Lattice & Crystal:

Lattice: A transnationally periodic arrangement of point in space.

Crystal: A transnationally periodic arrangement of atoms in space.
Lattice & crystal seems similar by definition but are not the same: The
difference, which is not distinguished in many texts, has to be recognized to
clearly understand crystal structure.
Crystal = Lattice + Motif
Motif or Basis: an atom or group of atoms associated with each lattice point.
Motif is the repeating unit of the pattern.
Lattice: Underlying periodicity of crystal – How to repeat
Motif: Atom or group of atoms which is periodically repeated – What to repeat

Each center (points) is also in periodic arrangement: Periodic arrangement of

the points is the lattice of the diamond pattern. Associating one diamond (motif)
to each lattice point, the diamond pattern can be obtained.

(Lattice) (Motif) Pattern of diamonds (Crystal)

Unit Cell:
Placing each lattice point in relation to each motif (anywhere, above, below or
side, as long as it is placed at the same place every time) generates lattice of a
particular structure.
Infinite number of ways to join lattice points as shown in the diagram below.

Lattice translation: Any vector from one lattice point to another

In practice, generally adjacent lattice points are joined, and a unit cell can be
defined that way.

Unit cell: A region in space which can generate the entire lattice (crystal) by
repeating itself through lattice translation.
Joining adjacent lattice points: Parallelogram (2D), Parallelopiped (3D).
Infinitely many unit cells can be generated. Unit cell is not unique.
Typers of Unit cell:
Primitive unit cell: Lattice points only at the corners.
Non-primitive unit cell: Lattice points at the corners and other points.
The unit cell of the lattice and the motif define the whole pattern or structure.
The environment (i.e. the spatial distribution of the surrounding motifs, and
their orientation) around each motif is identical
A lattice is an array of points in space in which the environment of each
point is identical.
Every crystal has a unique lattice associated with it.
Group of atoms also forms motif as in graphene in the diagram above.

Crystal Coordinate System:

Lattice parameters:
Three basis vectors (lengths of the edges of the unit cell, a, b , c) and the
interaxial angles (, , )
Crystal system & Bravais Lattice:
German physicist M. L. Frankenheim proposed 15 space lattices in 1835.
Rectangular-C lattice can also be described by a
Rohmbic-P or Diamond-P lattice depending on how
the unit cel is chosen. Over counting might have
arisen from that.

French physicist Aguste Bravais corrected it to 14 in 1848 – 14 Bravais lattice

7 crystal system.
Crystal System Unit cell Bravais Lattice
1 Cubic a = b = c,  =  =  = 90 P I F
2 Tetragonal a = b  c,  =  =  = 90 P I
3 Orthorhombic a  b  c,  =  =  = 90 P I F C
4 Hexagonal a = b  c,  =  90,  = 120 P
5 Trigonal or a = b = c,  =  =   90 P
Rhombohedral
6 Monoclinic a  b  c,  =  = 90,   90 P C
7 Triclinic a  b  c,      P

P – Primitive, lattice points only at the corners of the unit cell

I – Innenzentrierte, German for Body-cantered, lattice point at the body center +
corners.
F – lattice point at the centers of each face + corners
C – Base-centred or C-centred, lattice points on center of two opposite faces
(intersecting c-axis) + corners. A- and B-centred for other pair of faces)
Why not Edge-centred?
Basis for classification of lattices

In the base-centred cubic lattice another equivalent lattice can be curved out.
Then why C-centred cubic lattice is not counted?

Two FCC (C-F) – One smaller BCT (T-I) can be sketched out
Unit cell is not unique (infinitely many can be drawn). So, unit cell cannot form
the basis for classification of lattice.
Symmetry is the basis for classification.
Symmetry:
An object is said to symmetric with respect to a geometric operation if it can be
brought into self-coincidence by that operation.
Translation: If all the lattice points are shifted by the translation vector the
lattice will come to self coincidence.

Translational symmetry is the defining symmetry of crystals or lattice.

So, a lattice can also be defined as a set of points possessing translational
symmetry

Lattice consists of variety of symmetry: Group of symmetry.

 Point group: Non-translational symmetry
Translational symmetry is ignored in this. These symmetry operations such as
Rotation and Reflection: will leave some point unchanged. Point on the rotation
axis remain invariant. Points on mirror plane remain invariant.
Rotation: If by a rotation through an angle about an axis the object is brought to
self coincidence, it is said to have to rotation symmetry.
An n-fold rotation symmetry means rotation through an angle of 2/n will
repeat the object or motif n times in a full 360o rotation. n =1 means no
symmetry.

Crystallographic Restriction Theorem: By virtue of translation, symmetry 1-,

2-, 3- , 4- and 6-fold rotation only. 5 and higher than 6 are not possible as these
are not compatible with translation symmetry.

p  n-fold Symbol

T T
0 60 6
  1 90 4
pT
Tcos Tcos 2 120 3
T
3 180 2

-1 0/360 1

Total 32 Point groups: 32 Crystal Classes

Space group:
Translation is included and other symmetry also included.
Point + Translations: Bravais lattice
Total 230 space groups
Crystal System:
Defined by a characteristics symmetry, e.g. Cubic – Four 3-fold rotation axis
After defining the symmetry, a unit cell is defined. Unit cell parameters are not
the defining property. Symmetry or the four 3-fold axis is the defining property.
Once the characterise symmetry establishes the crystal system, a conventional
unit cell satisfying cell parameters relationships can be chosen out of many
possibilities.
The H-M Symbols:

Hermann-Mauguin Symbols have 1, 2 , or 3 elements. The first element usually

refers to the principle axis of rotation. The second element is usually for
secondary axes of rotation and/or mirror planes; and the third element is for
remaining symmetry. The principle axis of rotation is most often coincident with
the c-axis. The major exception is in the monoclinic system where it is the b-
axis.

For example, the H-M symbol for the Monoclinic Prismatic class is 2/m. It
indicates that the b-axis is a 2-fold axis of rotation and that the axis is
perpendicular to a mirror plane. The H-M symbol for the Hexagonal pyramidal
class is 6 (a single element), meaning that the c-axis is a 6-fold axis of rotation
and there is no other symmetry. 32 (same as 3 2) is a 3-fold axis coincident with
the c-axis and three 2-fold axes each coincident with the 3 a-axes. The three fold
axis requires that given one horizontal axis or plane there must be three of them.
4/m 3 2/m) is for the hexoctahedral class in the isometric system. The first
element is for the three 4-fold axes of rotation, each perpendicular to a mirror
plane. The second element is for the four 3-fold axes that are the body diagonals
of the cube (why four of them? The 4-fold axes require them.) And the third
element is for the 2-fold axes (edge to edge diagonals) each perpendicular to a
mirror plane.
The Hermann–Mauguin symbols presented above are called full symbols. For
many groups they can be simplified by omitting n-fold rotation axes
in ⁠n/m⁠ positions. This can be done if the rotation axis can be unambiguously
obtained from the combination of symmetry elements presented in the symbol.
For example, the short symbol for ⁠2/m⁠⁠2/m⁠2⁠ /m⁠ is mmm,
for 4⁠ /m⁠2⁠ /m⁠⁠2/m⁠ is 4⁠ /m⁠mm, and for ⁠4/m⁠3⁠2/m⁠ is m3m. In groups containing one
higher-order axis, this higher-order axis cannot be omitted. For example,
symbols ⁠4/m⁠⁠2/m⁠⁠2/m⁠ and 6⁠ /m⁠⁠2/m⁠⁠2/m⁠ can be simplified to 4/mmm (or ⁠4/m⁠mm)
and 6/mmm (or ⁠6/m⁠mm), but not to mmm; the short symbol for 3⁠2/m⁠ is 3m.

The Triclinic Crystal System

The symmetry of the triclinic system is unique in that it exhibits only a center of
symmetry or no symmetry at all. Only 8% of all minerals crystallize in the
triclinic system, and nearly all do so in the pinacoidal class with similar faces on
opposite sides of the crystal.
 Herman-Mauguin Symbols: Triclinic Classes

Class Class H-M

Interpretation
Nbr. Name Symbol

No symmetry. No axes of rotation and no

1 Pedial 1 mirror planes. No center of symmetry. Faces on
opposite sides are not equivalent.

A center of symmetry. Each face or point is

matched on the opposite side by inversion
2 Pinacoidal 1 through the center (i.e. Opposite sides are
equivalent). No axes of rotation and no mirror
planes.

The Monoclinic Crystal System

Aegerine 2/m

Twenty seven percent of all known minerals crystallize in the monoclinic

system and the vast majority are in the prismatic class. The 2-fold principal axis
in the prismatic and sphenoidal classes is, uniquely, the b-axis. The absence of a
vertical mirror plane containing both the b-axis and c-axis makes recognition of
the prismatic class fairly easy, even when the lower termination is in matrix and
the 2-fold axis cannot be observed. The single vertical mirror plane is the key in
both the prismatic and domatic classes.
2 is always a 2-fold b-axis.
m is always a vertical mirror plane containing the a-axis and c-axis.
 Herman-Mauguin Symbols: Monoclinic Classes

Class Class H-M

Interpretation
Nbr. Name Symbol

A single mirror plane perpendicular to the b-

3 Domatic m
axis.

A 2-fold axis coincident with the b-axis. No

4 Sphenoidal 2
mirror plane.

A 2-fold axis (b-axis) perpendicular to a mirror

plane. The mirror plane is visible when
5 Prismatic 2/m
viewing the termination; if the crystal is in
matrix the 2-fold axis may not be visible.

The Orthorhombic Crystal System

Baryte 2/m 2/m 2/m

The orthorhombic crystal system is unique in that it has a 2/fold axis coincident
with the c-axis. That axis can be seen in all three classes when observing the
termination of the crystal, making orthorhombic crystals fairly easy to identify.
Two vertical mirror planes at 90o angles to each other and containing the 2-fold
axis, in the Orthorhombic dipyramidal class are quite obvious, also. A major
problem is that many triclinic and monoclinic minerals have axial angles very
close to 90o.
1st position = a-axis or a/c plane.
2nd position = b-axis or b/c plane.
3rd position = c-axis.
 Herman-Mauguin Symbols: Orthorhombic Classes

Class H-M
Class Name Interpretation
Nbr. ____Symbol____

Two perpendicular mirror planes

the intersection of which is a 2-
Orthorhombic
6 mm2 fold c-axis. There is no
pyramidal
horizontal mirror plane and the
class is hemimorphic.

Three 2-fold axes mutually

Orthorhombic perpendicular and coincident
7 222
disphenoidal with the crystallographic axes.
No mirror planes.

Three 2-fold axes each

Orthorhombic perpendicular to a mirror plane.
8 2/m 2/m 2/m
dipyramidal Each 2-fold axis is coincident
with a crystallographic axis.

The Trigonal Crystal System

Calcite 3 2/m

The unique feature of trigonal crystal system symmetry is a single 3-fold or 3-

fold inversion axis. If more than one 3-fold or 3-fold inversion axis is found, the
crystal is in the isometric (cubic) system. Trigonal crystals are often
recognizable from a termination view. The 3-fold symmetry is apparent in the
distribution of faces. Further, the tripartite termination is often set above a
trigonal or hexagonal cross-section or prism when viewed from above.
1st position = c-axis.
2nd position = a-axes and/or a/c planes.

Herman-Mauguin Symbols: Trigonal Classes

Class H-M
Class Name Interpretation
Nbr. ___Symbol___

A 3-fold axis of rotation coincident

Trigonal
9 3 with the c-axis. No mirror planes.
pyramidal
Hemimorphic

A 3-fold axis of rotatory inversion

10 Rhombohedral 3 coincident with the c-axis. No
mirror planes.

A 3-fold axis coincident with the c-

Ditrigonal axis and 3 vertical mirror planes
11 3m
pyramidal each containing the c-axis and one
a-axis. Hemimorphic

A 3-fold axis coincident with the c-

Trigonal axis and perpendicular to 3 2-fold
12 32
trapezohedral axes. Each 2-fold axis is coincident
with an a-axis.

A 3-fold axis of rotatory inversion

perpendicular to 3 2-fold axes.
Hexagonal
13 3 2/m Each 2-fold axis is coincident with
scalenohedral
an a-axis and perpendicular to a
mirror plane. Holohedral
The Hexagonal Crystal System

Vanadinite 6/m

The unique feature of symmetry in the hexagonal system is a 6-fold axis of

rotation or a 6-fold inversion axis. In the dihexagonal pyramidal and hexagonal
trapezohedral classes the planes or 2-fold axes are located so three of the planes
or 2-fold axes, respectively, include the a-axes. The other three, in each case, are
evenly spaced between the axes.
1st position = c-axis.
2nd position = a-axes or a/c plane.
3rd position = alternate (30o from a-axes).

Herman-Mauguin Symbols: Hexagonal Classes

Class H-M
Class Name Interpretation
Nbr. ____Symbol____

A 6-fold inversion axis is

equivalent to a 3-fold axis
Trigonal
14 6 = 3/m perpendicular to a mirror plane.
dipyramidal
No minerals have been found as
crystals.

Hexagonal A 6-fold axis of rotation coincident

15 6
pyramidal with the c-axis. Hemimorphic.

A 6-fold axis of rotation coincident

Hexagonal
16 6/m with the c-axis and perpendicular
dipyramidal
to a mirror plane.
 A 6-fold inversion axis coincident
with the c-axis and centered in 3
vertical mirror planes each
containing an a-axis; 3 2-fold axes
Ditrigonal
17 6m2 = 3/m m coincident with the a-axes.
dipyramidal
Equivalent to a 3-fold axis
perpendicular to a mirror plane
and central to 3 vertical mirror
planes each containing an a-axis.

A 6-fold axis coincident with and

central to 6 vertical mirror planes;
Dihexagonal
18 6mm 3 coincident with the a-axes and 3
pyramidal
spaced evenly between the a-axes.
Hemimorphic

A 6-fold axis coincident with the

c-axis and perpendicular to 6 2-
Hexagonal
19 622 fold axes; 3 coincident with the a-
Trapezohedral
axes and 3 spaced evenly between
the a-axes. Enantiomorphic

6-fold axis coincident with the c-

axis and perpendicular to 6 2-fold
Dihexagonal axes; 3 coincident with the a-axes
20 6/m 2/m 2/m
dipyramidal and 3 spaced evenly between the
a-axes; each axis perpendicular to
a mirror plane. Holohedral
The Tetragonal System

Apophyllite 4/m 2/m 2/m

A single 4-fold axis of rotational symmetry or rotatory inversion is the unique

feature of the tetragonal crystal system. if there is more than one 4-fold axis, the
crystal belongs in the isometric (cubic) system.
1st position = c-axis
2nd position = a-axes and/or a/c planes.
3rd position = alternate (45o from a-axes)

Herman-Mauguin Symbols: Tetragonal Classes

Class H-M
Class Name Interpretation
Nbr. __Symbol____

Tetragonal A 4-fold rotatory inversion axis

21 4
disphenoidal coincident with the c-axis

Tetragonal A 4-fold axis coindident with the c-

22 4
pyramidal axis. Hemimorphic

A 4-fold axis coincident with the c-

Tetragonal
23 4/m axis and perpendicular to a mirror
dipyramidal
plane.

A 4-fold inversion axis coincident

Tetragonal with the c-axis that is perpendicular
24 42m
scalenohedral to 2 2-fold axes that are coincident
with the a-axes. 2 vertical mirror
 planes containing the c-axis and
intermediate to the a-axes.

A 4-fold axis parallel to and included

in 4 vertical mirror planes. 2 mirror
Ditetragonal
25 4mm planes are coincident with the a-axis;
pyramidal
the other two are intermediate.
Hemimorphic

A 4-fold axis coincident with the c-

axis and perpendicular to 4 2-fold
Tetragonal
26 422 axes; two of which are coincident
trapezohedral
with the a-axes and two of which are
intermediate to the a-axes.

A 4-fold axis coincident with the c-

axis and perpendicular to a mirror
plane. 2 2-fold axes perpendicular to
Ditetragonal 2 vertical mirror planes and
27 4/m 2/m 2/m
dipyramidal coincident with the a-axes; and 2 2-
fold axes intermediate to the a-axes
and perpendicular to 2 vertical mirror
planes.

The Isometric (Cubic) System

Fluorite 4/m 3 2/m

The unique element of symmetry in the isometric system is the presence of 4 3-

fold axes. The 4-fold axes are not present in all classes and as such are not the
unique feature. Minerals in the isometric system comprise approximately 7% of
all known minerals. About 2/3 of them are in the hexoctahedral class.
1st position = a-axes.
2nd position = cube body corner diagonals .
3rd position = cube body edge diagonals.

Herman-Mauguin Symbols: Isometric Classes

Class H-M
Class Name Interpretation
Nbr. __Symbol____

Three 2-fold axes coincident with

28 Tetartoidal 23 the a-axes and four 3-fold diagonal
axes.

Three 2-fold axes coincident with

the a-axes and each perpendicular to
29 Diploidal 2/m 3
a mirror plane; and four diagonal 3-
fold inversion axes.

Three mutually perpendicular 4-fold

inversion axes coincident with the a-
30 Hextetrahedral 43m
axes; four axes of 3-fold symmetry;
and six diagonal mirror planes.

Three 4-fold axes coincident with

31 Gyroidal 432 the a-axes; four diagonal 3-fold
axes; and six 2-fold axes.

Three 4-fold axes perpendicular to

mirror planes; 4 body-diagonal 3-
32 Hexoctahedral 4/m 3 2/m fold inversion axes; 6 edge-diagonal
2-fold axes each perpendicular to a
mirror plane .
Pearson symbol (Wiki)
The Pearson symbol, or Pearson notation, is used in crystallography as a
means of describing a crystal structure, and was originated by W. B.
Pearson.[1] The symbol is made up of two letters followed by a number. For
example:
 Diamond structure, cF8
 Rutile structure, tP6
The two (italicised) letters specify the Bravais lattice. The lower-case letter
specifies the crystal family, and the upper-case letter the centering type. The
number at the end of the Pearson symbol gives the number of the atoms in the
conventional unit cell.[2]

Crystal family
a triclinic = anorthic
m monoclinic
o orthorhombic
t tetragonal
h hexagonal
c cubic
Centring type + number of translation equivalent points
P Primitive 1
S, A, B, C One side/face centred 2
I Body-centred (from German: innenzentriert)[3] 2
R Rhombohedral centring (see below) 3
F All faces centred 4
The letters A, B and C were formerly used instead of S. When the centred face
cuts the X axis, the Bravais lattice is called A-centred. In analogy, when the
centred face cuts the Y or Z axis, we have B- or C-centring respectively.[3]
The fourteen possible Bravais lattices are identified by the first two letters:
 Crystal family Lattice symbol Pearson-symbol letters
Triclinic P aP
Monoclinic P mP
S mS
Orthorhombic P oP
S oS
F oF
I oI
Tetragonal P tP
I tI
Hexagonal P hP
R hR
Cubic P cP
F cF
I cI

Pearson symbol and space group

The Pearson symbol does not uniquely identify the space group of a crystal
structure. For example, both the NaCl structure (space group Fm3m) and
diamond (space group Fd3m) have the same Pearson symbol cF8.
Confusion also arises in the rhombohedral lattice, which is alternatively
described in a centred hexagonal (a = b, c, α = β = 90°, γ = 120°) or primitive
rhombohedral (a = b = c, α = β = γ) setting. The more commonly used
hexagonal setting has 3 translationally equivalent points per unit cell. The
Pearson symbol refers to the hexagonal setting in its letter code (hR), but the
following figure gives the number of translationally equivalent points in the
primitive rhombohedral setting. Examples: hR1 and hR2 are used to designate
the Hg and Bi structures respectively.
Symmetry based classification: