cm and length (L) = 5 cm. Using Newton’s law of
viscosity we have

du
 
dy

For small gaps,

Av
F  (1.10)
y

Now we have

A   DL =  10.16 5  159.6 cm 2

v  3m/s  300 cm / s

D  d 10.17  10.16
y   0.005 cm
2 2

Substituting in Eq. (1.10) we get

 159.6  300
4.5 
0.005

28
 4.7 107 N s 4.7 107 N s
   4.7 103 N s / m2
cm2 104 m2

Since 1 N = 105 dynes, we get

4.7 107 N s 4.7 107 105 dynes s

 
cm2 cm2
 0.047 poise  4.7 centipoise

Now

Absolute viscosity (µ) in cP = Specific gravity (0.89) × Kinetic viscosity () in cS

  = 4.7/0.89 = 5.28 cS

Example 1.12

In Fig. 1.11, oil of the absolute viscosity µ fills the small gap of thickness

Y. Neglecting fluid stress exerted on the circular underside, obtain an expression for the
(a)
torque T required to rotate the cone at a constant speed ω.

(b) What is the rate of heat generation, in J/s, if the absolute viscosity of oil is 0.20 Ns/m2, 
= 45º, a = 45 mm, b = 60 mm, Y = 0.2 mm and the speed of rotation is 90 rpm?

Figure 1.12

Solution: We have

(a) We have U = r. For small gap Y we have

29
 du U  r
 
dy Y Y

µdu µ r
 
dy Y

2 rdy
dA  2 rds 
cos 

 r (2 rdy)
dF  dA  
Y (cos  )

2 3
dT  r dF  r dy (where r  tan )
Y cos 

2 tan 3  3
 dT  y dy
Y cos 

Integrating we get

a b
2 tan 3 
 y dy
3
T
Y cos  a

2 tan 3 
T  [(a  b)4  a 4 ]
4Y cos 

(b) We have

[(a  b)4  a4 ]  (0.105 m)4  (0.045 m)4  0.0001175 m4

ω = (90 rev/min)(2π radians/rev)(1min/60s) = 3π rad/s

Heat generation rate = Power =T
2  2 tan 3 
P [(a  b) 4  a 4 ]
4Y cos 
2 (0.20 Ns/m 2 )(3 s 1 ) 2 (1)3 (0.0001175 m 4 )

4(2 104 m) cos 45

= 23.2 Nm/s = 23 .2 J/s

30
9. Viscosity Index

The viscosity of hydraulic oils decreases with increase in temperature. Hence, the viscosity of
the given oil must be represented at a special temperature. The variation of viscosity with
respect to temperature is different for different oils.

The viscosity index (VI) is a relative measure of the change in the viscosity of an oil with
respect to a change in temperature. An oil having a low VI is one that exhibits a large change
in viscosity with a small change in temperature. A high VI oil does not change appreciably
with a change in temperature.
The VI of any hydraulic oil can be calculated as follows:

L U
VI  100 (1.11)
LH
where L is the viscosity in SUS (Saybolt universal viscosity)of a 0 VI oil at 100°F, U is the
viscosity in SUS of an unknown VI oil at 100°F and H is the viscosity in SUS of a 100 VI oil
at 100 °F. The VI of an unknown oil is determined from tests. A reference oil of 0 VI and a
reference oil of 100 VI are selected. The viscosities of three oils (L, U and H) are
then measured at 100°F.This is shown schematically in Fig. 1.12.

A high VI oil is a good all-weather-type oil for use in outdoor machines operating in extreme
temperature swings. For a hydraulic system, the oil temperature does not change appreciably;
hence, the VI of the oil is not crucial.

Zero VI oil

L
Unknown VI oil
Viscosity (SUS)

100 VI oil

100 210
Temperature (

Figure 1.12 Viscosity index.

31
Example 1.13

A sample of oil with viscosity index of 70 is tested with a 0 VI oil and a 100 VI oil whose
viscosity values at 100°F are 375 and 125 SUS, respectively. What is the viscosity of the
sample oil at 100°F in units of SUS?

Solution: We know that

L U
VI  100
LH

where L is the viscosity of 0 VI oil at 100F, H is the viscosity of 100 VI oil at 100F, and U
is the required viscosity in SUS So,

375  U
70  100
375  125

U  200 SUS

Example 1.14

A sample oil is tested with a 0 VI oil and a 100 VI oil whose viscosity values at 38°C are 400
and 150 SUS, respectively. If the viscosity of the sample oil at 38°C is 200 SSU, what is the
viscosity index of the sample oil?

Solution: We know that

L U 400  200
VI of the sample oil = × 100 = × 100
LH 400  150

200
= × 100 = 80 VI
250

32
 Chapter 3
ENERGY LOSSES IN HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Ideal and real flows:

In the flow of a real fluid, the velocity adjacent to the wall is zero; it increases rapidly within
a short distance from the wall and produces a velocity profile such as shown in Figure1.1.b

(a) (b)
Figure 1.1 Typical velocity profile: (a) Ideal fluid.(b) Real fluid

Laminar and Turbulent Flows

There are two types of flow in pipes:

1. Laminar flow:This is also known as streamline or viscous flow and is illustrated in Fig.1.2.

F, U

Velocity
Y
profile
y

Figure 1.2 Laminar flow

2.Turbulent flow: It is illustrated in Fig.1.3. It is characterized by a fluid flowing in random
way. The movement of particles fluctuates up and down in a direction perpendicular as well as
parallel to the mean flow direction.

Figure 1.3 Turbulent flow

33
1.3 Reynolds Number

Considering the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces, the parameter obtained is called
the Reynolds number.

vD 
Re 

Where v is the fluid velocity,D is the inside diameter of the pipe,  is the fluid density and  is
the absolute viscosity of the fluid.

1. If Re is less than 2000, the flow is laminar.

2. If Re is greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent.
3. Reynolds number between 2000 and 4000 covers a critical zone between laminar and
turbulent flow.

1.4 Darcy–Weisbach Equation

If a fluid flows through a length of pipe and pressure is measured at two stations along the pipe,
one finds that the pressure decreases in the direction of flow. This pressure decrease is mainly
due to the friction of the fluid against the pipe wall. Friction is the main cause of energy losses in
fluid power systems.

Head losses in a long pipe in which the velocity distribution has become fully established
or uniform along its length can be found by Darcy’s equation as

 L  v 
2
HL  f    
 D   2g 
where f is the Darcy friction factor, L is the length of pipe (m), D is the inside diameter of the pipe
(m), v is the average velocity (m/s) and g is the acceleration of gravity (m/s2).

1.5 Frictional Losses in Laminar Flow

Darcy’s equation can be used to find head losses in pipes experiencing laminar flow by noting
that for laminar flow, the friction factor equals the constant 64 divided by the Reynolds number:

64  L   v 2 
HL    
Re  D   2 g 

34
1.6 Frictional Losses in Turbulent Flow

Darcy’s equation can be used to find head losses in pipes experiencing turbulent flow. However, the
friction factor in turbulent flow is a function of Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the
pipe.

1.6.1 Effect of Pipe Roughness

The relative roughness of pipe is defined as the ratio of inside surface roughness ( )
to the diameter:

Relative roughness 
D
Table 1.1 gives typical values of absolute roughness for various types of pipes. Table 1.1

Typical values of absolute roughness for various types of pipe

Type of Pipe  (mm)
Glass or plastic Smooth
Drawn tube 0.0015
Wrought iron 0.046
Commercial steel 0.046
Asphalted cast iron 0.12
Galvanized iron 0.15
Cast iron 0.26
Riveted steel 1.8

To determine the values of the friction factor for use in Darcy’s equation, we use the Moody
diagram. If we know the relative roughness and Reynolds number, the friction factor can be
determined easily. At the left end of the chart (Reynolds number less than 2000), the straight
line curves give the relationship for laminar flow:

1.7 Frictional Losses in Valves and Fittings

For many fluid power applications, the majority of the energy losses occur in valves and fittings
in which there is a change in the cross-section of flow path and a change in the direction of the
flow. Tests have shown that head losses in valves and fittings are proportional to the square of
the velocity of the fluid:
 v2 
HL  K  
 2g 
Where K is called the loss coefficient of valve or fittings. K factors for commonly used valves
are given in Table1.2.

35
 Reynolds Number (Re)

FIGURE Moody’s diagram

36
Table 1.2 K factors for commonly used valves

Valve or Fitting K Factor

Globe valve Wide open 10
1/2 open 12.5
Gate valve Wide open 0.20
3/4 open 0.90
1/2 open 4.5
1/4 open 24
Return bend 2.2
Standard tee 1.8
Standard elbow 0.90
45 elbow 0.42
90 elbow 0.75
Ball check valve 4
Union socket 0.04

1.8 Equivalent Length Technique

We can find a length of pipe that for the same flow rate would produce the same head loss as a
valve or fitting. This length of pipe, which is called the equivalent length of a valve or fitting,
can be found by equating head losses across the valve or fitting and the pipe:
 v2   L  v 
2
K   f   
 2g   D   2g 
Thisgives
 KD 
Le   
 f 
where Le is the equivalent length of a valve or fitting.

Example 1.4
For the hydraulic system shown in the Fig. 1.4, the following data are given:
(a) A pump adds 2.984 kW to a fluid (pump hydraulic power = 2.984 kW).
(b) The elevation difference between stations 1 and 2 is 6.096 m.
(c) The pump flow rate is 0.00158 m3/s.
(d) The specific gravity of oil is 0.9.
(e) The kinematic viscosity of oil is 75 cS.
(f) The pipe diameter is 19.05 mm.
(g) Pipe lengths are as follows: 0.305, 1.22 and 4.88 m.
Find the pressure available at the inlet to the hydraulic motor. The pressure at the oil top surface
level in the hydraulic tank is atmospheric (0 Pa gauge).

37
 Load
Coupling

Hydraulic Motor 2

Breather Elevation
Hydraulic pump Prime mover

Figure 1.4

Solution:
Kinematic viscosity = 75 cS = 75 × 10−6 m2/s
We write the energy equation between stations 1 and 2:
p1 v12 p v2
Z1    H p  H m  H L  Z2  2  2
 2g  2g
Since there is no hydraulic motor between stations 1 and 2,
P
H m  0, v1  0 and 1  0

as oil tank is vented to the atmosphere. Now,
Z 2  Z1  6.096 m
The velocity at point 2 is
Q (m3 /s) 0.00158
v2    5.54 m/s
A (m2 )  (0.01905)2
4
The velocity head at point 2 is
v22 5.542
  1.57 m
2 g 2  9.81
Also,
vD vD vD 5.54  0.01905
Re      1400
 /  75 106
So the flow is laminar. The friction is
64 64
f    0.0457
Re 1400

38
We can now find the head loss due to friction between stations 1 and 2:
fLp v 2
HL  
Dp 2 g
where
 KD 
Lp  4.88  0.305  1.22   
 f std elbow
 0.9  0.01905 
 6.41   
 0.4057 
 6.79 m
0.0457  6.79
and HL  1.57  25.6 m
0.01905
Next use Bernoulli’s equation to solve for P2 /  :
p1v12 p2 v22
Z1    H p  H m  H L  Z2  
 2g  2g
p2 v22 p1
  ( Z1  Z 2 )  H p   HL 
  2g
 6.096  H p  0  25.6  1.57
 H p  33.2
The pump head is given by
P (W)
HP 
γ (N/m3 )  Q (m3 /s)
Now γ  8817 N/m3 and P  2984 W . So
2984 W
HP   214.3 m
8817 (N/m )  0.00158 (m3 /s)
3

Now

p2
 H p  33.2

 214.3  33.2
 181.1m of oil
Finally, we solve for the pressure at station 2:
p2  181.18817  1600000  1600 kPa

Example 1.5
The oil tank for a hydraulic system (shown in Fig. 1.5) has the following details:
(a) The oil tank is air pressurized at 68.97 kPa gauge pressure.
(b) The inlet to the pump is 3.048 m below the oil level.
(c) The pump flow rate is 0.001896 m3/s.
(d) The specific gravity of oil is 0.9.
(e) The kinematic viscosity of oil is 100 cS.
(f) Assume that the pressure drop across the strainer is 6.897 kPa.

39
 (g) The pipe diameter is 38.1 mm.
(h) The total length of the pipe is 6.097 m.
Find the pressure at station 2.

Three standard elbows (A, B and C)

A
B

Breather 38 mm (ID)

1
Pipe length = 6m

CC 3m

Pump

Figure 1.5
Solution: Given p1 = 68.97kPa, ,Z1−Z2 = 3m, Q = 0.001896m3/s, ps = 6.897kPa, SG = 0.9,
Dp = 38.1mm,  =100 cS = 100 × 106 m2/s, Lp= 6m. We have to find P2. This problem
can be solved by the application of modified Bernoulli’s (energy) equation:
p1 v12 p v2
Z1    H p  H m  H L  Z2  2  2
 2g  2g
Also, given
Z1  Z 2  3 m
We can write H m  0, as there being no motor between points1 and 2, the motor head is zero.
Assuming the oil tank area (cross-section) to be large, the velocity at point 1 is v1  0 (negligible
velocity). To solve forP2, let us compute and substitute different quantities into the energy
equation.
The pressure head at station 1 is
p1 68970
  7.82 m
 8817
The velocity at point 2 is
Q (m3 /s) 0.001896
v2    1.66 m/s
2
A (m )  (0.03812 )
4

The velocity head at point 2 is

40
 v22 1.662
  0.141 m The Reynolds number is
2 g 2  9.81
vD vD vD 1.66  0.0381
Re      632
 /  100 106
So the flow is laminar.The friction is
64 64
f    0.101
Re 632
Point 2 is before the pump; therefore, H p  0.
We can now find the head loss due to friction between stations 1 and 2
fLp v2
HL    Head loss across the strainer
Dp 2g
Three standard elbows are used:
 KD 
Lp  6.097  3  
 f std elbow
 0.9  0.0381 
 6.097  3    7.12
 0.101 
Pressure drop across the strainer is 6.9 kPa. The head loss across strainer can be calculated as
pstrainer 6900
Head loss across strainer    0.782 m
 8817
Now use Bernoulli’s theorem
p1 v12 p v2
Z1    H p  H m  H L  Z2  2  2
 2g  2g
p2 p1 v22
  (Z1  Z 2 )   HL 
  2g
p2
  3.048  7.82  3.44  0.141

= 7.29m of oil
Finally, we solve for p2 :
p2
 7.29

So p2  7.29  8817  64300 Pa  64.3kPa
If point 2 is after the pump, the pump head is given by
P (W)
Hp 
γ (N/m3 )  Q (m3 /s)
Here γ  8817 N/m3 . We know that
Power( P)  p1  Q
 P  68.97 (kN/m3 )  0.001896 (m3 /s)  0.13 kW

So, pump head is

41
 0.13  103 W
Hp   7.7 m
8817 (N/m3 )  0.001896 (m3 /s)
We also know that
p1 v12 p v2
Z1    H p  H m  H L  Z2  2  2
 2g  2g
p2 p1 v22
  (Z1  Z 2 )   HL  Hp 
  2g
p2
  3.048  7.82  3.44  7.7  0.141  15m of oil

Finally, we solve for p2:
p2
 15

 p2  15  8817  132255 Pa  132.26 kPa

Example 1.6
For the system shown in Fig. 1.6, the following new data are applicable:
Pipe 1: length = 8m, ID = 25mm
Pipe 2: length =8m, ID = 25mm
The globe valve is 25mm in size and is wide open.
SG =0.90 kinematic viscosity (  0.0001 m2 /s) and Q =0.0025 m3 /s
Find p2  p1 in units of bars.

Pipe 1 Pipe 2

Qoil =40 GPM

Globe
25 mm dia valve 25 mm dia
8 m long 8 m long

Figure 1.6

Solution: The velocity can be calculated as

Q (m3 /s) 0.0025
v   5.09 m/s
2
A (m )  (0.0252 )
4
We know that

42
 vD vD vD 5.09  0.025
Re      1272
 /  0.0001
So the flow is laminar. Now friction factor is
64 64
f    0.0503
Re 1272
Also, head loss is
f Lp v2
HL  
Dp 2g
Now

 KD   10  0.025 
Lp  8  8     16     21 m
 f std elbow  0.0503 
K = 10 for globe valve (fully open). So

0.0503  21 5.092
HL   = 55.8 m of oil
0.025 2  9.81
Now
p
 HL

 p   H L
 (1000  0.9  9.81)  55.8
 493000 N/m 2
So

p2  p1  p
 493000 N/m 2
 493 kPa  4.93 bar

Example 1.7
For the system shown in Fig. 1.7, the following data are applicable: P1  7 bar, Q =0.002 m3 /s .
Pipe: total length = 15m and ID = 38mm
Oil: SG =0.90 and kinematic viscosity (  0.0001 m2 /s)
Solve for p2 in units of bars.

43
 Motor

Pipe length = 3m

Pump 90˚ elbow

Q
Breather 38 mm (ID)
Pipe length = 2m

90˚ elbow
Load force
C
Pipe length = 4 m Pipe length= 6m

Figure 1.7

Solution: The velocity V is

Q (m3 /s) 0.002
v   1.76 m/s
2
A (m )  (0.038)2
4
We know that
vD vD vD 1.76  0.038
Re      669
 /  0.0001
So the flow is laminar. The friction is
64 64
f    0.096
Re 669
Now we can calculate the equivalent length ( Le ) as

 KD   KD 
Le  Lpipe     2 
 f globe valve  f 90 elbow
 10  0.038   0.75  0.038 
 15     2 
 0.096   0.096 
 15  4  0.6  19.6 m
Head loss due to friction is given by

0.096  19.6 1.762

HL    7.82 m of oil
0.038 2  9.81
Now we can express the head loss due to friction in terms as pressure using

44
 p
 HL

 p   H L  (1000  0.9  9.81)  7.82
 690000 N/m2  0.69 bar
From the pressure drop we can calculated p2 as
p1  p2  p  0.69 bar
 7  p2  0.69 bar
 p2  6.31 bar

45
 Chapter 4

Hydraulic Pumps

4.1 Pumping Theory

A positive displacement hydraulic pump is a device used for converting mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy. It is driven by a prime mover such as an electric motor. It basically performs
two functions. First, it creates a partial vacuum at the pump inlet port. This vacuum enables
atmospheric pressure to force the fluid from the reservoir into the pump. Second,the mechanical
action of the pump traps this fluid within the pumping cavities,transports it through the pump
and forces it into the hydraulic system. It is important to note that pumps create flow not pressure.
Pressure is created by the resistance to flow.

Outlet Outlet
Low pressure Outlet valve is High pressure
closed Outlet valve is
Rod moves outward Rod moves inward open

Inlet
valve is
closed
Breather

Strainer

Suction stroke Delivery stroke

Figure 1.1 Illustration of pumping theory

All pumps operate by creating a partial vacuum at the intake, and a mechanical force at the
outlet that induces flow. This action can be best described by reference to a simple piston
pump shown in Fig.1.1.

1. As the piston moves to the left, a partial vacuum is created in the pump chamber
thatholds the outlet valve in place against its seat and induces flow from the reservoir
that is at a higher (atmospheric) pressure.As this flow is produced, the inlet valve is
temporarily displaced by the force of fluid, permitting the flow into the pump
chamber (suction stroke).
2. When the piston moves to the right, the resistance at the valves causes an immediate
increase in the pressure that forces the inlet valve against its seat and opens the outlet
valve thereby permitting the fluid to flow into the system. If the outlet port opens
directly to the atmosphere, the only pressure developed is the one required to open the
outlet valve(delivery stroke).

46
4.2 Gear Pumps

Gear pumps are less expensive but limited to pressures below 140 bar. It is noisy in operation
than either vane or piston pumps. Gear pumps are invariably of fixed displacement type,
which means that the amount of fluid displaced for each revolution of the drive shaft is
theoretically constant.

External Gear Pumps

External gear pumps are the most popular hydraulic pumps in low-pressure ranges due
to their long operating life, high efficiency and low cost. They are generally used in a
simple machine. The most common form of external gear pump is shown in Figs. 1.2
and 1.3 It consist of a pump housing in which a pair of precisely machined meshing
gears runs with minimal radial and axial clearance. One of the gears, called a driver,is
driven by a prime mover. The driver drives another gear called a follower. As the teeth of the
two gears separate, the fluid from the pump inlet gets trapped between the rotating gear
cavities and pump housing. The trapped fluid is then carried around the periphery of the
pump casing and delivered to outlet port. The teeth of precisely meshed gears provide
almost a perfect seal between the pump inlet and the pump outlet. When the outlet flow is
resisted, pressure in the pump outlet chamber builds up rapidly and forces the gear
diagonally outward against the pump inlet. When the system pressure increases, imbalance
occurs. This imbalance increases mechanical friction and the bearing load of the two gears.
Hence, the gear pumps are operated to the maximum pressure rating stated by the
manufacturer.
It is important to note that the inlet is at the point of separation and the outlet at the point of
mesh. These units are not reversible if the internal bleeds for the bearings are to be drilled to
both the inlet and outlet sides. So that the manufacturer’s literature should be checked
before attempting a reversed installation. If they are not drilled in this manner, the bearing
may be permanently damaged as a result of inadequate lubrications.

Advantages and disadvantages of gear pumps

The advantages are as follows:

1.They are self-priming.
2.They give constant delivery for a given speed.
3. They are compact and light in weight.
4. Volumetric efficiency is high.

The disadvantages are as follows:

1. The liquid to be pumped must be clean, otherwise it will damage pump.

2. Variable speed drives are required to change the delivery.
3. If they run dry, parts can be damaged because the fluid to be pumped is used as lubricant.

47
Expression for the theoretical flow rate of an external gear pump
Let
Do =the outside diameter of gear teeth
Di= the inside diameter of gear teeth
L =the width of gear teeth
N=the speed of pump in RPM
VD=the displacement of pump in m3/rev
m= module of gear
z=number of gear teeth
= pressure angle

Volume displacement is


VD  ( Do 2  Di 2 ) L
4
Di  Do  2(Addendum  Dendendum)

Theoretical discharge is
Figure 1.2 Terms of gears
QT (m3 /min)  VD (m3 /rev)  N (rev/min)

If the gear is specified by its module and number of teeth, then the theoretical discharge can
be found by

   2 cos 2 20   3
QT  2 Lm2 N  z  1    m /min
  12 

Figure 1.3 Operation of an external gear pump

48
 Example 1.3
A gear pump has an outside diameter of 80mm, inside diameter of 55mm and a width of
25mm. If the pump speed is 1600 RPM and the rated discharge is 95 LPM what is the
volumetric displacement and theoretical discharge.

Solution: We have
Outside diameter Do  80 mm
Inside diameter Di  55 mm
L  25mm

QA = 95 x 10-3 L/min


VD  ( Do 2  Di 2 )L
4


VD   (0.0802  0.0552 )  0.025  6.627 105 m3 / rev
4

Theoretical flow rate


QT   ( Do 2  Di 2 )  L  N
4

=  (0.0802  0.0552 )  0.025 1600
4
= 0.106 m3 /min

Example 1.4
Calculate the theoretical delivery of a gear pump. Module of the gear teeth is 6mm and width
of gear teeth is 25mm. Number of teeth on driver gear is 18 and pressure angle of the gear is
20 . Pump speed is 1000 RPM. Volumetric efficiency is 90%.

Solution: If the gear is specified by its module and number of teeth, then the theoretical
discharge can be found by
   2 cos   3
QT  2 Lm 2 N  z  1  m /min
  12  
   2 cos 2 20   3
 2 (0.025)(6 103 ) 2 1000  18  1  m /min
  12 
 0.1118 m3 /min

49
Example 1.5
Calculate the theoretical delivery of a gear pump. Module of the gear teeth is 6mm and width
of gear teeth is 65mm. Number of teeth on driver gear is 16 and pressure angle of the gear is
20 . Pump speed is 1600 RPM. Outer diameter of gear is 108 mm and Dedendum circle
diameter is 81 mm. Volumetric efficiency is 88%at 7 MPa.

Solution: If the gear is specified by its module and number of teeth, then the theoretical
discharge can be found by
   2 cos 2 20   3
QT  2 Lm 2 N  z  1    m /min
  12 
   2 0.9392   3
 2 (0.065)(6 103 ) 2 1600  16  1    m /min
  12 
 0.416 m3 /min

Alternatively we can use


QT   (0.1082  0.0812 )  0.065 1600  0.416 m3 /rev
4

50
4.3 Piston Pumps
Piston pumps are of the following two types:
1. Axial piston pump:These pumps are of two designs:
 Bent-axis-type piston pump.
 Swash-plate-type piston pump.
2. Radial piston pump.

Bent-Axis-Type Piston Pump

Schematic diagram and detailed cut section of bent axis type piston pump is shown in
Fig.1.4.a. It contains a cylinder block rotating with a drive shaft. However,the centerline of the
cylinder block is set at an offset angle relative to the centerline of the drive shaft. The
cylinder block contains a number of pistons arranged along a circle. The piston rods are
connected to the drive shaft flange by a ball and socket joints. The pistons are forced in and
out of their bores as the distance between the drive shaft flange and cylinder block changes.
A universal link connects the cylinder block to the drive shaft to provide alignment and
positive drive. The volumetric displacement of the pump depends on the offset angle. No
flow is produced when the cylinder block is centerlined. can vary from 0to a maximum
of about 30. For a fixed displacement, units are usually provided with 23 or 30 offset
angles.
Swash-Plate-Type Piston Pump
Schematic diagram of swash plate type piston pump is shown in Fig. 1.5.b. In this type, the
cylinder block and drive shaft are located on the same centerline. The pistons are connected
to a shoe plate that bears against an angled swash plate. As the cylinder rotates,the pistons
reciprocate piston shoes follow the angled surface of the swash plate. The outlet and inlet
ports are located in the valve plate so that the pistons pass the inlet as they are being pulled out
and pass the outlet as they are being forced back in. This type of pump can also be designed to
have a variable displacement capability. The maximum swash plate angle is limited to 17.5°
by construction.

a. Bent-axis pump b. Swash-plate pump

Figure 1.5 Operation of bent-axis and swash-plate-type piston pumps

51
Volumetric Displacement and Theoretical Flow Rate of an Axial Piston Pump Figure1.6
gives schematic diagram of stroke change with respect to offset angle.
Let θ be an offset angle, S the piston stroke in m, D the piston circle diameter, Y the number of

pistons, A the piston area inm2, N the piston speed in RPM and Qt the theoretical flow rate in
m3/min.

(Maximum displacement)

(Partial displacement)

(No displacement)
(No stroke)

Figure 1.6 Stroke changes with offset angle From a right-angled triangle ABC

BC S
tan   
AB D
 S  D  tan  (1.3)
The displacement volume of one piston = AS m3
Total displacement volume of Y number of pistons = YAS m3
VD  YAS (1.4)
From Eqs. (1.3) and (1.4), we have
VD  YAD tan  m3 /rev (1.5)
Theoretical flow rate is
Qt  DANY tan  m3 /min

52
Example 1.7
What is the theoretical flow rate from a fixed-displacement axial piston pump with a nine-
bore cylinder operating at 2000 RPM? Each bore has a diameter of 15 mm and stroke is 20
mm.

Solution: Theoretical flow rate is given by

Qt  Volume  RPM Number of pistons

  D 2  S N Y
4
 2000
=  0.0152  0.02  9
4 60
= 10.6 × 103 m3 /s
 1.06 LPS = 63.6 LPM

53
4.4 Comparison of Hydraulic Pumps

Pump design with a wide range of operating characteristics are available. A designer must
select carefully to achieve a circuit design that meets the functional objective while
minimizing total cost which includes both ownership cost and operating cost over the life of
component. Pump selection is important decision in circuit design. Designer must compare
the various options available and then choose the optimum pump. Table 1.2 gives a typical
comparison of all pumps.

The major factor in adopting a pump to a particular system is the system’s overall needs.
It would be wrong to use a pump with high delivery in a system that requires only
a low delivery rate. On the contrary, using a pump that must produce at its peak
continuously just to meet the minimum requirements of the system is equally wrong.
Making either of these mistakes produces a poor system due to excessive initial pump
costs or maintenance cost.

One should use a pump that is suited to the system, whether a gear pump which has
fewer moving precision parts or a piston pump which has many parts fitted to close tolerance
and is therefore more expensive.

Table 1.2

Pressure Discharge(LPM) MaximumSpeed Overall

(Bar) (RPM) Efficiency
Gear pump 20–175 7–570 1800–7000 75–90
Vane pump 20–175 2–950 2000–4000 75–90
Axial piston pump 70–350 2–1700 600–6000 85–95
Radial piston
pump 50–250 20–700 600–1800 80–92

4.5 Pump Performance

The performance of a pump is a function of the precision of its manufacture. An ideal pump
is one having zero clearance between all mating parts. Because this is not possible, working
clearances should be as small as possible while maintaining proper oil films for lubrication
between rubbing parts. The performance of a pump is determined by the following
efficiencies:
1. Volumetric efficiency (  v ):It is the ratio of actual flow rate of the pump to the
theoretical flow rate of the pump. This is expressed as follows:

54
 Actual flow rate of the pump
Volumetric efficiency (v ) =
Theoretical flow rate of the pump
Q
 A
QT

Volumetric efficiency (  v ) indicates the amount of leakage that takes place within the
pump.This is due to manufacture tolerances and flexing of the pump casing under designed
pressure operating conditions.
For gear pumps,  v = 80%–90%.
For vane pumps,  v = 92%.
For piston pumps,  v = 90%–98%.

2. Mechanical efficiency (  m ): Itis the ratio of the pump output power assuming no leakage
to actual power delivered to the pump:

Pump output power assuming no leakages

Mechanical efficiency (m ) =
Actual power delivered to the pump

Mechanical efficiency( m ) indicates the amount of energy losses that occur for reasons other
than leakage. This includes friction in bearings and between mating parts. This includes the
energy losses due to fluid turbulence. Mechanical efficiencies are about 90%–95%. We also
have the relation
p QT
m 
TA ω

where p is the pump discharge pressure in Pa or N/m2, QT is the theoretical flow rate of the
pump in m3/s, TA is the actual torque delivered to the pump in Nm and
ω in rad/sec
It (  m ) can also be computed in terms of torque as follows:

Theoretical torque required to operate the pump

m =
Actual torque delivered to the pump
T
 T
TA
The theoretical torque ( TT ) required to operate the pump is the torque that would be required
if there were no leakage.
The theoretical torque ( TT ) is determined as follows
VDp  3 N 
TT (N m)  m  2  = N m
2π  m 
The actual torque ( TA ) is determined as follows

55
64
 P N m/s
Actual torque TA (N m)   Nm
ω  rad / s 
whereω = 2πN/60. HereNis the speed in RPM.

3. Overall efficiency (o ):It is defined as the ratio of actual power delivered by the pump to
actual power delivered to the pump

Actual power delivered by the pump

Overall efficiency (o ) 
Actual power delivered to the pump
Overall efficiency ( o ) considers all energy losses and can be represented mathematically as
follows:
Overall efficiency (o )  vm
Q pQT
 ηo  A 
QT TA N

Example 1.8
A gear pump has an outside diameter of 82.6 mm, inside diameter of 57.2 mm and a width of
25.4 mm. If the speed of the pump is 1800 RPM and the actual pump flow is
3
0.00183 m /s, What is the volumetric efficiency?

Solution: We have
Outside diameter Do  82.6 mm
Inside diameter Di  57.2mm
Width d  25.4 mm
Speed of pump N = 1800 RPM
Actual flow rate = 0.00183 m3 /s
Theoretical flow rate
 N
QT   ( Do 2  Di 2 )  d 
4 60
 1800
=  (0.08262  0.05722 )  0.0254 
4 60
= 2.125  10 3
Volumetric efficiency is
0.00183
v = 100  86.11%
2.125 103

Example 1.9
A pump having a volumetric efficiency of 96% delivers 29 LPM of oil at 1000 RPM. What is
the volumetric displacement of the pump?

Solution:

56
 Volumetric efficiency of the pump  v = 96%
Discharge of the pump = 29 LPM
Speed of pump N  1000 rpm
Now
Actual flow rate of the pump Q
v =  A
Theoritical flow rate of the pump QT
29
 0.96 
QT
 QT  30.208 LPM
Volumetric displacement
Q 30.208 103  60
VD  T 
N 60 1000
 30.208 106 m3 / rev  0.0302 L / rev

Example 1.10
A positive displacement pump has an overall efficiency of 88% and a volumetric efficiency
of 92%. What is the mechanical efficiency?

Solution: Theoverall efficiency is

ηo  η m  η v
η 88
 ηm  o =  100 = 95.7%
η v 92

Example 1.11
Determine the overall efficiency of a pump driven by a 10 HP prime mover if the pump
delivers fluid at 40 LPM at a pressure of 10 MPa.

Solution:

Output power  pQ
6 2 m3 /s 1 min
 10 10 N/m  40 L/min  
1000 L/s 60 s
 6670 W
746 W
Input power  10 HP   7460 W
1 HP
Now

Pump output power

ηo 
Pump input power
6670
  0.894  89.4%
7460

57
Example 1.12
How much hydraulic power would a pump produce when operating at 140 bar and delivering
0.001 m3/s of oil? What power rated electric motor would be selected to drive this pump if its
overall efficiency is 85%?

Solution:
Operating pressure of the pump = 140 bar
Flow rateQ = 0.001m3/s. Now
Power of pump  Pressure ×Flow rate
 140  105  0.001
 14 kW
Overall efficiency of pump ηo  85%
Power to be supplied is
Power of pump 14 kW
  16.47 kW
ηo 0.85

Example 1.13
A pump has a displacement volume of 98.4 cm3. It delivers 0.0152 m3/s of oil at 1000 RPM
and 70 bar. If the prime mover input torque is 124.3 Nm. What is the overall efficiency of
pump? What is the theoretical torque required to operate the pump?

Solution:
Volumetric discharge  98.4 cm3
Theoretical discharge is
N 1000
QT VD   98.4   1.64 103 m3 /s
60 60
Volumetric efficiency is
1.52 103
ηv  100 = 92.68 %
1.64 103
Overall efficiency is
Q  pressure 1.52 103  70 105  60
ηo  A =  100 = 81.74%
T ω 124.3  2 1000  π
The mechanical efficiency is
η 81.74
ηmechanical  overall   88.2
ηvolumetric 92.78
Now
Theoretical torque = Actual torque × ηmechanical = 124.3 × 0.882 = 109.6 Nm
Note: Mechanical efficiency can also be calculated as
pQT
m 
T
70 105 N/m 2  0.00164 m3 / s

1000
124.3 (N m)   2 rad/s
60
 0.882  88.2%

58
 Chapter 5
HYDRAULIC MOTORS

5.1 Introduction

Hydraulic motors are rotary actuators. However, the name rotary actuator is reserved for a particular type
of unit that is limited in rotation to less than 360.A hydraulic motor is a device which converts
fluid power into rotary power or converts fluid pressure into torque. Torque is a function of pressure or, in
other words, the motor input pressure level is determined by the resisting torque at the output shaft. A
hydraulic pump is a device which converts mechanical force and motion into fluid power. A hydraulic
motor is not a hydraulic pump when run backward. A design that is completely acceptable as a motor may
operate very poorly as a pump in a certain applications. Differences between a hydraulic motor and
a hydraulic pump are given in Table 1.1.

Table1.1Differences between a hydraulic motor and a hydraulic pump

Hydraulic Motor Hydraulic Pump
It is a device for delivering torque at a given It is a device for delivering flow at a given
pressure. The main emphasis is on mechanical pressure. The main emphasis is on volumetric
efficiency and torque that can be transmitted. efficiency and flow.
Motors usually operate over a wide range of Pumps usually operate at high RPM.
speed, from a low RPM to high RPM.
Most motors are designed for bidirectional In most situations, pumps usually operate in one
applications such as braking loads, rotary tables. direction.
Motors may be idle for long time (as in index Pumps usually operate continuously.
table).
Motors are subjected to high side loads (from Majority of pumps are not subjected to side loads.
gears, chains, belt-driven pulleys). Usually pumps are pad mounted on power pack
top and shaft is connected to the prime mover
directly.

5.2Applications

Hydraulic motors have become popular in industries. Hydraulic motors can be applied directly to
the work. They provide excellent control for acceleration, operating speed, deceleration, smooth reversals
and positioning. They also provide flexibility in design and eliminate much of bulk and weight of
mechanical and electrical power transmission. The applications of hydraulic motors in their various
combinations with pumping units are termed hydrostatic transmission. A hydrostatic transmission
converts mechanical power into fluid power and then reconverts fluid power into shaft power. The
advantages of hydrostatic transmissions include power transmission to remote areas, infinitely variable
speed control, self-overload protection, reverse rotation capability, dynamic braking and a high power-to-
weight ratio. Applications include material-handling equipment, farm tractors, railway locomotives, buses,
lawn mowers and machine tools.
New fields of applications are being discovered constantly for hydrostatic transmissions. Farm
implements, road machinery, material-handling equipment, Numerical Control(NC) machines high-
performance aircrafts, military uses and special machinery are only a few of new fields expanding through
the use of fluid power transmission. Many automobiles, railway locomotives and buses use a hydrostatic
transmission.

59
5.3 Classification of Hydraulic Motors
There are two types of hydraulic motors: (a) High-speed low-torque motors and (b) low–speed high-
torque motors. In high-speed low-torque motors, the shaft is driven directly from either the barrel or
the cam plate, whereas in low-speed high-torque motors, the shaft is driven through a differential gear
arrangement that reduces the speed and increases the torque. Depending upon the mechanism employed to
provide shaft rotation, hydraulic motors can be classified as follows:
1. Gear motors.
2. Vane motors.
3. Piston motors:
 Axial piston-type motors.
 Radial piston-type motors.

Gear motors are the least efficient, most dirt-tolerant and have the lowest pressure rating of 3. Piston
motors are the most efficient, least dirt-tolerant and have high pressure ratings. Vane and piston motors
can be fixed or variable displacement, but gear motors are available with only fixed displacement.

Gear Motors: A gear motor develops torque due to hydraulic pressure acting against the area of one
tooth. There are two teeth trying to move the rotor in the proper direction, while one net tooth at the center
mesh tries to move it in the opposite direction. In the design of a gear motor, one of the gears is keyed to an
output shaft, while the other is simply an idler gear. Pressurized oil is sent to the inlet port of the motor.
Pressure is then applied to the gear teeth, causing the gears and output shaft to rotate. The pressure builds
until enough torque is generated to rotate the output shaft against the load. The side load on the motor
bearing is quite high, because all the hydraulic pressure is on one side. This limits the bearing life of the
motor. Schematic diagram of gear motor is shown in Fig.1.1.

Most of the gear motors are bidirectional. Reversing the direction of flow can reverse the direction of
rotation. As in the case of gear pumps, volumetric displacement is fixed. Due to the high pressure at the
inlet and low pressure at the outlet, a large side load on the shaft and bearings is produced. Gear motors
are normally limited to 150 bar operating pressures and 2500 RPM operating speed. They are available
with a maximum flow capacity of 600 LPM. The gear motors are simple in construction and have good
dirt tolerance, but their efficiencies are lower than those of vane or piston pumps and they leak more than the
piston units. Generally,they are not used as servo motors. Hydraulic motors can also be of internal gear
design. These types can operate at higher pressures and speeds and also have greater displacements than
external gear motors.

60
 Figure 1.1Gear motor

Vane Motors
Unbalanced vane motor consisting of a circular chamber in which there is an eccentric rotor
carrying several spring or pressure-loaded vanes. Because the fluid flowing through the inlet port
finds more area of vanes exposed in the upper half of the motor, it exerts more force on the upper
vanes, and the rotor turns counterclockwise. Close tolerances are maintained between the vanes and
ring to provide high efficiencies.

The displacement of a vane hydraulic motor is a function of eccentricity. The radial load on the shaft
bearing of an unbalanced vane motor is also large because all its inlet pressure is on one side of the
rotor. In balanced vane motor, the radial bearing load problem is eliminated in this design by using a
double-lobed ring with diametrically opposite ports. Side force on one side of bearing is canceled by
an equal and opposite force from the diametrically opposite pressure port. The like ports are generally
connected internally so that only one inlet and one outlet port are brought outside. The balanced vane-
type motor is reliable open-loop control motor but has more internal leakage than piston-type and
therefore generally not used as a servo motor.

61
Piston Motors
Piston motors are classified into the following types:
1. According to the piston of the cylinder block and the drive shaft, piston motors are classified as
follows:

 Axial piston motors.

 Radial piston motors.

2. According to the basis of displacement, piston motors are classified as follows:

 Fixed-displacement piston motors.

 Variable-displacement piston motors.

62
 stoke(s)
cylinder

swash plate

Figure1.5 Swash-plate piston motor

Bent-Axis Piston Motors

A bent-axis piston motor is shown in Fig.1.6. This type of motor develops torque due to pressure acting
on the reciprocating piston. In this motor, the cylinder block and drive shaft mount at an angel to each
other so that the force is exerted on the drive shaft flange.

drive shaft flange

shaft
displacement

Figure1.6 Inline piston motor

Speed and torque depend on the angle between the cylinder block and the drive shaft. The larger the
angle, the greater the displacement and torque, and the smaller the speed. This angle varies from 7.5°
(minimum) to 30° (maximum). This type of motor is available in two types, namely fixed-
displacement type and variable-displacement type.

Radial Piston Motors

In radial piston-type motors, the piston reciprocates radially or perpendicular to the axis of the output
shaft. The basic principle of operation of the radial piton motors is shown in Fig.1.8.Radial piston motors
are low-speed high-torque motors which can address a multifarious problem in diverse power transfer
applications.

63
 Figure1.8 Radial piston motor

5.4 Hydraulic Motor:Theoretical Torque, Power and Flow Rate

The torque generated by frictionless hydraulic motor is known as a theoretical torque. Theoretical
torque can be calculated by the following formula:

p  VD
TT 
2π
where VD is the volumetric displacement in m3/rev and p is the pressure in N/m2.The power developed by
a frictionless motor is known as theoretical power. It can be calculated by the following formula:
PT = TT  ω
(W) =(Nm) rad/s = W
where TT is the theoretical torque in Nm, ω is the speed of the motor in rad/s and ω = 2 N / 60, where
N is the speed of the motor in rev/min. The flow rate a hydraulic motor would consume if there were no
leakage is known as the theoretical flow rate QT . Mathematically, theoretical flow rate is given by
QT  VD n
where VD is the volumetric discharge in m /rev, n is the speed of motor in rev/s = N/60 and N is the
3

speed of motor in rpm.

64
5.5 Performance of Hydraulic Motors

The performance of hydraulic motors depends upon many factors such as precision of their
parts, tolerances between the mating parts, etc. Internal leakage between the inlet and outlet
affects the volumetric efficiency. Friction between mating parts affects the mechanical efficiency of
a hydraulic motor.
Gear motors typically have an overall efficiency of 70–75% as compared to vane motors which have
75–85% and piston motors having 85–95%.
Motor torque is divided into three separate groups:

1. Starting torque: The starting torque is the turning force the motor exerts from a dead stop.
2. Running torque: Running torque is exerted when the motor is running and changes whenever there
is a change in fluid pressure.
3. Stalling torque: Stalling torque is the torque necessary to stop the motor.

In most hydraulic motors, the stalling and starting torques are equal. Usually, starting torque is 75–80%
of the maximum design torque.

1. Volumetric efficiency: The volumetric efficiency of a hydraulic motor is the ratio of theoretical flow
rate to actual flow rate required to achieve a particular speed. The motor uses more flow than the
theoretical due to leakage:
Theoretical flow rate the motor should be supplied with QT
ηv  
Actual flow rate supplied to the motor QA
2. Mechanical efficiency: The mechanical efficiency of a hydraulic motor is the ratio of actual work
done to the theoretical work done per revolution. The output torque of a hydraulic motor is less than
theoretical torque due to mechanical friction between the mating parts:

Actual torque delivered by the motor T

ηm   A
Torque the motor should theoretically deliver TT

Here,theoretical torque and actual torque are given by

VD  p
TT 
2π
Actual wattage delivered by the motor
TA 
N

3. Overall efficiency: The overall efficiency of a motor is the ratio of output power to input power of the
motor. Output power is mechanical power output at the shaft and input power is fluid energy supplied to
the inlet of the hydraulic motor:
Actual power delivered by the motor (mechanical)
ηo 
Actual power delivered to the motor (hydraulic)
TA  N
ηo 
p  QA

65
 TA  TT  N

TT  p  QA
TA  VD  p  N

TT  p  QA  2π
TA  QT

TT  QA
 o  Vm
So
Overall efficiency = Volumetric efficiency  Mechanical efficiency

Note: The actual power delivered to a motor by a fluid is called hydraulic power and the actual power
delivered to a load by a motor via a rotating shaft is called brake power.

Example 1.1A single-vane rotary actuator has the following physical data:

Outer radius of rotor = 0.5 cm

Outer radius of vane = 1.5 cm
Width of vane = 1 cm
If the torque load is 1000 Ncm, what pressure must be developed to overcome the load?

Solution: The volumetric displacement is given by

VD  π(1.52  0.52 )1 = 6.28 cm3
The pressure is
2πT 2π(1000)
p  =1000 N/cm2
VD 6.28
= 1000  104 N/m2
= 10 N/mm2 = 10 MPa

66
Example 1.2
A hydraulic motor is required to drive a load at 500 rpm with 1000 Nm of torque. What is the output
power?
Solution
500  2π
N = 500 rpm   52.36 rad / s
60
TA  1000 N m
Now
Power  TA (N m)  N (rad/s)

 52360 W
The output power is 52.360 kW.

Example1.3
A hydraulic motor receives a flow rate of 72 LPM at a pressure of 12000 kPa. If the motor speed is
800 RPM, determine the actual torque delivered by the motor assuming the efficiency 100%?

Solution
Method I
Actual flow rate
72  103
QA  72 LPM   1.2  103 m3/s
60
Speed of motor N = 800 RPM. So
  800  2 / 60 = 83.78 rad/s
Pressure = 12000 × 103 Pa.
Overall efficiency can be calculated using

TA  N
o 
P  QA
Substituting the values we get
TA  83.78
1
12000 103 1.2 103
 TA  171.88 N m
So the actual torque TA  171.88 N m.

67
 Method II
72
Hydraulic power = pQ = 12000 × × 10−3 = 14.4 kW
60
T (Nm) ×  (rad/s) = 14400 W
So
14400
T  172 N m
2
800 
60
Example 1.4
A hydraulic motor has a 100 cm3 volumetric displacement. If it has a pressure rating of 140 bar and
receives oil from a 0.001 m3 / s theoretical flow rate pump, find the motor (a) speed, (b) theoretical
torque, (c) theoretical kW power.

Solution:

(a) Speed: We have the theoretical flow rate given by

QT  VD  n
 0.001  100 106  n
 n = 10 RPS(revolutions per second)
and N = 600 RPM
(b) Theoretical torque
5 6
p  VD 140  10  100  10
TT    222.82 N m
2 2

(c) Theoretical kW power

P  QT  p =0.001 m3 / s 140 105 N / m2 =14000 W =14 kW
Alternately,
Power = TT = 222.82  10 2 = 14000 W = 14 kW

Example 1.5
The pressure rating of the components in a hydraulic system is 105 kPa. The system contains a hydraulic
motor to turn a 0.3 m radius drum at 30 RPM to lift a weight of load 4000 N as shown in Fig. 1.14.
Determine the flow rate and brake power if the motor efficiency is 90%.

68
 Figure 1.14
Solution: We have the theoretical torque given by
p  VD
TT 
2π
108  VD
 4000  0.3 
2
 VD = 7.54 105 m3 = 0.0754 L
Theoretical flow rate is
30
QT  VD  N  7.54  105   0.0000377 m3 / s
60
Power
P  pQ  1108 N / m2 (0.0000377 m3 / s)  3770 W  3.77 kW

Example 1.6
A hydraulic system contains a pump that discharges oil at 13.8 MPa and 0.00632 m3 / s to a hydraulic
motor shown in Fig. 1.15. The pressure at the motor inlet is 12.40 MPa due to pressure drop in the line. If
oil leaves the motor at 1.38 MPa, determine the power delivery by the 100% efficient motor.
(a) What torque would a hydraulic motor deliver at a speed of 1750 RPM if it produces 3 kW?
(b) If the pressure remains constant at 13.8 MPa, (i) what would be the effect of doubling the speed on
the torque and (ii) what would be the effect of halving the speed on the torque?

69
 13.8 12.4 1.38
MPa MPa MPa

Pump Motor

Figure 1.15

Solution: We have

Power  p Q  (12400  1380) kPa  0.00632 m3 / s

 69.6 kW
Note: If the pipeline between the pump and motor is horizontal and of constant diameter, then the cause
of pressure drop (12.4 − 1.38 MPa) is due to friction.
(a) We have
P  T    3000
2    1750
T   3000
60
3000  60
T   16.37 N m
2    1750
(b)
pVD
(i) T  .Since p and VD are both constant, torque remains constant. This would, however, double
6.28
the power.
(ii) The torque T remains constant while the power is reduced by 50%.

Example 1.7
A hydraulic motor has a displacement of 40 cm3/rev and is used in a system with a maximum pressure
of 20000 kPa. Determine the actual torque delivered by the motor assuming that it is 100% efficient.

Solution:
Displacement VD  40  106 m3/rev
Pressure of the system P = 20000 kPa
Theoretical torque
6 3
V  p 40 10  20000 10
TT  D   127.3 N m
2π 2π
Since the motor is 100% efficient, the actual torque is equal to the theoretical torque
TA  127.3 N m

70
Example 1.8
A motor must produce a torque of 350 Nm in a system with an operating pressure of 25000 kPa. What
size motor should we select? Assume 100% efficiency.
Solution: Given TA  350 N m . Since the motor has 100% efficiency,
Theoretical torque = Actual torque
VD  P
 TT 
2π
VD  25000 103
 350 
2π
3
 VD  88 cm /rev
So we should select a motor having the displacement of 88 cm3/rev.

Example 1.9
A hydraulic motor has a displacement of 164 cm3 and operates with a pressure of 70 bar and a speed
of 2000 rpm. If the actual flow rate consumed by the motor is 0.006 m3/s and the actual torque
delivered by the motor is 170 Nm, find (a) ηv , (b)m , (c) ηo and (d) actual power delivered by the
motor?

Solution:
(a) We have
Theoretical flow rate the motor should consume QT
ηv  
Actual flow rate consumed by the motor QA
Now QA  0.006 m3 / s . Theoretical flow rate is
2000
QT  VD  N  164 106 (m3 / rev)  (rev / s)  0.0055 m3 / s
60
So volumetric efficiency is
0.0055
ηv   100  91.67%
0.006
(b) Mechanical efficiency is given by
Actual torque delivered by the motor T
ηm   A
Theoretical torque motor should deliver TT
Theoretical torque,
p VD 70 105 164 106
TT    182.71 N m
2π 2π
So mechanical efficiency,
170
ηm   93.04%
182.71
(c) We have
ηo  ηm  ηv
 0.9304  0.9167  0.853  85.3%
So overall efficiency is 85.3 %.
(d) Actual power is

71
  2 π 
TA ω  170   2000    35600 W  35.6 kW
 60 

Example 1.10
A hydraulic motor receives a flow rate of 72 LPM at a pressure of 12000 kPa. If the motor speed is
800 RPM and ifthe motor has a power loss of 3 kW, find the motor actual output torque and overall
efficiency.

Solution: We have
72 LPM = 0.0012 m3 /s
Now we calculate the hydraulic power given to motor using
Hydraulic power = pQ = 0.0012 m3 /s  12000 = 14400 W = 14.4 kW

Actual power is obtained by subtracting the losses,

Actual power = Tω  14.4  3  11.4 kW
11400
T   136 N m
2π
800 
60
The overall efficiency is

11.4
Overall efficiency =  0.792  79.2 %
14.4
Example 1.11
A hydraulic motor has a volumetric efficiency of 90% and operates at a speed of 1750 RPM and a
pressure of 69 bar. If the actual flow rate consumed by the motor is 0.0047 m3/s and the actual torque
delivered by the motor is 147 Nm, find the overall efficiency of the motor.

Solution: The overall efficiency is

1750  2  
147 
T 60
o  A =  0.83 = 83%
pQA 69 105  0.0047

Example 1.12
A hydrostatic transmission operating at 105 bar pressure has the following characteristics:
Pump Motor
Vd = 100 cm 3
Vd = ?
ηv = 85% ηv = 94%
ηm = 90% ηm = 92%
N = 1000rpm N= 600 rpm

Find the (a) displacement of motor and (b) motor output torque.

72
 Solution:

(a) Pump theoretical flow rate

100  106  1000
QT-pump  Vd  N  = 1.667 103 m3/s
60
Actual flow rate
QA-pump  ηV  QT  1.667  103  0.85  1.42 103 m3/s
Actual flow from the pump is the actual flow to the motor. So for the motor
QA-motor  1.42 103 m3/s
3
QT-motor  ηV  QA =1.42 103  0.94  1.332  10
So the theoretical flow rate, QT-motor  1.332  103 m3/s. Now
QT-motor  VD-motor  N
3
QT-motor 1.332  10
 VD-motor    1.332 104  133 cm3/rev
N motor 600 / 60
So for the motor, the displacement is 133 cm3/rev.
(b) Torque delivered by the motor
To calculate torque delivered by the motor, let us first calculate the actual power to motor
Poweractual to motor  p Q  105 105  0.00142  14900 W
Now

Poweractual by motor = Poweractual to motor Mechanical efficiency volumetricefficiency

Poweractual by motor  14900  0.94  0.92  12900 W

12900
Torqueactual by motor  = 205 Nm
600  2π
60

73
 Chapter 6
HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

1.1 Introduction

Hydraulic systems are used to control and transmit power. A pump driven by a prime mover such as an
electric motor creates a flow of fluid, in which the pressure, direction and rate of flow are controlled by
valves. An actuator is used to convert the energy of fluid back into the mechanical power. The amount of
output power developed depends upon the flow rate, the pressure drop across the actuator and its overall
efficiency. Thus, hydraulic actuators are devices used to convert pressure energy of the fluid into
mechanical energy.
Depending on the type of actuation, hydraulic actuators are classified as follows:

1. Linear actuator: For linear actuation (hydraulic cylinders).

2. Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (hydraulic motor).
3. Semi-rotary actuator: For limited angle of actuation (semi-rotary actuator).

Hydraulic linear actuators, as their name implies, provide motion in a straight line. The total movement is
a finite amount determined by the construction of the unit. They are usually referred to as cylinders, rams
and jacks. All these items are synonymous in general use, although ram is sometimes intended to mean a
single-acting cylinder and jack often refers to a cylinder used for lifting. The function of hydraulic
cylinder is to convert hydraulic power into linear mechanical force or motion. Hydraulic cylinders extend
and retract a piston rod to provide a push or pull force to drive the external load along a straight-line path.
Continuous angular movement is achieved by rotary actuators, more generally known as a hydraulic
motor. Semi-rotary actuators are capable of limited angular movements that can be several complete
revolutions but 360o or less is more usual.

1.2 Types of Hydraulic Cylinders

Hydraulic cylinders are of the following types:

 Single-acting cylinders.
 Double-acting cylinders.
 Telescopic cylinders.
 Tandem cylinders.

74
1.2.1 Single-Acting Cylinders

A single-acting cylinder is simplest in design and is shown schematically in Fig.1.1. It consists of a piston
inside a cylindrical housing called barrel. On one end of the piston there is a rod, which can reciprocate.
At the opposite end, there is a port for the entrance and exit of oil. Single-acting cylinders produce force
in one direction by hydraulic pressure acting on the piston. (Single-acting cylinders can exert a force in
the extending direction only.) The return of the piston is not done hydraulically. In single-acting
cylinders, retraction is done either by gravity or by a spring.

oil

(by spring)

Air vent

Figure 1.1 Single-acting cylinders

According to the type of return, single-acting cylinders are classified as follows:

 Gravity-return single-acting cylinder.

 Spring-return single-acting cylinder.

1.2.1.1 Gravity-Return Single-Acting Cylinder

Load

( )
( )
Figure 1.2 Gravity-return single-acting cylinder: (a) Push type; (b) pull type

75
Figure1.2 shows gravity-return-type single-acting cylinders. In the push type [Fig. 1.2(a)], the cylinder
extends to lift a weight against the force of gravity by applying oil pressure at the blank end. The oil is
passed through the blank-end port or pressure port. The rod-end port or vent port is open to atmosphere so
that air can flow freely in and out of the rod end of the cylinder. To retract the cylinder, the pressure is
simply removed from the piston by connecting the pressure port to the tank. This allows the weight of the
load to push the fluid out of the cylinder back to the tank. In pull-type gravity-return-type single-acting
cylinder, the cylinder [Fig. 1.2(b)] lifts the weight by retracting. The blank-end port is the pressure port
and blind-end port is now the vent port. This cylinder automatically extends whenever the pressure port is
connected to the tank.

1.2.1.2 Spring-Return Single-Acting Cylinder

A spring-return single-acting cylinder is shown in Fig.1.3.In push type [Fig. 1.3(a)], the pressure is sent
through the pressure port situated at the blank end of the cylinder. When the pressure is released, the
spring automatically returns the cylinder to the fully retracted position. The vent port is open to
atmosphere so that air can flow freely in and out of the rod end of the cylinder.
Figure 1.3(b) shows a spring-return single-acting cylinder. In this design, the cylinder retracts when the
pressure port is connected to the pump flow and extends whenever the pressure port is connected to the
tank. Here the pressure port is situated at the rod end of the cylinder.

oil Air vent Oil Air vent

(a) (b)
Figure 1.3 (a) Push- and (b) pull-type single-acting cylinders

1.2.2 Double-Acting Cylinder

There are two types of double-acting cylinders:

 Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side.

 Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides.
1.2.2.1 Double-Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on One Side
Figure 1.4 shows the operation of a double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side. To extend the
cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the blank-end port as in Fig. 1.4(a). The fluid from the rod-end port
returns to the reservoir. To retract the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the rod-end port and the fluid
from the blank-end port returns to the tank as in Fig.1.4(b).

76
 Figure 1.4 Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side

1.2.2.2 Double-Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on Both Sides

Figure 1.5Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side

A double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides (Fig.1.5)is a cylinder with a rod extending from
both ends. This cylinder can be used in an application where work can be done by both ends of the
cylinder, thereby making the cylinder more productive. Double-rod cylinders can withstand higher side
loads because they have an extra bearing, one on each rod, to withstand the loading.

77
1.2.3Telescopic Cylinder
A telescopic cylinder (shown in Fig. 1.6) is used when a long stroke length and a short retracted length
are required. The telescopic cylinder extends in stages, each stage consisting of a sleeve that fits inside the
previous stage. One application for this type of cylinder is raising a dump truck bed. Telescopic cylinders
are available in both single-acting and double-acting models. They are more expensive than standard
cylinders due to their more complex construction.
They generally consist of a nest of tubes and operate on the displacement principle. The tubes are
supported by bearing rings, the innermost (rear) set of which have grooves or channels to allow fluid
flow. The front bearing assembly on each section includes seals and wiper rings. Stop rings limit the
movement of each section, thus preventing separation. When the cylinder extends, all the sections move
together until the outer section is prevented from further extension by its stop ring. The remaining
sections continue out-stroking until the second outermost section reaches the limit of its stroke;this
process continues until all sections are extended, the innermost one being the last of all.

Stage 3

Stage 2

Stage 1

Pressure
port

Three stages Retracted position

Extended position

Figure 1.6 Telescopic cylinder

For a given input flow rate, the speed of operation increases in steps as each successive section reaches
the end of its stroke. Similarly, for a specific pressure, the load-lifting capacity decreases for each
successive section.

78
1.2.4 Tandem Cylinder

Figure 1.7Tandem cylinder

A tandem cylinder, shown in Fig. 1.7, is used in applications where a large amount of force is required
from a small-diameter cylinder. Pressure is applied to both pistons, resulting in increased force because of
the larger area. The drawback is that these cylinders must be longer than a standard cylinder to achieve an
equal speed because flow must go to both pistons.

1.2.4.1 Through-Rod Cylinders

These are similar in construction to the standard double-acting cylinders, but have a cylinder rod
extending through both cylinder end caps. Although it is possible to have both the piston rods with
different diameters at each end of the cylinder, generally the rods have the same diameters. The main
applications of through-rod cylinders are as follows: the same speed is required in both the directions,
both ends of the rod can be utilized to do work and the non-working end is used to indicate or signal the
position of the load. In some applications, the rod is fixed at both the ends and the cylinder body carrying
the load moves on the rod.
A major problem in the manufacture of through-rod cylinders is achieving the correct alignment and
concentricity of cylinder bore, piston, end caps and rods. Any misalignment can result in excessive seal
wear and premature cylinder failure.

1.2.4.2 Displacement Cylinders

A displacement-type hydraulic cylinder shown in Fig. 1.8 consists of a rod that is displaced from inside a
tube by pumping hydraulic fluid into the tube. The volume of the rod leaving the tube is equal to the
volume of fluid entering the tube, hence the name “displacement cylinder.”
The rod of the displacement cylinder is guided by bearings in the nose or neck of the cylinder body. A
collar on the end of the rod prevents it from being ejected and limits the stroke of the cylinder. Elastomer
seals in the neck prevent any leakage of fluid along the outside of the rod. This design is a single-acting
“push” or extension cylinder, which has to be retracted by gravity, a spring or some external force. The
bore of the cylinder body does not require machining other than that for the neck bearing and the inlet
port; the manufacturing cost is, therefore, low when compared with other types or hydraulic cylinders.
The maximum thrust exerted by a displacement cylinder is given by
d2
Maximum thrust = Pressure × Rod area = p 
4
where d is the diameter of the rod. The extending speed of the rod is given by
Flow rate of fluid entering the cylinder
Rodspeed 
Area of cylinder rod

79
 Figure 1.8Displacement cylinders

Example 1.1
A displacement-type cylinder has a rod of 65 mm diameter and is powered by a hand pump with a
displacement of 5 mL per double stroke. The maximum operating pressure of the system is to be limited
to 350 bar. (a) Draw a suitable circuit diagram showing the cylinder, pump and any additional valving
required. (b) Calculate the number of double pumping strokes needed to extend the cylinder rod by 50
mm. (c) Calculate the maximum load that could be raised using this system.

Solution:
(a) The circuit diagram is given in Fig. 1.9.

Load

Non-return valve to hold load in the

position when the pump is not
operated
Figure 1.9
(b) The volume of rod displaced is equal to the volume of fluid entering the cylinder. Let the rod diameter
be d, the distance rod extends be L, the displacement per double stroke of pump be V and the number of
double pump strokes be S. Then
Rod volume displaced = Fluid volume entering
d2
  L V S
4

80
Substituting values given in the problem and showing units for each value we get
652
mm2 × 50 mm = 5 mL × S
4
652
 × 50 mm3 = 5S mL
4
The units on both sides of the equation must be the same.
Note:
1 mL = 1 × 103 L
1 L = 1 × 103 m3
1 mL = 1 × 106 m3
1 mm3 = 1 × 109 m3
Thus, for the dimensional equality
652
× 50 × 109 (m3 ) = 5× 106 (m3 ) ×S
4
652
or × 50 (m3 ) = 5× 103 (m3 ) × S
4
Therefore,
652  50
S= =33.17 double strokes
4  5 103
(c) We have
Maximum thrust = Pressure × Rod area
Substituting the values given into the problem and showing units we get
652  N 
Maximum thrust = 350 × 105 × × 106  2 ×m 2 
4  m 
652
= 35 × N = 116080 N = 116.080 kN
4

Example 1.2
A three-stage displacement-type telescopic cylinder is used to tilt the body of a lorry (Fig. 1.10). When
the lorry is fully laden, the cylinder has to exert a force equivalent to 4000 kg at all points in its stroke.
The outside diameters of the tubes forming the three stages are 60, 80 and 100 mm. If the pump powering
the cylinder delivers 10 LPM, calculate the extend speed and pressure required for each stage of the
cylinder when tilting a fully laden lorry.

Solution:
First-stage
First-stage diameter = 100 mm
Quantity flowing
First-stage speed =
Area

10 103  m3  4
 2  2 
= = 1.27 m/min
( / 4)  (0.1)  min m  

81
 Load
First-stage pressure =
Area
4000  9.81
 N/m2 = 5× 106 (N/m2 ) = 50 bar
( / 4)  (0.1) 2

Figure 1.10
Second-stage:
Second-stage diameter = 80 mm
Quantity flowing
Second-stage speed =
Area
3
10 10  m 3

 2  2 
= 1.99 m / min
( / 4)  (0.08)  min m 
Load
Second-stage pressure =
Area
4000  9.81
 N/m2 = 7.81 × 106 (N/m2 )  78.1bar
( / 4)  (0.08)2
Third-stage:
Third-stage diameter = 60 mm
Quantity flowing
Third-stage speed =
Area
3
10 10  m 3

  
( / 4)  (0.06)2  min m2 
= 3.54 m / min
Load
Third-stage pressure =
Area
4000  9.81 6
 N/m2 = 13.9 × 10 = 139 bar
( / 4)  (0.06) 2

Telescopic cylinders are made in a standard range for vehicle applications. Although non-standard
cylinders can be obtained, they tend to be very expensive if ordered as a single piece.

82
1.3Standard Metric Cylinders
Table 1.1gives preferred sizes for the cylinder bore and rod diameter of metric cylinders. Most cylinder
manufacturers have based their standard range of metric cylinders on these recommendations, offering
two rod sizes for each cylinder bore.
A number of combinations have a piston rod to piston diameter ratio in the region of 0.7, which gives an
annulus area of approximately one-half of the full bore area. This area ratio is of use in regenerative
circuits to give similar values of speed and thrust on both the extension and retraction strokes. Table 1.2
gives the graphical symbols for various kinds of cylinders.

Table 1.1 Recommended cylinder bore and rod sizes

Piston 40 50 63 80 100 125 140 160 180 200 220 250 280 320
diameter (mm)

Piston rod Small 20 28 36 45 56 70 90 100 110 125 140 160 180 200
diameter (mm) Large 28 36 45 56 70 90 100 110 125 140 160 180 200 220

Table 1.2Graphical symbols of different linear actuators

S. Graphical Symbols Explanation
No.
1. Single-acting cylinder with unspecified return

2. Single-acting cylinder with spring return

3. Double-acting cylinder –single piston rod

4. Double-acting cylinder –doublepiston rod

5. Telescopic cylinder–double acting

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6. Telescopic cylinder–single acting

7. Double-acting cylinder– fixed cushion on one side

1. Double-acting cylinder–variable cushion on one side

9. Double-acting cylinder–variable cushion on both sides

1.4Cylinder Force, Velocity and Power

The output force (F) and piston velocity (v) of double-acting cylinders are not the same for extension and
retraction strokes.

During extension, entire piston

area Ap is subjected to fluid
pressure

During retraction, annulus area

Ap− Ar is subjected to fluid
pressure

Figure 1.11Effective area during (a) extension strokes and (b)retraction strokes

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During the extension stroke shown in Fig.1.11(a),the fluid pressure acts on the entire circular piston area
Ap. During the retraction stroke, the fluid enters the rod-end side and the fluid pressure acts on the smaller
annular area between the rod and cylinder bore (Ap−Ar) as shown by the shaded area in Fig.1.11(b) (Ar is
the area of the piston rod). Due to the difference in the cross-sectional area, the velocity of the piston
changes.Because Apis greater than (Ap−Ar), the retraction velocity (vret) is greater than the extension
velocity (vext) for the same flow rate.

During the extension stroke, the fluid pressure acts on the entire piston area (Ar), while during the
retraction stroke, the fluid pressure acts on the annular area (Ap−Ar). This difference in area accounts for
the difference in output forces during extension and retraction strokes. Because Ar is greater than Ap−Ar),
the extension force is greater than the retraction force for the same operating pressure.
Force and velocity during extension stroke
Qin
Velocity vext 
Ap
Force
Fext  p  Ap

Force and velocity during retraction stroke

Velocity
Qin
vext 
Ap  Ar

Force,
Fext  p  ( Ap  Ar )
Power developed by a hydraulic cylinder (both in extension and retraction) is

Power  Force ×Velocity  F  V

In metric units, the kW power developed for either extension or retraction stroke is
Power (kW)  vp (m/s)  F (kN)
 Qin (m3 /s)  p (kPa)

Power during extension is

Qin
Pext  Fext  vext  p  Ap   p  Qin (1.1)
Ap
Power during retraction is
Pret  Fret  vret
Qin
 p  ( Ap  Ar ) 
Ap  Ar
 p  Qin (1.2)
Comparing Equation. (1.1) and (1.2), we can conclude that the powers during extension and retraction
strokes are the same.

85
 Chapter 7
Hydraulic Control Valves

1.1Introduction

One of the most important considerations in any fluid power system is control. If control components are
not properly selected, the entire system does not function as required. In fluid power, controlling elements
are called valves.

There are three types of valves:

1. Directional control valves (DCVs): They determine the path through which a fluid transverses a given
circuit.
2. Pressure control valves: They protect the system against overpressure, which may occur due to a
sudden surge as valves open or close or due to an increase in fluid demand.
3. Flow control valves: Shock absorbers are hydraulic devices designed to smooth out pressure surges
and to dampen hydraulic shock.
In addition, the fluid flow rate must be controlled in various lines of a hydraulic circuit. For example, the
control of actuator speeds can be accomplished through use of flow control valves. Non-compensated
flow control valves are used where precise speed control is not required because the flow rate varies with
pressure drop across a flow control valve. It is important to know the primary function and operation of
various types of control components not only for good functioning of a system, but also for discovering
innovative methods to improve the fluid power system for a given application.

1.2Directional Control Valves

A valve is a device that receives an external signal (mechanical, fluid pilot signal, electrical or
electronics) to release, stop or redirect the fluid that flows through it. The function of a DCV is to control
the direction of fluid flow in any hydraulic system. A DCV does this by changing the position of
internal movable parts. To be more specific, a DCV is mainly required for the following purposes:

 To start, stop, accelerate, decelerate and change the direction of motion of a hydraulic actuator.
 To permit the free flow from the pump to the reservoir at low pressure when the pump’s delivery is
not needed into the system.
 To vent the relief valve by either electrical or mechanical control.
 To isolate certain branch of a circuit.

86
 Any valve contains ports that are external openings through which a fluid can enter and exit via
connecting pipelines. The number of ports on a DCV is identified using the term “way.” Thus, a valve
with four ports is a four-way valve A DCV consists of a valve body or valve housing and a valve
mechanism usually mounted on a sub-plate. The ports of a sub-plate are threaded to hold the tube fittings
which connect the valve to the fluid conductor lines. The valve mechanism directs the fluid to selected
output ports or stops the fluid from passing through the valve. DCVs can be classified based on fluid path,
design characteristics, control methods and construction.

1.2.1 Classification of DCVs based Fluid Path

Based on fluid path, DCVs can be classified as follows:

 Check valves.
 Shuttle valves.
 Two-way valves.
 Three-way valves.
 Four-way valves.

1.2.2 Classification of DCVs based on Design Characteristics

Based on design characteristics, DCVs can be classified as follows:

 An internal valve mechanism that directs the flow of fluid. Such a mechanism can
either be a poppet, a ball, a sliding spool, a rotary plug or a rotary disk.
 Number of switching positions (usually 2 or 3).
 Number of connecting ports or ways.
 Method of valve actuation that causes the valve mechanism to move into an alternate position.

1.2.3 Classification of DCVs based on the Control Method

Based on the control method, DCVs can be classified as follows:

 Direct controlled DCV:A valve is actuated directly on the valve spool. This is suitable for small-
sized valves.
 Indirect controlled DCV:A valve is actuated by a pilot line or using a solenoid or by the
combination of electrohydraulic and electro-pneumatic means. The use of solenoid reduces the size of the
valve. This is suitable for large-sized valves.

1.2.4 Classification of DCVs based on the Construction of Internal Moving Parts

Based on the construction of internal moving parts, DCVs can be classified as follows:

 Rotary spool type: In this type, the spool is rotated to change the direction of fluid. It has
longitudinal grooves. The rotary spools are usually manually operated.
 Sliding spool type: This consists of a specially shaped spool and a means of positioning the spool.
The spool is fitted with precision into the body bore through the longitudinal axis of the valve body. The
lands of the spool divide this bore into a series of separate chambers. The ports of the valve body lead into
these chambers and the position of the spool determines the nature of inter-connection between the ports.

87
Table 1.1

88
Table 1.2

3/2 way valve : 3ports and 2 position DCV

89
90
 1. Each different switching position is shown by a square.
2. Flow directions are indicated by arrows.
3. Blocked ports are shown by horizontal lines.
4. Ports are shown in an appropriate flow direction with line arrows

The switching position, flow direction, and port for different configurations is represented in Table 1.1. Two-
way, three-way, four-way and five-way representation is shown in Table 1.2.

1.3Actuating Devices
Direction control valves may be actuated by a variety of methods. Actuation is the method of moving the
valve element from one position to another. There are four basic methods of actuation: Manual,
mechanical, solenoid-operated and pilot-operated. Several combinations of actuation are possible using
these four basic methods. Graphical symbols of such combinations are given in Table 1.3.

 Manually operated: In manually operated DCVs, the spool is shifted manually by moving a handle
pushing a button or stepping on a foot pedal. When the handle is not operated, the spool returns
to its original position by means of a spring.
 Mechanically operated: The spool is shifted by mechanical linkages such as cam and rollers.
 Solenoid operated: When an electric coil or a solenoid is energized, it creates a magnetic force
that pulls the armature into the coil. This causes the armature to push the spool of the valve.
 Pilot operated: A DCV can also be shifted by applying a pilot signal (either hydraulic or
pneumatic) against a piston at either end of the valve spool. When pilot pressure is
introduced, it pushes the piston to shift the spool.

91
 Solenoid operated

Pilot operated

Manual operated

Push button

Foot operated

Pilot-operated solenoid

Two-position detent

Spring return

1.4 Check Valve

The simplest DCV is a check valve. A check valve allows flow in one direction, but blocks the flow in the
opposite direction. It is a two-way valve because it contains two ports. Figure 1.1 shows the graphical
symbol of a check valve along with its no-flow and free-flow directions.

92
 Figure 1.1 Graphical symbol of a check valve.

In Fig. 1.2, a light spring holds the ball against the valve seat. Flow coming into the inlet
pushes the ball off the seat against the light force of the spring and continues to the
outlet. A very low pressure is required to hold the valve open in this direction. If the flow
tries to enter from the opposite direction, the pressure pushes the ball against the seat and
the flow cannot pass through.
Valve seat Ball
Light spring

Inlet Outlet

Figure 1.2 Ball-type check valve.

Figure 1.3 provides two schematic drawings showing the operation of a poppet check
valve. A poppet is a specially shaped plug element held on a valve seat by a light spring.
Fluid flows through the valve in the space between the seat and poppet. In the free flow
direction, the fluid pressure overcomes the spring force. If the flow is attempted in the
opposite direction, the fluid pressure pushes the poppet in the closed position. Therefore,
no flow is permitted

In Out

Figure1.3 Poppet check valve: (a) Open and (b) closed position
93
1.4.1 Advantages of a poppet valve

 Virtually zero leakage in closed position.

 Poppet elements do not stick even when left under pressure for long periods.
 Fast, consistent response time: typically 15 ms.

1.4.2 Disadvantages of a Poppet Valve

A poppet valve has the following
disadvantages:

 Axial pressure balance is impossible and considerable force may be needed to

open the poppet against the flow at a high pressure. This limits valves that have
direct mechanical actuation to low flow duties.
 Generally individual poppets are required for each flow path that significantly
increases the complexity of multi-port valves.
 Lapping and super finishing of valves add cost.

1.5 Pilot-Operated check Valve

A pilot-operated valve along with its symbol is shown in Fig. 1.4. This type of check v alve always
permits free flow in one direction but permits flow in the normally blocked opposite direction only if the
pilot pressure is applied at the pilot pressure point of the valve. The check valve poppet has the pilot
piston attached to the threaded poppet stem by a nut.
The light spring holds the poppet seated in a no-flow condition by pushing against the pilot piston. The
purpose of the separate drain port is to prevent oil from creating a pressure build-up at the bottom of the
piston. The dashed line in the graphical symbol represents the pilot pressure line connected to the pilot
pressure port of the valve. Pilot check valves are used for locking hydraulic cylinders in position.

No pilot signal

Free flow

No pilot signal

No flow

Pilot signal

Return flow

Figure 1.4Pilot-operated check valve

94
1.6 Shuttle Valve

A shuttle valve allows two alternate flow sources to be connected in a one-branch circuit. The valve has
two inlets P1 and P2 and one outlet A. Outlet A receives flow from an inlet that is at a higher
pressure. Figure 1.5 shows the operation of a shuttle valve. If the pressure at P 1 is greater than that at
P2, the ball slides to the right and allows P1 to send flow to outlet A. If the pressure at P2 is greater than
that at P1, the ball slides to the left and P2 supplies flow to outlet A

A A

Figure 1.5 Shuttle valve: (a) Flow from left to outlet and (b) flow from right to outlet in Fig. 1.5.

One application for a shuttle valve is to have a primary pump inlet P1 and a secondary pump inlet
P2 connected to the system outlet A The secondary pump acts as a backup, supplying flow to the
system if the primary pump loses pressure. A shuttle valve is called an “OR” valve because
receiving a pressure input signal from either P1 or P2 causes a pressure output signal to be sent to
A. Graphical symbol of shuttle valve is shown in Fig. 1.6.

Fig 1.6 symbol of Shuttle valve

95
1.7 Two-Way Direction Control Valves

1.7.1 2/2-Way DCV (Normally Closed)

Figure 1.7shows a two-way two-position (normally closed) of spool type. A spool valve consists of
a cylindrical spool that slides back and forth inside the valve body to connect or block flow between
the ports. The larger diameter portion of the spool, the spool land blocks flow by covering the port.
This particular valve has two ports labeled P and A. P is connected to the pump line and A is connected
to the outlet to the system. Figure 1.7(a) shows the valve in its normal state and its corresponding
symbol. The valve is held in this position by the force of the spring. In this position, the flow from the
inlet port P is blocked from going to the outlet port A. Figure 1.7(b) shows the valve in its
actuated state and its corresponding symbol. The valve is shifted into this position by applying a
force to overcome the resistance of the spring. In this position, the flow is allowed to go to the outlet
port.

P
P
Spool land
(a)

A
A
F

Spool
P

P
(b)

Figure1.7 Two-way–two-position normally closed DCV. (a) Ports A and P are not connected when force is not
applied (valve unactuated). (b) Ports A and P are connected when force is applied (valve actuated).

1.7.2 2/2-Way DCV (Normally Opened)

Figure 1.8 shows a two-way, two-position normally open DCV. The spring holds the valve in a position
in which ports P and Aare connected as shown in Fig1.8.(a). When the valve is actuated, the flow is
blocked from going to A as shown in Fig1.8.(b). The complete graphic symbol for the given DCV is
shown in Fig.1.8(c).

96
 A
A

(a)

A
A
F

Spool
P

(b) P

Figure 1.8 2/2 DCV normally opened. (a) Ports A and P are connected when force is not applied (valve
unactuated). (b) Ports A and P are not connected when force is applied
(valve actuated)

1.7.3 Application of 2/2 DCV

A pair of two-way valves is used to fill and drain a vessel. In Fig.1.9(a), valve 1 is shifted to the open
position, while valve 2 remains closed. This fills the vessel. In Fig.1.9(b), valve 2 is shifted to open
position and valve 1 remains closed. This drains the vessel.

97
 Filling vessel
Draining vessel

10 LPM
0 LPM

Valve 2
Valve 1
Valve 1 Valve 2

1.2 bar
10 bar

(a) (b)
Figure 1.9Application of 2/2

1.8Three-Way Direction Control

1.8.1 3/2-Way DCV (Normally Closed)

Three-way valves either block or allow flow from an inlet to an outlet. They also allow the outlet to flow
back to the tank when the pump is blocked, while a two-way valve does not. A three-way valve has three
ports, namely, a pressure inlet (P),an outlet to the system(A)and a return to the tank(T). Figure 1.10shows
the operation of a 3/2-way valve normally closed. In its normal position, the valve is held in position by a
spring as shown in Fig. 1.10(a). In the normal position, the pressure port P is blocked and outlet A is
connected to the tank. In the actuated position shown in Fig. 1.10(b), the pressure port is connected to the
tank and the tank port is blocked.

98
 A

P T
P T

(a)

A
A

Spool P T

P T

(b)

Figure 1.10 3/2-way DCV (normally closed). (a) Ports A and T are connected when force is not
applied (valve unactuated). (b) Ports A and P are connected when force is applied (valve
actuated).
1.8.23/2-Way DCV (Normally Opened)
Figure 1.11 shows a three-way two-position DCV (normally open)with push button actuation and spring
return. In the normal position, shown in Fig. 1.11(a), the valve sends pressure to the outlet and blocks the
tank port in the normal position. In the actuated position, the pressure port is blocked and the outlet is
vented to the tank.

99
 A

P T
T P

(a)

A
A

Spool P T

T P

(b)

(a) Figure 1.11 3/2-way DCV (normally opened). (a) Ports A and P are connected when force is not
applied (valve unactuated). (b) Ports A and T are connected when force is applied (valve actuated).

1.8.3 Applications of 3/2 DCV and 3/3 DCV

3/2 DCV and 3/2 DCV find application in the following ways: Application of 3/2 DCV for controlling
a single-acting cylinder: A 3/2 DCV is used to control a single-acting cylinder. Figure 1.12(a) shows the
valve in its normal position in which the pressure port is blocked and the outlet is returned to the tank.
This allows the force of the to act on the piston and retract the cylinder. The cylinder remains in the
retracted position as long as the valve is in this position. In Fig.1.12(b), the valve position is shifted by the
actuation of the push button. This connects the pressure port P with outlet A and the tank port is blocked.
This applies pump flow and pressure to the piston and the cylinder extends against the light force of the
spring.
1. Application of 3/3 DCV in filling and draining the vessel: A three-way, three-position DCV
may be used to fill and drain a vessel. In this application, the closed neutral is required to hold the
vessel at some constant fluid level(Fig. 1.13).
2. Application of 3/3 DCV in controlling a gravity return single-acting cylinder: A gravity
return-type single-acting cylinder is controlled by a three-way DCV. A third position called
neutral may be desired for its application. This position shown as the center position in the
symbol blocks all these ports. This position holds the cylinder in a mid-stroke position. Many
cylinder applications require this feature. Figure 1.14 introduces another type of actuation manual
lever and detent. A detent is a mechanism that holds the valve in any position into which it is
shifted. The detented valve has no normal position because it remains indefinitely in the last
position indicated. When the valve is in the closed neutral position or the retract position, the
pump flow goes over the pressure relief valve because the pressure port is blocked.
3. Application of 3/2-way valve for controlling a double-acting cylinder: Double-acting
cylinders can be controlled with two 3/2-way valves so arranged that when one valve pressurizes
one end of the cylinder, the other valve exhausts the other end and vice versa(Fig. 1.15).

100
 Figure 1.12Application of 3/2 valve–control of single-acting cylinder:(a) return; (b) extend.

0 LPM 10 LPM 12 LPM

100 bar 2 bar 1.1 bar

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.13Application of 3/2 valve–filling and draining a vessel: (a) hold; (b) fill; (b) drain.

101
 Figure 1.14Application of 3/2 valve –controlling a double-acting cylinder.

0.001 LPM 12 LPM

10 LPM

12 bar 1.1 bar

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.15Application of 3/3 valve –controlling a single-acting cylinder.

1.9Four-Way Direction Control Valves

Four-way DCVs are capable of controlling double-acting cylinders and bidirectional motors. Figure 1.16
shows the operation of a typical 4/2 DCV. A four-way has four ports labeled P,T,A and B. Pis the
pressure inlet and T is the return to the tank; A and B are outlets to the system. In the normal position,
pump flow is sent to outlet B. Outlet A is connected to the tank. In the actuated position, the pump flow is
sent to port A and port B connected to tank T. In four-way DCVs, two flows of the fluids are controlled at
the same time, while two-way and three-way DCVs control only one flow at a time. Figure 1.16 (c) shows
the complete graphic symbol for a four-way two-piston DCV.

102
 A B

A B

A
Spool
P T

P T

A B A B

P T
Spool

P T

Figure 1.16Four-way DCV.

1.9.1 Applications of 4/2 DCV and 4/3 DCV

4/2 DCV and 4/3 DCV find applications in the following ways:
1. Application of 4/2-way valve to control a double-acting cylinder: A four-way DCV is used to
control a double-acting cylinder. When the valve is in the normal position, the pump line is
connected to the end of the cylinder and the blind end is connected to the tank as shown in
Fig.1.17(a). The cylinder retracts when the cylinder is in this position. When the cylinder is fully
retracted, the pump flow goes over to the pressure relief valve and back to the tank. In
Fig.1.17(b), the pump line is connected to the blind end of the cylinder and the rod end is
connected to the tank. This causes the cylinder to extend. When the cylinder is fully extended, the
pump flow again goes over the pressure relief valve to the tank.

103
 -50 LPM 40 LPM
Full flow

3 bar 1.7 bar

(a) (b)

Figure 1.17Application of a 4/2-way valve – control of single-acting cylinder: (a) return; (b) extend.

2. Application of 4/2 DCV for controlling bi-directional motors: A four-way DCV is also used to
control bi-directional hydraulic motors. Figure 1.18shows the schematic for this application.
Unlike the cylinder, the motor rotates continuously and does not force the fluid over the pressure
relief valve.

104
 -50 LPM 40 LPM

11 bar
13 bar

(a) (b)

Figure 1.18Application of 4/2-way valve – control of a bi-directional motor.

The four-way, two-position DCVs used in the previous two applications are sometimes impractical
because they continually send pump flow and pressure to the actuator in one direction or the other. Many
cylinder and motor applications require a third DCV position or neutral in which the actuator is subjected
to pump pressure. Four-way three-position circuits are therefore used in many hydraulic circuits. Many
types of neutrals are available; the most common of them are as follows:

 Closed neutral.
 Tandem neutral.
 Float neutral.
 Open neutral.
 Regenerative neutral.

3. Application of 4/3 DCV (closed neutral) for controlling a double-acting cylinder: Figure 1.19
shows it in a simple cylinder circuit. The valve shown here is spring centered, which means that it
always returns to the neutral position automatically when not actuated. For closed neutral, the
pump line is blocked so that the flow must pass over the pressure relief valve the pressure is at the
system maximum. This is wasteful thing because it generates power in the form of pressure and
flow, but does not use it. The wasted energy in the system goes as heat. This is undesirable
because the hydraulic fluid becomes thinner (less viscous) as it heats up. When the fluid becomes

105
 too thin, it does not lubricate effectively. This is the result of increased wear.The outlet lines to
the cylinder are blocked, so the cylinder is held trimly in position. This is because the lines are
full of hydraulic fluid that is incompressible. This type of neutral could also be used to control a
motor. Just like cylinder, the motor is held tired in position when the valve is in the neutral.

0 LPM

30 bar

Figure 1.19Application of 4/3-way valve – closed neutral.

4. Application of 4/3 DCV (tandem neutral) for controlling a double-acting cylinder: Figure
1.20 shows it in a simple cylinder circuit. The pump flow is allowed to flow back to the tank
through the DCV when it is in the neutral. This is a very desirable situation because only pressure
in the pump line is due to the flow resistance of the lines and DCV. This keeps the pressure low
when the valve is in the neutral. In this situation, the system is said to be unloaded because the
power consumption is reduced. This wastes much less energy than does a closed central neutral
that forces the fluid over the pressure relief valve at a high pressure. The cylinder is held in
position with a tandem neutral because the outlet port is blocked.

106
 0 LPM 0 bar

1.05bar

Figure 1.20 Application of 4/3-way valve – tandem neutral.

5. Application of 4/3 DCV (float neutral) for controlling a bidirectional motor: Figure 1.21
shows a four-way with a float neutral controlling a bidirectional motor. The pressure port is
blocked so that the pump flow is forced over the pressure relief valve. Because both the outlets
are connected to the tank, the motor floats or spins freely when the DCV is in the neutral. This
type is used in motor circuits because it allows the motor to spin to a stop when the valve is
shifted to the neutral. This is often preferable to shifting to a closed position because motors often
build up a great deal of momentum. Shifting the valve closed in this situation causes a large
pressure hike in the outlet line because the motor tends to keep spinning and tries to push the fluid
into its outlet. This is known as shifting shock. Float neutrals are often desirable for cylinder
circuits in some applications.

107
 0 LPM

200 bar

Figure 1.21 Application of 4/3-way valve – floating neutral.

6. Application of 4/3 DCV (open neutral) for controlling a double-acting cylinder: Figure 1.22
shows the four-way with an open neutral controlling a cylinder. Flow always follows the path of
least resistance, so the pump flow goes back to the tank. Because the outlets are also connected to
the tank, the cylinder floats when this valve is in neutral. This is desirable in a circuit in which
some external force must position the cylinder when in the neutral.

108
 0 LPM 1.3 bar

1.5bar

Figure 1.22 Application of 4/3-way valve – open neutral.

Application of 4/3 DCV (regenerative neutral) for controlling a double-acting cylinder: A

regenerative neutral is considerably different in its function than other types. A regenerative term is used
to describe a system in which the waste is fedback into the system to supplement the input power. In this
neutral, the pressure port is connected to both outlets and the tank port is blocked. Figure 1.23 shows a
four-way with a negative neutral controlling a cylinder. When this valve is shifted to the neutral, the
pump pressure is applied to both sides of the piston. Because the piston area in the rod side of the cylinder
is smaller than that on the blind side, there is a net force applied to extend the piston rod. As the piston
extends, it forces the outlet flow from the rod side back into the valve, where it combines with the pump
flow and goes to the blind end of the cylinder. This causes the considerable increase in cylinder speed.
This is the purpose of the regenerative neutral that instead of sending the return flow back to the tank, it
sends it into the inlet side of the cylinder, thereby increasing its speed.

109
 50 LPM

37 bar

Figure 1.23 Application of 4/3-way valve – regenerative neutral.

1.10 Solenoid-Actuated Valve

A spool-type DCV can be actuated using a solenoid as shown in Figure. 1.24. When the electric coil
(solenoid) is energized, it creates a magnetic force that pulls the armature into the coil. This causes the
armature to push on the push pin to move the spool of the valve.
Like mechanical or pilot actuators, solenoids work against a push pin, which in turn actuates a spool.
There are two types of solenoid designs used to dissipate the heat developed in electric current flowing in
the coil. The first type dissipates the heat into surrounding air and is referred to as an “air gap solenoid.”
In the second type “wet pin solenoid,” the push pin contains an internal passage way that allows the tank
port oil to communicate between the housing of the valve and the housing of the solenoid. Wet pin
solenoids do a better job in dissipating heat because the cool oil represents a good heat sink to absorb heat
from the solenoid. As the oil circulates, the heat is carried into the hydraulic system where it can be easily
dealt with.

110
 1. When the 2. Armature is pulled against the push
coil is pin Coil
Pushpin
energized

3. Push pin moves the Spool Armature

spool
Figure 1.24Solenoid valve.

In the case of direct current (DC) solenoids, the current develops a magnetic field of fixed polarity. The
DC solenoids are practically safe from burning out if the correct voltage is applied. The solenoid force
depends not only on the solenoid design and current but also on the core position. The available
commercial solenoids produce a force of 60–70 N. For a greater force, the number of turns of coil or
current should be increased.
Alternating current (AC) solenoids function in the same manner as DC solenoids but their magnetic
fields are influenced by the alternating current. The magnetic force is high when AC current is at its
positive or negative peak. As the current changes from positive to negative, it must pass through neutral
points where there is no current or no force. Due to this, load can push the core slightly out of
equilibrium. This is commonly referred to as buzz. To eliminate buzz, shading coils are used. A shading
coil creates its own magnetic field but the current produced lags behind the coil current and thus helps to
prevent buzz. A comparison between AC and DC solenoids is given in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3Comparison between AC and DC solenoids
Parameter DC Solenoid AC Solenoid

Switching time 50–60 ms 20 ms

Service life expectations 20–50 million cycles 10–20 million cycles
Max. switching frequency Up to 4 cycles/s Up to 2 cycles/s
Continuous operation Unlimited 15–20 min for dry solenoids. 60–
80 min for wet solenoids
Relative cost 1 1.2
Occurrence rate 10 2

1.11Pilot-Operated Direction Control Valves

Pilot-operated DCVs are used in a hydraulic system operating at a high pressure. Due to the high pressure
of the system, the force required to actuate the DCV is high. In such systems, operation at a high pressure
uses a small DCV that is actuated by either a solenoid or manually. This pilot DCV in turn uses the
pressure of the system to actuate the main DCV as shown in Figure. 1.25.

111
 Main valve

Pilot valve

Figure 1.25 Pilot-operated DCVs.

112
 PRESSURE-CONTROL VALVES

1.1 Introduction
Hydraulic energy is produced as long as the prime mover (usually an electric motor) drives the pump, and
hydraulic pressure develops by resistance to pump flow.Hence, the hydraulic system suffers damage if the
pump flow is not stopped or off loaded (recirculate) back to the tank during non-action periods of the
circuit. Non-action periods arise from stalling an actuator, or by reaching the end of the stroke or the
circuit sequence, or during the time-delay periods of the circuit sequence.
In order to avoid hydraulic system damage, power wastage and overheating of the hydraulic fluid, circuit
designers use a variety of cleverly designed systems to control maximum system pressure and pump flow
during non-action periods.
Pressure-control valves are used in hydraulic systems to control actuator force (force = pressure × area)
and to determine and select pressure levels at which certain machine operations must occur.Pressure
controls are mainly used to perform the following system functions:

 Limiting maximum system pressure at a safe level.

 Regulating/reducing pressure in certain portions of the circuit.
 Unloading system pressure.
 Assisting sequential operation of actuators in a circuit with pressure control.
 Any other pressure-related function by virtue of pressure control.
 Reducing or stepping down pressure levels from the main circuit to a lower pressure in a
sub-circuit.

Pressure-control valves are often difficult to identify mainly because of the many descriptive names given
to them. The function of the valve in the circuit usually becomes the basis for its name. The valves used
for accomplishing the above-mentioned system functions are therefore given the following names:

 Pressure-relief valve.
 Pressure-reducing valve.
 Unloading valve
 Counterbalance valve.
 Pressure-sequence valve.
 Brake valve.

113
1.2 Pressure-Relief Valves

Pressure-relief valves limit the maximum pressure in a hydraulic circuit by providing an alternate path for
fluid flow when the pressure reaches a preset level. All fixed-volume pump circuits require a relief valve
to protect the system from excess pressure. Fixed-volume pumps must move fluid when they turn. When
a pump unloads through an open-center circuit or actuators are in motion, fluid movement is not a
problem. A relief valve is essential when the actuators stall with the directional valve still in shifted
position.

A relief valve is similar to a fuse in an electrical system. When circuit amperage stays below the fuse
amperage, all is well. When circuit amperage tries to exceed fuse amperage, the fuse blows and disables
the circuit. Both devices protect the system from excess pressure/current by keeping it below a preset
level. The difference is that when an electrical fuse blows, it must be reset or replaced by maintenance
personnel before the machine cycles again. This requirement alerts electrician’sabouta possible problem
before restarting the machine. Without the protection of a fuse, the electrical circuit would finally
overheat and start a fire.

Similarly, in a hydraulic circuit, a relief valve opens and bypasses fluid when pressure exceeds its setting.
The valve then closes again when pressure falls. This means that a relief valve can bypass fluid anytime,
or all the time, without intervention by maintenance. Many fixed-volume pump circuits depend on this
bypassing capability during the cycle, and some even bypass fluid during idle time. A well-designed
circuit never bypasses fluid unless there is a malfunction, such as a limit switch not closing or an operator
over-riding the controls. This eliminates most overheating problems and saves energy.
There are two different designs of relief valves in use: direct-acting and pilot-operated. Both types have
advantages and work better in certain applications.

1.2.1 Simple Pressure-Relief Valve

The most widely used type of pressure control valve is the pressure-relief valve because it is found in
practically every hydraulic system. Schematic diagram of simple relief valve is shown in Fig. 1.1 and
three-dimensional view is shown in Fig. 1.2. It is normally a closed valve whose function is to limit the
pressure to a specified maximum value by diverting pump flow back to the tank. A poppet is held seated
inside the valve by a heavy spring. When the system pressure reaches a high enough value, the poppet is
forced off its seat. This permits flow through the outlet to the tank as long as this high pressure level is
maintained. Note the external adjusting screw, which varies spring force and, thus, the pressure at which
the valve begins to open (cracking pressure)(Fig. 1.3).
It should be noted that the poppet must open sufficiently to allow full pump flow. The pressure that exists
at full pump flow can be substantially greater than cracking pressure. The pressure at full pump flow is
the pressure level that is specified when referring to the pressure setting of the valve. It is the maximum
pressure level permitted by the relief valve.

114
Pressureport Adjustment screw

Pressure
port

Tank port Spring

Figure1.1 Simple pressure-relief valve.

Figure 1.2Three-dimensional view of simple pressure-relief valve.

Flow pump flow pressure

Cracking pressure
Pressure

Full pump flow

Flow through the relief

valve
Figure 1.3Characteristics of a relief valve.

115
If the hydraulic system does not accept any flow, then all the pump flow must return to the tank via the
relief valve. The pressure-relief valve provides protection against any overloads experienced by the
actuators in the hydraulic system. Of course, a relief valve is not needed if a pressure-compensated vane
pump is used. Obviously one important function of a pressure-relief valve is to limit the force or torque
produced by hydraulic cylinders or motors.
The main advantage of direct-acting relief valves over pilot-operated relief valves is that they respond
very rapidly to pressure buildup. Because there is only one moving part in a direct-acting relief valve, it
can open rapidly, thus minimizing pressure spikes.

1.2.2 Compound Pressure Relief Valve(Pilot-Operated Pressure Relief Valve)

A pilot-operated pressure-relief valve consists of a small pilot relief valve and main relief valve as shown
in Fig. 1.4. It operates in a two-stage process:

1. The pilot relief valve opens when a preset maximum pressure is reached.
2. When the pilot relief valve opens, it makes the main relief valve open.

Figure 1.4Compound relief valve.

The pilot-operated pressure-relief valve has a pressure port that is connected to the pump line and the tank
port is connected to the tank. The pilot relief valve is a poppet type. The main relief valve consists of a
piston and a stem. The main relief piston has an orifice drilled through it. The piston has equal areas
exposed to pressure on top and bottom and is in a balanced condition due to equal force acting on both the
sides. It remains stationary in the closed position. The piston has a light bias spring to ensure that it stays
closed. When the pressure is less than that of relief valve setting, the pump flow goes to the system. If the
pressure in the system becomes high enough, it moves the pilot poppet off its seat. A small amount of
flow begins to go through the pilot line back to the tank. Once flow begins through the piston orifice and
pilot line, a pressure drop is induced across the piston due to the restriction of the piston orifice. This
pressure drop then causes the piston and stem to lift off their seats and the flow goes directly from the
pressure port to the tank.
The advantages of pilot-operated pressure-relief valves over direct-acting pressure-relief valves are as
follows:

116
 1. Pilot-operated pressure-relief valves are usually smaller than direct-acting pressure-relief
valves for the same flow and pressure settings.
2. They have a wider range for the maximum pressure settings than direct-acting pressure-
relief valves.
3. They can be operated using a remote while direct-acting pressure-relief valves cannot.

Graphic symbol of a pressure-relief valve is shown in Fig. 1.5. The symbol shows that the valve is
normally closed (the arrow is offline). On one side of the valve, pressure is fed in (the dashed line) to try
to open the valve, while on the other side, the spring tries to keep it adjustable, allowing the adjustment of
pressure level at which the relief valve opens. The arrow through the spring signifies that it is adjustable,
allowing the adjustment of pressure level at which the relief valve opens.

Figure 1.5Symbolic representation of a simple pressure-relief valve.

117
1.3 Pressure-Reducing Valve

The second type of valve is a pressure-reducing valve. This type of valve (which is normally open) is
used to maintain reduced pressures in specified locations of hydraulic systems. It is actuated by
downstream pressure and tends to close as this pressure reaches the valve setting. Schematic diagram of
pressure reducing valve is shown in Fig. 1.6, symbolic representation is shown in Fig. 1.7 and three-
dimensional view is shown in Fig. 1.8.
A pressure-reducing valve uses a spring-loaded spool to control the downstream pressure. If the
downstream pressure is below the valve setting, the fluid flows freely from the inlet to the outlet. Note
that there is an internal passageway from the outlet which transmits outlet pressure to the spool end
opposite the spring. When the outlet (downstream) pressure increases to the valve setting, the spool
moves to the right to partially block the outlet port. Just enough flow is passed to the outlet to maintain its
preset pressure level. If the valve closes completely, leakage past the spool causes downstream pressure to
build up above the valve setting. This is prevented from occurring because a continuous bleed to the tank
is permitted via a separate drain line to the tank.

Adjustable screw

Drain line

Spring

Main
pressure
line

Reduced
pressure
line

No pilot signal Pilot signal

Figure 1.6Pressure-reducing valve.

Reverse free flow through the valve is only possible if the pressure exceeds the valve setting.The valve
then closes, thus making reverse flow impossible. Therefore, pressure-reducing valves are often equipped
with a check valve for reverse free flow.
External forces acting onto a linear actuator increase the pressure between the pressure-reducing valve
and the actuator. In some systems, it is therefore desirable to relieve excess fluid from the secondary
system to the tank in order to maintain a constant downstream pressure, regardless of such external forces.

118
 Figure1.7 Symbolic representation of a pressure-reducing valve.

A reducing valve is normally open. It reads the downstream pressure. It has an externaldrain.This is
represented by a line connected from the valve drain port to the tank. The symbol shows that the spring
cavity has a drain to the tank.

Figure 1.8 Three-dimensional view of a pressure-reducing valve.

Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2

PRV
Pressure-reducing
valve

Figure 1.9Application of a pressure-reducing valve.

119
1.7 Pressure Sequence Valve

A sequence valve is a pressure-control valve that is used to force two actuators to operate in sequence.
They are similar to pressure-relief valves. Schematic diagram of sequence valve is shown in Fig. 1.18.
Instead of sending flow back to the tank, a sequence valve allows flow to a branch circuit, when a preset
pressure is reached. The check valve allows the sequence valve to be bypassed in the reverse direction.
The component enclosure line indicates that the check valve is an integral part of the component. The
sequence valve has an external drain line; therefore, a line must be connected from the sequence valve’s
drain port to the tank. The symbol for a sequence valve is shown in Fig. 1.19.

Drain

Secondar
y port
In
Out

Direct
pilot

Remote pilot

Figure 1.18Sequence valve.

Figure 1.19Sequence valve with a check valve.

1.7.1 Application of a Sequence Valve

The hydraulic circuit shown in Fig. 1.20 is an example of an application of a sequence valve in which a
clamp cylinder extends first to hold a workpiece and then a second cylinder extends to bend the
workpiece in the desired shape.

120
 Sequence valve 1

Bending cylinder (B)

Clamp cylinder (A)

Sequence valve 2 W

Figure 1.20Application of a sequence valve.

In this circuit, two cylinders are connected in parallel. Without the sequence valve, these cylinders would
extend together as they are both unloaded. In order for this circuit to function properly, the clamp cylinder
must extend completely before the bending cylinder begins to extend. The sequence valve accomplishes
this by not allowing flow into the bending cylinder branch of circuit until the clamp cylinder has reached
the end of its stroke. When the clamp cylinder extends completely, the pressure rises and opens the
sequence valve,thus allowing the bending cylinder to extend. The sequence valve must be set high enough
so that it opens only after the complete extension of the clamp cylinder.

During the retraction of cylinders, the check valve allows the sequence valve to be bypassed.
The sequence valve has no effect on the circuit in this situation. Both cylinders retract together because
both are unloaded and split the pump flow.

121
 FLOW-CONTROL VALVES

1.1 Introduction
Flow-control valves, as the name suggests, control the rate of flow of a fluid through a hydraulic
circuit. Flow-control valves accurately limit the fluid volume rate from fixed displacement pump
to or from branch circuits. Their function is to provide velocity control of linear actuators, or speed
control of rotary actuators. Typical application include regulating cutting tool speeds, spindle
speeds, surface grinder speeds, and the travel rate of vertically supported loads moved upward and
downward by forklifts, and dump lifts. Flow-control valves also allow one fixed displacement
pump to supply two or more branch circuits fluid at different flow rates on a priority basis.
Typically, fixed displacement pumps are sized to supply maximum system volume flow rate
demands. For industrial applications feeding two or more branch circuits from one pressurized
manifold source, an oversupply of fluid in any circuit operated by itself is virtually assured.
Mobile applications that supply branch circuits, such as the power steering and front end loader
from one pump pose a similar situation. If left unrestricted, branch circuits receiving an
oversupply of fluid would operate at greater than specified velocity, increasing the likelihood of
damage to work, hydraulic system and operator.

1.1.1 Functions of Flow-Control Valves

Flow-controlvalves have several functions, some of which are listed below:

1. Regulate the speed of linear and rotary actuators:They control the speed of piston that
is dependent on the flow rate and area of the piston:
Flow rate in the actuator (m3 / s) Q
Velocity of piston (Vp) (m/s) = 
Piston area (m2 ) Ap
2. Regulate the power available to the sub-circuits by controlling the flow to them:
Power (W) = Flow rate (m3/s) ×Pressure (N/m2)
 P = Q×p

3. Proportionally divide or regulate the pump flow to various branches of the circuit:It
transfers the power developed by the main pump to different sectors of the circuit to
manage multiple tasks, if necessary.

122
A partially closed orifice or flow-control valve in a hydraulic pressure line causes resistance to
pump flow. This resistance raises the pressure upstream of the orifice to the level of the relief-
valve setting and any excess pump flow passes via the relief valve to the tank (Fig. 1.1).

In order to understand the function and operation of flow-control devices, one must comprehend
the various factors that determine the flow rate(Q) across an orifice or a restrictor. These are given
as follows:

1. Cross-sectional area of orifice.

2. Shape of the orifice (round, square or triangular).
3. Length of the restriction.
4. Pressure difference across the orifice (Δp).
5. Viscosity of the fluid.

Variable load

Figure 1.1 simple restrictor-type flow-control valves.

Thus, the law that governs the flow rate across a given orifice can be approximately defined as
Q2  p
This implies that any variation in the pressure upstream or downstream of the orifice changes the
pressure differential Δp and thus the flow rate through the orifice (Fig. 1.2).

123
 Adjustable range

Flow rate

Pressure differential (

Figure 1.2 Variation of flow rate with pressure drop.

1.1.2Classification of Flow-Control Valves

Flow-control valves can be classified as follows:

1. Non-pressure compensated.
2. Pressure compensated.

1.1.2.1 Non-Pressure-Compensated Valves

Non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves are used when the system pressure is relatively
constant and motoring speeds are not too critical. The operating principle behind these valves is
that the flow through an orifice remains constant if the pressure drop across it remains the same. In
other words, the rate of flow through an orifice depends on the pressure drop across it.
The disadvantage of these valves is discussed below. The inlet pressure is the pressure from the
pump that remains constant. Therefore, the variation in pressure occurs at the outlet that is defined
by the work load. This implies that the flow rate depends on the work load. Hence, the speed of
the piston cannot be defined accurately using non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves when
the working load varies. This is an extremely important problem to be addressed in hydraulic
circuits where the load and pressure vary constantly.

Needle Valve stem

A B

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.3 Non-pressure-compensated needle-type flow-control valve. (a) Fully closed; (b)
partially opened; (c) fully opened.

124
Schematic diagram of non-pressure-compensated needle-type flow-control valve is shown in Fig.
1.3. It is the simplest type of flow-control valve. It consists of a screw (and needle) inside a tube-
like structure. It has an adjustable orifice that can be used to reduce the flow in a circuit. The size
of the orifice is adjusted by turning the adjustment screw that raises or lowers the needle. For a
given opening position, a needle valve behaves as an orifice. Usually, charts are available that
allow quick determination of the controlled flow rate for given valve settings and pressure drops.
Sometimes needle valves come with an integrated check valve for controlling the flow in one
direction only. The check valve permits easy flow in the opposite direction without any
restrictions. As shown in Fig. 1.4, only the flow from A to B is controlled using the needle. In the
other direction (B to A), the check valve permits unrestricted fluid flow.

A B A B

Restricted flow Free flow

Figure 1.4Flow-controlvalve with an integrated check valve.

1.1.2.2Pressure-Compensated Valves

Pressure-compensated flow-control valvesovercome the difficulty causedby non-pressure-

compensated valves by changing the size of the orifice in relation to the changes in the system
pressure. This is accomplished through a spring-loaded compensator spool that reduces the size of
the orifice when pressure drop increases. Once the valve is set, the pressure compensator acts to
keep the pressure drop nearly constant. It works on a kind of feedback mechanism from the outlet
pressure. This keeps the flow through the orifice nearly constant.

125
 Compensator
spool A

Pilot
Compression
line A
spring

Adjustment
knob
Drain
line

Pilot line B

Main spool
B
Figure 1.5 Sectional view of a pressure-compensated flow-control valve.

Figure 1.6 Graphic symbol of a pressure-compensated flow-control valve.

Schematic diagram of a pressure compensated flow-control valve is shown in Fig. 1.5 and its
graphical symbol in Fig. 1.6. A pressure-compensated flow-control valve consists of a main spool
and a compensator spool. The adjustment knob controls the main spool’s position, which controls
the orifice size at the outlet. The upstream pressure is delivered to the valve by the pilot line A.
Similarly, the downstream pressure is ported to the right side of the compensator spool through the
pilot line B. The compensator spring biases the spool so that it tends toward the fully open
position. If the pressure drop across the valve increases, that is, the upstream pressure increases
relative to the downstream pressure, the compensator spool moves to the right against the force of
the spring. This reduces the flow that in turn reduces the pressure drop and tries to attain an
equilibrium position as far as the flow is concerned.

In the static condition, the hydraulic forces hold the compensator spool in balance, but the bias
spring forces it to the far right, thus holding the compensator orifice fully open. In the flow
condition, any pressure drop less than the bias spring force does not affect the fully open
compensator orifice,but any pressure drop greater than the bias spring force reduces the
compensator orifice. Any change in pressure on either side of the control orifice, without a
corresponding pressure change on the opposite side of the control orifice, moves the compensator
spool. Thus, a fixed differential across the control orifice is maintained at all times. It blocks all
flow in excess of the throttle setting. As a result, flow exceeding the preset amount can be used by
other parts of the circuit or return to the tank via a pressure-relief valve.

126
Performance of flow-control valve is also affected by temperature changes which changes the
viscosity of the fluid. Therefore, often flow-control valves have temperature compensation.
Graphical symbol for pressure and temperature compensated flow-control valve is shown in Fig.
1.7.

Figure 1.7Pressure- and temperature-compensated flow-control valve.

1.2Speed-Controlling Circuits

In hydraulic operations, it is necessary to control the speed of the actuator so as to control the
force, power, timing and other factors of the operation. Actuator speed control is achieved by
controlling the rate of flow into or out of the cylinder.

Speed control by controlling the rate of flow into the cylinder is called meter-in control.Speed
control by controlling the rate of flow out of the cylinder is called meter-out control.

1.2.1 Meter-In Circuit

Figure 1.8 shows a meter-in circuit with control of extend stroke. The inlet flow into the cylinder
is controlled using a flow-control valve. In the return stroke, however, the fluid can bypass the
needle valve and flow through the check valve and hence the return speed is not controlled. This
implies that the extending speed of the cylinder is controlled whereas the retracing speed is not.

CV FCV

Figure 1.8Meter-in circuit.

127
1.2.2 Meter-Out Circuit

Figure 1.9 shows a meter-out circuit for flow control during the extend stroke. When the cylinder
extends, the flow coming from the pump into the cylinder is not controlled directly. However, the
flow out of the cylinder is controlled using the flow-control valve (metering orifice). On the other
hand, when the cylinder retracts, the flow passes through the check valve unopposed, bypassing
the needle valve. Thus, only the speed during the extend stroke is controlled.

Both the meter-in and meter-out circuits mentioned above perform the same operation (control the
speed of the extending stroke of the piston), even though the processes are exactly opposite to one
another.

QFCV

FCV
CV

Figure 1.9 Meter-Out circuit.

1.2.3 Bleed-Off Circuit

Compared to meter-in and meter-out circuits, a bleed-off circuit is less commonly used. Figure
1.10 shows a bleed-off circuit with extend stroke control. In this type of flow control, an additional
line is run through a flow-control valve back to the tank. To slow down the actuator, some of the
flow is bledoff through the flow-control valve into the tank before it reaches the actuator. This
reduces the flow into the actuator, thereby reducing the speed of the extend stroke.
The main difference between a bleed-off circuit and a meter-in/meter-out circuit is that in a bleed-
off circuit, opening the flow-control valve decreases the speed of the actuator, whereas in the case
of a meter-in/meter-out circuit, it is the other way around.

128
 PRV PRV

(a) (b)

Figure 1.10 Bleed-off circuits:(a) Bleed-off for both directions and (b) bleed-off for inlet to the
cylinder or motor.

129
 Chapter 8

HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT DESIGN

1.1 Introduction
A hydraulic circuit is a group of components such as pumps, actuators, control valves, conductors and
fittings arranged to perform useful work. There are three important considerations in designing a
hydraulic circuit:

1. Safety of machine and personnel in the event of power failures.

2. Performance of given operation with minimum losses.
3. Cost of the component used in the circuit.

130
1.2Control of a Single-Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

Figure 1.1 Control of a single-acting cylinder.

Figure 1.1 shows that the control of a single-acting,spring return cylinder using a three-way two-
position manually actuated, spring offset direction-control valve (DCV). In the spring offset mode, full
pump flow goes to the tank through the pressure-relief valve (PRV). The spring in the rod end of the
cylinder retracts the piston as the oil from the blank end drains back into the tank. When the valve is
manually actuated into its next position, pump flow extends the cylinder.
After full extension, pump flow goes through the relief valve. Deactivation of the DCV allows
the cylinder to retract as the DCV shifts into its spring offset mode.

131
 Figure 1.2 Control of a double-acting cylinder.

1.3Control of a Double-Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

The circuit diagram to control double-acting cylinder is shown in Fig. 1.2. The control of a double-
acting hydraulic cylinder is described as follows:
1. When the 4/3 valve is in its neutral position (tandem design), the cylinder is hydraulically locked and
the pump is unloaded back to the tank.
2. When the 4/3 valve is actuated into the flow path, the cylinder is extended against its load as oil flows
from port P through port A. Oil in the rod end of the cylinder is free to flow back to the tank through the
four-way valve from portB through portT.
3. When the 4/3 valve is actuated into the right-envelope configuration, the cylinder retracts as oil flows
from port P through port B. Oil in the blank end is returned to the tank via the flow path from port A to
port T.

At the ends of the stroke, there is no system demand for oil. Thus, the pump flow goes through the relief
valve at its pressure level setting unless the four-way valve is deactivated.

132
1.4Regenerative Cylinder Circuit

Figure 1.3Regenerative circuit.

Figure 1.3 shows a regenerative circuit that is used to speed up the extending speed of a double-acting
cylinder. The pipelines to both ends of the hydraulic cylinder are connected in parallel and one of the
ports of the 4/3 valve is blockedby simply screwing a thread plug into the port opening. During retraction
stroke, the 4/3 valve is configured to the right envelope. During this stroke, the pump flow bypasses the
DCV and enters the rod end of the cylinder. Oil from the blank end then drains back to the tank through
the DCV.
When the DCV is shifted in to its left-envelope configuration, the cylinder extends as shown in Fig.
1.3.The speed of extension is greater than that for a regular double-acting cylinder because the flow from
the rod end regenerates with the pump flow to provide a total flow rate .

133
 When the piston area equals two times the rod area, the extension and retraction speeds are equal.
In general, the greater the ratio of the piston area to rod area, the greater is the ratio of the extending
speed to retraction speed.

1.4.2 Load-Carrying Capacity During Extension

The load-carrying capacity of a regenerative cylinder during extension is less than that obtained from a
regular double-acting cylinder. The load-carrying capacity Fload-extension for a regenerative cylinder during
extension equals pressure times the piston rod area. This is because system pressure acts on both sides of
the piston during extension. Fload-extensionpAr

T
hus, wedo not obtain more power from the regenerative cylinder during extension because the extension
speed is increased at the expense of reduced load-carrying capacity.
1.5Pump-Unloading Circuit

Figure 1.4 Pump-unloading circuit.

Figure 1.4 shows a hydraulic circuit to unload a pump using an unloading valve.When the cylinder
reaches the end of its extension stroke, the pressure of oil rises because the check valve keeps the high-
pressure oil. Due to high-pressure oil in the pilot line of the unloading valve, it opens and unloads the
pump pressure to the tank.

When the DCV is shifted to retract the cylinder, the motion of the piston reduces the pressure in the pilot
line of the unloading valve. This resets the unloading valve until the cylinder is fully retracted. When this
happens, the unloading valve unloads the pump due to high-pressure oil. Thus, the unloading valve
unloads the pump at the ends of the extending and retraction strokes as well as in the spring-centered
position of the DCV.

134
1.6 Double-Pump Hydraulic System

Cylinder

4/3 DCV (solenoid-operated)

CV1

Pressure-relief
CV2 valve

Pressure-
unloading
valve

Low–pressure, High–
high-flow pump pressure,
low-flow
pump

Figure 1.5 Double-pump circuit.

Figure 1.5 shows an application for an unloading valve. It is a circuit that uses a high-pressure, low-flow
pump in conjunction with a low-pressure, high-flow pump. A typical application is a sheet metal punch
press in which the hydraulic cylinder must extend rapidly over a great distance with low-pressure but
high-flow requirements. This occurs under no load. However during the punching operation for short
motion, the pressure requirements are high, but the cylinder travel is small and thus the
flowrequirementsare low. The circuit in Fig. 1.5 eliminates the necessity of having a very expensive high-
pressure, high-flow pump.
When the punching operation begins, the increased pressure opens the unloading valve to unload the low-
pressure pump. The purpose of relief valve is to protect the high-pressure pump from over pressure at the
end of cylinder stroke and when the DCV is in its spring-centered mode. The check valve protects the
low-pressure pump from high pressure, which occurs during punching operation, at the ends of the
cylinder stroke and when the DCV is in its spring-centered mode.

135
149
1.7Counterbalance Valve Application

Load

Counterbalance
valve

Figure 1.6 Counterbalance valvein circuit.

A counterbalance valve (Fig. 1.6) is applied to create a back pressure or cushioning pressure on the
underside of a vertically moving piston to prevent the suspended load from free falling because of gravity
while it is still being lowered.

1.7.1 Valve Operation (Lowering)

The pressure setting on the counterbalance valve is set slightly higher than the pressure required to
prevent the load from free falling. Due to this back pressure in line A, the actuator piston must force down
when the load is being lowered. This causes the pressure in line A to increase, which raises the spring-
opposed spool, thus providing a flow path to discharge the exhaust flow from line A to the DCV and then
to the tank. The spring-controlled discharge orifice maintains back pressure in line A during the entire
downward piston stroke.

1.7.2Valve Operation (Lifting)

Asthe valve is normally closed, flow in the reverse direction (from port B to port A) cannot occur without
a reverse free-flow check valve. When the load is raised again, the internal check valve opens to permit
flow for the retraction of the actuator.

1.7.3 Valve Operation (Suspension)

When the valve is held in suspension, the valve remains closed. Therefore, its pressure setting must be
slightly higher than the pressure caused by the load. Spool valves tend to leak internally under pressure.
This makes it advisable to use a pilot-operated check valve in addition to the counterbalance valve if a
load must be held in suspension for a prolonged time.

136
1.8 HydraulicCylinder Sequencing Circuits

Sequence valve 1

Bending cylinder (B)

Clamp cylinder (A)

Sequence valve 2
W

Figure 1.7 Sequencing circuit.

Hydraulic cylinders can be operated sequentially using a sequence valve. Figure 1.7 shows that two
sequence valves are used to sequence the operation of two double-acting cylinders. When the DCV is
actuated to its right-envelope mode, the bending cylinder (B) retracts fully and then the clamp cylinder
(A) retracts.
This sequence of cylinder operation is controlled by sequence valves. This hydraulic circuit can be used
in a production operation such as drilling. Cylinder A is used as a clamp cylinder and cylinder B as a drill
cylinder. Cylinder A extendsand clamps a work piece. Then cylinder B extends to drive a spindle to drill a
hole. Cylinder B retracts the drill spindle and then cylinder A retracts to release the work piece for
removal.

137
 4/3 DCV (pilot-operated)

Figure 1.8Cylinder Reciprocating.

1.9Automatic Cylinder Reciprocating System

The hydraulic circuit shown in Fig. 1.8 produces continuous reciprocation of a double-acting
cylinder using two sequence valves. Each sequence valve senses the completion of stroke by the
corresponding build-up pressure. Each check valve and the corresponding pilot line prevent the shifting
of the four-way valve until the particular stroke of the cylinder is completed.
The check valves are needed to allow pilot oil to leave either end of the DCV while the pilot pressure
is applied to the opposite end. This permits the spool of the DCV to shift as required.

138
 4/3 DCV (solenoid-operated)

Figure 1.9 Locked cylinders with pilot check valves.

1.10Locked Cylinder Using Pilot Check Valves

A check valve (Fig. 1.9) blocks flow in one direction but allows free flow in the opposite direction.
A pilot-operated check valve permits flow in the normally blocked opposite direction when pilot
pressure is applied at the pilot pressure port of the valve.
Pilot-operated check valves are used to lock the cylinder, so that its piston cannot be moved by
an external force. The cylinder can be extended and retracted by the DCV. If regular check valves are
used, the cylinder could not extend or retract. External force acting on the piston rod does not move the
piston in either direction thus locking the cylinder.

139
1. 11Cylinder Synchronizing Circuits

In industry, there are instances when a large mass must be moved, and it is not feasible to move it with
just one cylinder. In such cases we use two or more cylinders to prevent a moment or moments that
might distort and damage the load. For example, in press used for molding and shearing parts, the platen
used is very heavy. If the platen is several meter wide, it has to be of very heavy construction to prevent
the damage when it is pressed down by a single cylinder in the middle. It can be designed with less
material if it is pressed down with two or more cylinders. These cylinders must be synchronized. There
are two ways that can be used to synchronize cylinders: Parallel and series.

1.11.1 Cylinders in Parallel

F1 F2 F1 F2

Parallel Series
Figure 1.10Cylinders in parallel and series.

Figure 1.10shows a hydraulic circuit in which two cylinders are arranged in parallel. When the two
cylinders are identical, the loads on the cylinders are identical, and then extension and retraction are
synchronized. If the loads are not identical, the cylinder with smaller load extends first. Thus, the two
cylinders are not synchronized. Practically, no two cylinders are identical, because of
packing(seals)friction differences. This prevents cylinder synchronization for this circuit.

1.11.2 Cylinders in Series

During the extending stroke of cylinders, fluid from the pump is delivered to the blank end of cylinder 1.
As cylinder 1 extends, fluid from its rod end is delivered to the blank end of cylinder 2 causing the
extension of cylinder 2. As cylinder 2 extends, fluid from its rod end reaches the tank.
For two cylinders to be synchronized, the piston area of cylinder 2 must be equal to the difference
between the areas of piston and rod for cylinder 1. Thus, applying the continuity equation,

140
 Qout (cylinder1)  Qin (cylinder 2)
we get

( Ap1  Ar1 )v1  Ap2 v2

For synchronization, v1  v2 . Therefore,
( Ap1  Ar1 )  Ap2 (1.1)
The pump must deliver a pressure equal to that required for the piston of cylinder 1 by itself to overcome
loads acting on both extending cylinders. We know that the pressure acting at the blank end of cylinder 2
is equal to the pressure acting at the rod end of cylinder 1.
Forces acting on cylinder 1 give
p1 Ap1  p2 ( Ap1  Ar1 )  F1
Forces acting on cylinder 2 give
p2 Ap2  p ( A A )  F2
3 p2 r2

UsingEq. (1.1)and noting that p3  0 (it is connected to the tank), we have

p1 Ap1  p2 ( Ap2 )  F1 (1.2)
p2 ( Ap2 )  0  F2 (1.3)
Now, Eq. (1.2) + Eq. (1.3) gives
p1 Ap1  F1  F2 (1.4)
If Eqs. (1.1) and (1.4) are met in a hydraulic circuit, the cylinders hooked in series operate in
synchronization.

141
 Appendix A

Standard Symbols for Hydraulic Components

Table B.1 Flow lines

Hydraulic

Pneumatic

Continuous flow

Pilot connection L

L>10E

E
Drain connection L
L<5E

d5E
Connected
d
L

Not connected

Flexible

Plugged

Restricted, affected by viscosity

Restricted, not affected by viscosity

142
 Table B.2 Basic Hydraulic Circuits

Miscellaneous
E D
Line, mech. connection (shaft, levers, piston
rods)
D<5E
Line, enclosure (several components in a unit)
Spring

Direction of rotation

Electric motor M

Heat engine M

Filter or strainer

Reservoir, with line above fluid level

Reservoir, with line below fluid level
Reservoir, as header

Adjustable setting

Reservoir switch

Pressure switch

Accumulator
Sring Loaded Gas Loaded

Cooler, without indicating flow line

Cooler, indicating flow lines of coolant

Heater

Pressure gauge

143
 Pumps and Fluid Motors

With one direction of flow

Fixed-capacity hydraulic pump

With two directions of flow

With one direction of flow

Variable-capacity hydraulic pump

With two directions of flow

With one direction of flow

Fixed-capacity hydraulic motor

With two directions of flow

With one direction of flow

Variable-capacity hydraulic motor

With two directions of flow

144
 Cylinders
Detailed Simplified

Cylinder, single-acting

Cylinder, returned by spring

Cylinder, double-acting with single

piston rod

Cylinder, double-acting with double

piston rod

Cylinder, with single fixed cushion

Cylinder, with double adjustable

cushion

Cylinder, telescopic single-acting

Cylinder, telescopic double-acting

145
 Control Methods

Control, muscular By lever

With detents By pedal

By push button
Control, Electrical

By solenoid
With 1 Winding With 2 Winding

By electrical motor M

Control, Hydraulics ( Direct Acting)

Hydraulic Pneumatic
By application of pressure

Hydraulic Pneumatic
By release of pressure

Control, Hydraulics ( Indirect Control, Pilot-Operated)

Hydraulic Pneumatic

By application of pressure

Hydraulic Pneumatic

By release of pressure

Control paths inside the unit

Control, Electrohydraulic
Solenoid – controlled Solenoid – operated
and pilot – operated or pilot – operated

146
 Control, Mechanical (Operating in One Direction Only)
By plunger or tracer By roller

By spring By roller

Control, servo

Pressure Control Valves

Throttling orifice Throttling orifice

(normally closed) (normally closed)

Inlet pressure control

Pressure relief valves

Inlet pressure or remote pilot

control

Proportional pressure Inlet pressure limited to a value

relief valves proportional to pilot pressure

Sequence

Without relief port Without relief port with remote

control

Pressure regulator or
reducing valve With relief port With relief port with remote
control

147
Differential pressure regulator (outlet pressure is reduced
by a fixed amount with respect to the inlet pressure)

Proportional pressure regulator (outlet pressure is reduced

by a fixed ratio with respect to the inlet pressure)

Flow Control Valves

Shut-off valve

Non-return valve (also called check

valve)

Non-return valve, spring-loaded

Non-return valve, pilot-operated

Non-return valve, with restriction

Flow control valve, with fixed output

Simple
Detailed

Flow control valve, with variable

output

Detailed Simple

148
 Direction Control valves

These squares indicate direction control valves, having

as many distinct positions as there are squares. The
pipe connections are represented as connected to the
box, representing the unoperated condition. For
operation, boxes are imagined to be displaced, so that
pipe connections correspond with ports of the box in
question.

One-flow path

Two closed ports

Directional valve, with two extreme positions and an

infinite number of intermediate conditions with varying
degrees of throttling

Detailed

Directional valve single-solenoid-controlled, pilot-

operated in both directions, spring return, four ports,
two distinct position

Simple

149
 Pneumatics Components

Vacuum pump

Detailed Symbol
Filter with Auto Lubricator with
Drain Drain

Filter–regulator–lubricator

Relieving Adjustable
Regulator

Simplified Symbol

Filter with water trap with manual

Air bleed

Plain with no provision

for connection
Exhaust port

Threaded for connection

Air compressor

150
 Sheet 1
Properties of Hydraulic Oil

1) Find the weight of a body having a mass of 58 Kg and the density of the body.

2) If the body of Example 1 has a volume of 0.051 m3, find its specific weight and the
density of the body.

3) Air at 20°C and under atmospheric pressure has a specific weight of 11.8 N/m3.
Find its specific gravity.

4) A 0.00016-m3 sample of oil is compressed in a cylinder until its pressure is

increased from 690 to 13790 Kpa. If the bulk modulus equals 1723689 Kpa, find
the change in volume of the oil if:
a. It is new oil
b. oil has 0.1 air by volume

5) An oil has a viscosity of 50 CS. Find the corresponding viscosity

in units of N.s/m2 and centipoise. The specific gravity of the oil is 0.9.

6) A 164-cm3 sample of oil is compressed in a cylinder until its pressure

is increased from 687 kPa to 13,740 kPa. If the bulk modulus equals 1718 MPa,
find the percent change in volume of the oil if:
a. It is new oil
b. oil has 0.1 air by volume

151
7) For the fluid power automotive lift system of Figure, the hydraulic piston has a
250-mm diameter. How much oil pressure (kPa) is required to lift a 13,300 N
automobile?

152
 Sheet 2
Energy losses in Hydraulic System
1) The kinematic viscosity of a hydraulic oil is 50 cS. If the oil flows in a 0.0254 m
diameter commercial steel pipe, find the friction factor if
a. The velocity is 3 m/s
b. The velocity is 12 m/s

2) What is the head loss across a 0.0254 m wide-open globe valve when oil (SG = 0.9)
flows through it at a rate of 0.00189 m3/s?

3) What is the head loss across a 50-mm wide-open gate valve when oil (ν = 0.001?
m2/s, γ = 8800N/m3) flows through it at a rate of 0.02 m3/s?

4) Hydraulic oil (n = 100 cS) flows through a 1-in-diameter commercial steel pipe
at a rate of 0.00189 m3/s. What is the equivalent length of a 0.0254 m wide-open globe
valve placed in the line?

5) For the hydraulic system in the previous figure, the following metric data are
given:
a. The pump is adding 3.73 kW to the fluid.
b. Pump flow is 0.00190 m3/s.
c. The pipe has a 0.0254-m inside diameter.
d. The specific gravity of oil is 0.9.
e. The kinematic viscosity of oil is 100 cS.
f. The elevation difference between stations 1 and 2 is 6.10 m.
g. Pipe lengths are as follows: pump inlet pipe length = 1.53 m and pump
outlet pipe length up to hydraulic motor = 4.88 m.

153
Find the pressure available at the inlet to the hydraulic motor (station 2).
The pressure at the oil top surface level in the hydraulic tank is atmospheric
(0 Pa gage). The head loss, HL, due to friction between stations 1 and 2 is not
given.

6) For the hydraulic system of Figure, the following data are given:
a. The pump is adding 5 hp to the fluid (pump hydraulic horsepower = 5).
b. Pump flow is 30 gpm.
c. The pipe has a 1-in inside diameter.
d. The specific gravity of oil is 0.9.
e. The kinematic viscosity of oil is 100 cS.

154
 Sheet 3
Fluid Power System
1) A gear pump has a 0.08 outside diameter, a 0.05 inside diameter, and a 0.025 m width.
If the actual pump flow at 1800 rpm and rated pressure is 0.0018 m3/s, what is the
volumetric efficiency?

2) A gear pump has a 75-mm outside diameter, a 50-mm inside diameter, and a 25-mm
width. If the volumetric efficiency is 90% at rated pressure, what is the corresponding
actual flow rate? The pump speed is 1000 rpm.

3) Find the offset angle for an axial piston pump that delivers 0.001 m3/s at 3000 rpm.
The pump has nine 0.013 m diameter pistons arranged on a 0.14 m diameter piston circle.
The volumetric efficiency is 95%

4) Find the flow rate in units of L/s that an axial piston pump delivers at 1000 rpm. The
pump has nine 15-mm-diameter pistons arranged on a 125-mm-diameter piston circle.
The offset angle is set at 10° and the volumetric efficiency is 94%.

5) A pump has a displacement volume of 0.008 m3. It delivers 0.08 m3 at 1000 rpm and
7 Mpa. If the prime mover input torque is 101 N.m,
a. What is the overall efficiency of the pump?
b. What is the theoretical torque required to operate the pump?

155
6) A pump has a displacement volume of 100 cm3. It delivers 0.0015 m3/s at 1000 rpm and
70 bars. If the prime mover input torque is 120 N · m,
a. What is the overall efficiency of the pump?
b. What is the theoretical torque required to operate the pump?

7) The pump in Example 6 is driven by an electric motor having an overall efficiency of

85%. The hydraulic system operates 12 hours per day for 250 days per year. The cost of
electricity is $0.11 per kilowatt hour. Determine
a. The yearly cost of electricity to operate the hydraulic system.
b. The amount of the yearly cost of electricity that is due to the
inefficiencies of the electric motor and pump

156
 Sheet 4
Hydraulic Motors
1) A hydraulic motor has a 0.00008 m3 volumetric displacement. If it has a pressure rating
of 70 bar and it receives oil from a 0.00076 m3/s theoretical flow-rate pump,
find the motor
a. Speed
b. Theoretical torque
c. Theoretical horsepower

2) A hydraulic motor has a displacement of 0.00016 m3 and operates with a pressure of

70 bar and a speed of 2000 rpm. If the actual flow rate consumed by the motor
is 0.0072 m3/s and the actual torque delivered by the motor is 170 N.m, find
a. ηu
b. ηm
c. ηo
d. The actual horsepower delivered by the motor

3) A hydrostatic transmission, operating at 70 bar pressure, has the following

characteristics:

Find the
a. Displacement of the motor
b. Motor output torque

157
4) A hydraulic motor has a 82-cm3 (0.082-L) volumetric displacement. If it has
a pressure rating of 70 bars and it receives oil from a 0.0006-m3/s (0.60-Lps) or
36.0-Lpm) theoretical flow-rate pump, find the motor
a. Speed
b. Theoretical torque
c. Theoretical power

5) A hydraulic motor has a displacement of 164 cm3 and operates with a pressure
of 70 bars and a speed of 2000 rpm. If the actual flow rate consumed by
the motor is 0.006 m3/s and the actual torque delivered by the motor is
170 N · m, find
a. ηu
b. ηm
c. ηo
d. The actual kW delivered by the motor

6) A hydrostatic transmission, operating at 70 bars pressure, has the following

characteristics:

Find the
a. Displacement of the motor
b. Motor output torque

158
 Sheet 5
Hydraulic Cylinders
1) A pump supplies oil at 0.0015 m3/s to a 0.0508m -diameter double-acting hydraulic
cylinder. If the load is 4448 N (extending and retracting) and the rod diameteris 0.0254 m,
find
a. The hydraulic pressure during the extending stroke
b. The piston velocity during the extending stroke
c. The cylinder horsepower during the extending stroke
d. The hydraulic pressure during the retraction stroke
e. The piston velocity during the retraction stroke
f. The cylinder horsepower during the retraction stroke

2) Find the cylinder force F required to lift the 26689 N weight W along a direction which
is 30° from the horizontal, as shown in Figure. The weight is moved at constant velocity.

3) The 26689 N weight Example 2 is to be lifted upward in a vertical direction.

Find the cylinder force required to
a. Move the weight at a constant velocity of 2.5 m/s
b. Accelerate the weight from zero velocity to a velocity of 2.5 m/s in 0.50 s

159
4
For the first-, second-, and third-class lever systems of Figures 4a, 4b,
and 4c the following data are given:

L1 ⫽ L2 ⫽ 10 in
f ⫽ 0°
Fload ⫽ 1000 lb

Find the cylinder force required to overcome the load force for the
a. First-class lever
b. Second-class lever
c. Third-class lever

L2

L1

LOAD
ROD PIN
CYLINDER θ
LEVER
ROD PIN
FIXED Fload
HINGE
Fcyl φ PIN
L2
Fcyl ⫽ Fload
L1cosf
CYLINDER

Figure 4a Use of a first-

class lever to drive a load.

L2

L1

θ FIXED
LEVER HINGE
PIN
φ
Fcyl Fload
L2
Fcyl ⫽ Fload
1L1 ⫹ L2 2 cosf
CYLINDER

Figure 4b Use of a second-

class lever system to drive a
load.

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 L2 FIXED
HINGE
PIN
L1

Fcyl cos f 1L2 cos u 2 ⫽ Fload 1L1 ⫹ L2 2 cos u

θ LEVER
φ
Fcyl
or
L1 ⫹ L2
CYLINDER Fcyl ⫽ Fload
L2cosf
Fload

Figure 4c Use of a third-class

lever system to drive a load.

161