Learning Module: Basic Pharmaceutical sciences II | ORHB

Basic Pharmaceutical sciences II

Learning Module
Module Code: - HLT PHA3-M-02 1217 V1

December 2017
Learning Module: Basic Pharmaceutical sciences II | ORHB

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 Learning Module: Basic Pharmaceutical sciences II | ORHB

Preface

In response to the critical shortage of Pharmacy professionals in Oromia region, a group of experts from
universities and colleges in Oromia region have developed an Outcome based TVET Model curriculum for
Pharmacy Level II-IV programs in October, 2017 with the leadership of Oromia Regional Health Bureau.

The outcome based curriculum was developed in reference to the level based 2011 Ethiopian Occupational
standard. The guiding principle in the development of the outcome based curriculum was to train Pharmacy
professionals in focused, time efficient and outcome based approach, and to fill the existing pharmacy work force
shortage in the region with competent professionals.

The key features of the outcome based curriculum include the use of variety of teaching/learning methods,
repeated exposure of trainees to skill laboratories, practical attachment/cooperative training and the delivery of
the training in standardized learning modules (information sheets) and skill lab manual/checklists (Operation
sheets).

This learning module was developed by a diverse group of experts from higher teaching institutions in Oromia
region, experts from Oromia Regional health bureau, Oromia TVET, Oromia COC agency and professional
associations.

This Basic Pharmaceutical Science II learning Module covers 3 unit of competencies in the level III pharmacy
program. The learning module covers both theoretical and practical aspects of the competencies.

Dear Trainee, you are expected to read all the information presented in the learning module, attempt all the self-
check questions and perform skill activities as per the skill lab learning guide/checklist.

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 Learning Module: Basic Pharmaceutical sciences II | ORHB

Acknowledgment

This Basic Pharmaceutical Science II learning module and skill lab manual for Hospital/Community
assisting Pharmacy Level III Program was developed by experts from Universities and Colleges in
Oromia National Regional State.

Oromia Regional Health Bureau and Oromia TVET Bureau would like to acknowledge the following
individuals and their organization for their dedication, kind participation, and expert contributions in the
development of this training material.

Abay Kasa AHMC

Abdi Leggese ORHB

Abdurazak Jemal Tura Arsi University

Asrat Hordofa AA Uniersity

Desalegn Chilo Mettu University

Dr.Worku Bedada Salale University

Edao Sado Wollega University

Ermias Mergia AHMC

Getu Melesie Ambo University

Mamo Abdi ORTETB

Mekuria Kebede OOCAA

Mustefa Ahmed Ambo University

Shibiru Tesema Jimma University

Teferi Guji Jhpiego

Tena Tilki Gimbi G.Hospital

Tesemma Sileshi Ambo University

Zerihun Ayenew ORHB

Birhanu Motbaynor Haromaya University

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Table of Contents
1. Traditional medicine ...........................................................................................................................................6
1.1. Definition of terms .....................................................................................................................................7
1.2. Advantages and disadvantages of traditional medicine ............................................................................8
2. Ethiopian Traditional Medicine ..........................................................................................................................9
2.1. Types of traditional medicine practiced in Ethiopia ........................................................................................9
2.2. Some medicinal plants (herbs) used in Ethiopia .......................................................................................... 12
3. Crude drugs ..................................................................................................................................................... 16
3.1. Nomenclature of crude drugs ...................................................................................................................... 16
3.2. Steps in Scientific investigation of medicinal plants.................................................................................... 18

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Module description: This module aims to provide the learners with the knowledge, skills and right
attitudes required to identify, collect, extract and promote safe use of commonly used traditional medicines
in Ethiopia.

Module Objectives

By the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:

 Describe basic concepts of traditional medicine, crude drugs, and techniques of

extraction
 Promote safe use of traditional medicine
 Identify commonly used traditional medicine in their locality

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1. Traditional medicine

Traditional medicine also known as indigenous or folk medicine; comprises knowledge systems that
developed over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. It Is "The
health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral-based
medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in
combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being" (WHO).

The association of humans and traditional originated with the beginning of life on earth, when plants
supplied much of the shelter, oxygen, food and medicine needed by higher life forms. Overtime and
with the beginning of societies, human learned to recognize and categorize plant materials suited for
use in meeting the necessities of life.

When adopted outside of its traditional culture, traditional medicine is often called complementary or
alternative medicine. In some countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America up to 80% use TM to help
meet some of their primary health care needs. Despite western medicine becoming more widespread
in Ethiopia, Ethiopians tend to rely more on TM. Modern health services remain concentrated in urban
areas and have failed to keep pace with the growing population, keeping health care access out of
reach for most Ethiopians living in rural Ethiopia

Some studies have also revealed that Ethiopians use TM due to lack of access to modern health care
facilities. However, the current Ethiopian health care system is a primary health care focused system
which improves access to modern medicine more than ever. But, both rural and urban populations
continue to use traditional medicine. The reason behind this was found to be the cultural acceptability
of TMPs. Although traditional medicine plays an important role in Ethiopian society, knowledge about
the extent and characteristics of traditional healing practices and practitioners is limited and has
frequently been ignored in the national health system.

The WHO notes that "inappropriate use of traditional medicines or practices can have negative or
dangerous effects" and that "further research is needed to ascertain the efficacy and safety" of several
of the practices and medicinal plants used by traditional medicine systems.

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1.1. Definition of terms

Ethno medicine: refers to the study of traditional medical practice which is concerned with the
cultural interpretation of health, diseases and illness and also addresses the healthcare seeking
process and healing practices

Complementary therapies: are non-invasive, non-pharmaceutical techniques which are used as an

adjuvant to the primary, conventional treatment to improve the general health and wellbeing of an
individual in treatment for an illness.

Alternative therapy: is one which is used in place of conventional medicine, as for example those
considered ‘whole medicine systems’

Acupuncture: is the method which involves the insertion of needles into different parts of the body
and can be used to activate the discharge of natural chemical painkillers.

Aromatherapy: is the therapeutic use of aromatic substance mainly essential oils extracted from plant
material

Herbal medicines: use of herbs for treatment of varied health problems

Homeopathy: is a form of alternative medicine system based on the theory that certain diseases can
be treated with minute doses of a natural substance that can produce symptoms similar to those of the
illness

Allopathic Medicine:

 use of pharmacologically active agents or physical interventions to treat or suppress symptoms

or pathophysiologic processes of diseases or conditions
 is defined as "The system of medical practice which treats disease by the use of remedies
which produce effects different from those produced by the disease under treatment”

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Integrative medicine

o Combination of knowledge of traditional and modern medicinal practices is ultimately superior

to a single model approach of treatment and this combination is called as Integrative medicine.
o is the combination of alternative medicines and modern medicine

Traditional health practitioner

o Refers to all types of traditional healers, including herbalists, spiritual healers, bone
setters, traditional midwives and hydro-therapists
o Is a person recognized by the community in which he lives as competent to provide
health care.

1.2. Advantages and disadvantages of traditional medicine

Advantages

Cheaper than modern medicine

Modern Medicine is costly because:
 Uses modern technology
 Drugs cost
 Needs highly trained professional
a wider acceptability among the people of developing countries than does modern medicine
 inaccessibility to modern medicine
 TM is blended in to the socio economical life of the people
 Since it was the only health care before modern medicine
 The community beliefs that certain type of disease respond only to TM
E.g. Rabies, epilepsy, rheumatoid
The traditional medicine practitioners can serve as additional sources of health man power in
developing countries.
 can fill the vacuum in health care created by shortage of man power
 have developed traditional skills
 Have the same culture, value, beliefs with the patient.

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 are effective in some aspects of treatment

is a potential source of new drugs and a source of cheap starting material for the synthesis of
known drugs
TM preparations are mostly compounded from natural products. For this reason, it has been
claimed, there is a greater likelihood of their being accepted by the body than the substances
which have been synthesized in a laboratory.
Disadvantages

 Lack of scientific proof of its quality and efficacy

 Imprecise diagnosis by the TMPs
 The preparations (medications) lack precise dosage.
 Both the traditional medicine practitioner’s health care giving place (clinic) and his mode of
preparing medicines are often unhygienic when compared to modern medicine.
 Witch craft and the evil aspects of traditional medicine also discredit this traditional
medicine. i.e., some practices of TM are designed to bring evil to other people.
 Secrecy of some healing methods and the absence of written records about the patients

2. Ethiopian Traditional Medicine

Ethiopia is one of the oldest nations of the world and has a rich history of traditional medicine and
indigenous practices. Various medicinal plants have significant role of in the primary health care
delivery in Ethiopia where 80% of human depend on traditional medicine. Ethiopia has a long history
of traditional medicine and has developed ways to combat disease through it. The ways are also as
diverse as the different cultures. Healing in Ethiopian traditional medicine is not only concerned with
curing of diseases but also with the protection and promotion of human physical, spiritual, social,
mental and material wellbeing.

2.1. Types of traditional medicine practiced in Ethiopia

In Ethiopian traditional medicine, the issue of health is seen holistically and not separated into physical
health and mental health. Spiritual wellbeing is also important. Health is seen as a 'gift of God' or 'the
will of God' and many Ethiopians generally believe that their religion helps keep them healthy. These

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perceptions are related to the belief that supernatural forces are involved in causing disease as well as
in their treatment. For instance, while the devil is considered to be the cause of a number of illnesses,
God is believed to provide the healing. It is widely believed in Ethiopia that the skill of traditional
health practitioners is 'given by God' and knowledge on traditional medicines is passed orally from
father to a favorite child. Traditional Healing knowledge is guarded by certain families or social
groups.

Traditional practitioners include bonesetters, birth attendants, tooth extractors, (called 'Wogesha' and
yelimd awalaj' respectively in Amharic) herbalists, as well as 'debtera', 'tenquay' (witch doctors), and
spiritual healers such as 'weqaby' and 'kalicha'. Religious practices play a large part in the healing
process for Ethiopians such as praying and going to church. Holy water for Orthodox Christians (called
'tsebel' in Amharic) or 'zemzem' in the case of Moslems is also frequently used for a wide variety of
illnesses.

Debteras usually look upon mental disorders as possession by evil spirits, which are thus treated mostly
by praying and using holy water (tsebel) (is commonly used to ward off evil spirits from patients who
are believed to be possessed by the devil) or eventually exorcising the evil spirit. The debteras are
renowned for their prayer which is known as degmit, which they perform on behalf of clients. Along
with this, they prepare holy water and kitab (are worn for the purpose of protecting oneself against the
evil eye) amulets containing a written script.

The kalichas is the religious leader who, through an ecstatic ritual, can investigate the causes of a
disorder and advise the patient on what to do. Mental disorders are generally explained as resulting
from disturbances in the relationship between people and divinity. They conduct special ceremonies
to effectively perform their practices which include the use of excessive smoke by burning incense
such as myrrh, and frankincense (etan). Similar to the debteras, the kalichas also prepare kitabs of
their own kind to be worn by their clients.

Traditional practices considered to be related to surgery include bone-setting, uvulectomy,

circumcisions, bleeding and cupping, cautery, scarification and tooth extraction. The setting of bones
is regarded as an important surgical procedure which requires a certain degree of skill and experience
on the part of the healer (the healer involved in bone-setting is the local wogesha).

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Midwifery is one of the most common practices of traditional Ethiopian medicine. It is performed by
traditional midwives commonly known in Amharic as yelmid awalajs, (traditional birth attendants).
Depending on the need, they carry out their practice with or without the administration of medicines.
During the Derg regime, some 11,500 Yelmid awalajs were trained for better utilization of their
knowledge in midwifery.

Besides its role in healing, traditional Ethiopian medicine is also associated with a number of other
beliefs. These practices are helpful in prevent the evil eye, overcoming demons, defeating human
enemies, obtaining long life, clear eye sight, a good memory, as well as a large family and a faithful
wife.

In traditional medicine healers obtain their drugs mainly from natural substances and in descending
order of frequency these constitute plants, animals and minerals. Drugs are prepared in various dosage
forms including liquids, ointments, powders and pills and administered using different routes like
topical, oral and respiratory. Drugs are stored usually in containers such as bottles, papers, pieces of
cloth, leaves and horns, and were kept anywhere at home.

There are Problems associated with traditional medicine in Ethiopia. Some plants used in traditional
medicines are widely known to be toxic. For example, traditional healers may cause create delays in the
treatment of communicable diseases such as TB if they fail to refer patients to modern health services.
Moreover, a number of harmful practices have been traced to healers, including female genital mutilation,

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uvulectomy, and milk tooth extraction. Hagenia abyssinica causes blindness and changes in central
nervous system function have repeatedly been found in people who took over dosage.

The current Ethiopian health care system is primary health care focused. However, traditional healers
continue to practice outside of the health services although they are the main health care providers for
many Ethiopians. Having recognized the significance of traditional medicine more readily, greater
attention has been paid by governments of many developing countries in recent years to promote the
widespread application of the practice in health care. This has given a new impetus to relevant research,
investment and design of programs in the area in many countries.

2.2. Some medicinal plants (herbs) used in Ethiopia

Allium sativum L., Alliaceae (Qullubbii adii)

Culinary

Medicinal: common cold, malaria, cough, pulmonary TB, hypertension, wounds, STDs, asthma,
parasitic infections, toothache, diabetes, hemorrhoids

Drugs Affected

Antiplatelet, Anticoagulants, Insulin and oral, hypoglycemic agents, Cholesterol lowering drugs
and Thyroid replacement therapy

Mechanism

May be additive with cholesterol-lowering drugs

Hypertensive activity but it is not known if this effect is antihypertensive drug additive

Decreases T3 and T4 levels

May have blood thinning properties

Datura stramonium Solanaceae (Manjii)

Habit habitat and distribution annual herb1.50 m tall growing in wooded grass land, cropland road side
and gardens. In Ethiopia it is found in Gojam, Shewa, Sidamo, Kefa, Gamogofa and Bale.

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Medicinal value

o Treats diarrhea malaria, headache, scabies and dandruff and leaves treat open sores. Modern
biomedical investigation and medical profiles of Datura stramonium indicates that the root part of
a plant produces atropine and scopolamine that are used in anesthesia.
Eucalyptus globules Myrtaceae (baargamoo)

Ever green tree 40-70 m tall with straight massive trunk 0.6 -2m in diameter with narrow irregular crown
of large branches and dropping aromatic.

Medicinal value

o Febrifuge, expectorant, insect repellant, treat asthma, boils bronchitis, cold, cough, diabetes
diphtheria fever, flu, inflammation, sores sorethroat, tuberculosis, tumors and wounds.
Moringa stenopetala Lam Moringaceae (shiferaw)

Short slender, deciduous, perennial tree about 10 m tall, drooping branches, branches and stems brittle.
Corky bark; leaves feathery, pale green, compound 30-60 cm long with many small leaf lets; flowers
fragrant.

Medicinal uses: Flowers, leaves and roots are used in folk medicine for tumors, leaves applied for sores,
headaches; it has purgative properties and antidiabetic effect.

Nigella sativa Rannuculaceae (tikur azmud)

Erect annual herbs up to 70cm high with a well-developed yellow brown tap root with many side roots

Medicinal uses: relives headache, stimulate lactations, menstruations and urination; it has anthelminthic
and carminative property.

Ocmium lamifolium Hochst Ex Benth Lamiaceae (damakessie)

It is a sub shrub or shrub 0.7-3m tall common species of primary and secondary mountain forest and bush
lands tall grass lands, rarely cultivated as ornamental.

Medicinal value: treats headache and eye disease

Phytolaca dodecandra L. Herit Phytolacaceae (endode)

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Semi succulent scrambling shrub to 10 m tall or more, it grows in evergreen bush lands forest edges.

Medicinal value: mollucides for the control of snails used to treat malaria and rabies.

Thymus schimperi Labiatae (tosgne)

Branched perennial shrubby at the base with short decumbent pubescent stems leaves lanceolate sessile
firm, cuneate dotted with conspicuous black glands, whorls aggregated into dense globose terminal heads
with leaves crowded at the base.

 Medicinal value: Antimicrobial, blood pressure, common cold. Because the activity or
therapeutic uses of drugs are based on their chemical constituents, this method of arrangement
of drugs appears preferable.
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Zingibil(Amharic name)
Common Uses
Medicinal: stomachache, cough, fever, influenza
Drugs Affected
Antacids
Anticoagulants
Mechanism
Irritates gastric mucosa
Decreases platelet aggregation
Consequences
Inhibits antacid therapy
*Increased risk of bleeding
Khat (Catha edulis) Chat (Amharic name)
Common Uses
Mostly recreational
Medicinal: stimulant, mental illness, gonorrhea, common cold
Drugs Affected
Amoxicillin and ampicillin, PCN others
Mechanism
May act synergistically with amphetamines

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Tannins (component of Khat) complexes with ß-lactam antibiotics

Peppermint (Mentha piperita )Nanna (Amharic name)
Common Uses
Medicinal: common cold, headache
Drugs Affected
Felodipine and simvastatin
Iron
Warfarin
Acid Suppression therapy
Mechanism
Inhibits gut wall metabolism of felodipine and simvastatin
Decreases absorption of non-heme iron
Reduces Warfarin
Turmeric (Curcuma longa)Ird (Amharic)
Common Uses
Mostly culinary
Medicinal: used topically for “crying eyes” in children
Drugs Affected
Antiplatelets and anticoagulants
Insulin and oral hypoglycemic
Mechanism
Has been shown to inhibit platelet aggregation in vitro
Curcuminoids and sesquiterpene components of turmeric

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Activity one: Dear trainees, your trainer will give you an assignment to visit and interview traditional
healers on locally practiced traditional medicine.
During your observation you are expected to:
 Identify different types of traditional medicine
 How the local people practice
 Methods of preparation (formulation)
 Part of plant used,
 Duration of use
 For what types of disease they use and
 Routes of administration.

3. Crude drugs

Crude drugs any naturally occurring, unrefined substance derived from organic or inorganic sources
such as plant, animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms that have undergone no further process
other than collection and drying and intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or
prevention of disease in man or other animals which are not pure compound.
Natural products can be:
o Entire organism (plant, animal, organism)
o Part of an organism (a leaf or flower of a plant, an isolated gland or other organ of an
animal)
o An extract or an exudate of an organism
o Isolated pure compounds

3.1. Nomenclature of crude drugs

 Taxonomy is the science of naming organisms and their correct integration into the existing
system of nomenclature.
 Binomial system of nomenclature consists of genus and species name, plus the authority.
E.g. opium poppy, Papaver somniferum L

Arrangement of crude drugs

 Drugs can be arranged for study in different ways:

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 Alphabetical  Pharmacological or therapeutic

 Taxonomic  Chemical or biogenetic
 Morphologic

Alphabetical:

Alphabetical classification is the simplest way of classification of crude drugs. Crude drugs arranged
according to their alphabetical order of their Latin and English names (Common names) or sometimes
local.

Taxonomic classification:

Taxonomical classification is purely a botanical classification it’s based on principles of natural

relationship. They are grouped in (Kingdom, Phyllum, Order, Family, Genus & species). For
example, all plant species that belongs to the family solanaceae is grouped under Solanaceae.

E.g: Datura stramonium, Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger

Morphologic: Drugs are grouped as organized and unorganized crude drugs.

The drugs which obtained from the dried parts of the plants & containing cellular tissues are called as
( Organized Drugs ) e.g. ( Rhizomes , barks , leaves , fruits , entire plants , hairs ,& fibers ) . The
drugs which are prepared from plants by some intermediate physical processes such as ( incision ,
drying or extraction with a solvent and not containing any cellular plant tissues are called as
(unorganized drugs ) such as ( Aloe juice , opium latex , agar , gelatin , tragacanth , benzoin , honey ,
beeswax , lemon grass oil etc…).

Pharmacological or therapeutic

 Crude drugs are grouped according to their pharmacological action or of most important
constituent or their therapeutic use are termed as pharmacological or therapeutic
classification of drug and are more relevant and are mostly followed method.
E.g. Anticancer (Podophyllum peltatum, Vinca rosea, Taxus bucata).

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i. Expectorant (Camphor, eucalyptus oil).

ii. Laxative (senna, cascara, aloe, castor oil etc…)

Chemical or biogenetic
Crude drugs are divided into different groups according to the chemical nature of their most important
constituent as Alkaloids, volatile oils, fixed oils, tannins flavonoids, anthraquinones, coumarin and
saponin etc.

3.2. Steps in Scientific investigation of medicinal plants

It is an interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary study that involves pharamacognosy, natural product

chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, botany, clinical research and pharmaceutics.

I. Selection of plant material

There are a number of different approaches used to select particular plant by pharmaceutical
companies for discovery of new drugs leads from many plant species.

A. Random selection/biodiversity approach

 Plants are collected regardless of any existing previous knowledge of their chemistry or
biological activity.

 It’s purely serendipitous in that there is a chance that random plant selection will give access
to extracts with bioactivity.

B. Directed/target selection
The plant is selected based on its use in traditional medicine or based on ethno botanical
information obtained
II. Collection of the plant
 Whole or particular plant part can be collected
 During collection it is important to consider
 Age of the plant  Specific parts of the study plant
 Time or season of collection  Distribution of the plant.
III. Botanical (taxonomic) identification of the plant
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 The plant must also be identified correctly.

 Involves giving scientific name
 Identified by taxonomist
 You should provide the plant at flowering stages.
 Voucher specimen should be stored in the herbarium for future reference.
 Voucher specimen is a dried specimen pressed between sheets of paper and should include:
 name of the plant
 the identity of the part(s) collected
 the place and date of collection
IV. Literature review on identified plants
 This involves searching scientific journals, papers, books etc. for any work done on your
plant by other individuals.
V. Design of appropriate extraction method
 This involves: Drying, Garbling and Size reduction
Drying
Can be natural or artificial
Plant material should be sliced into small pieces and distributed evenly to facilitate
homogenous drying.
In artificial drying the material can be dried in an oven.
 Faster
 Minimize enzymatic reactions quickly.
The dried plant material should be stored in sealed containers in a dry and cool place.
Storage for prolonged periods should be avoided, as some constituents may decompose.
Garbling: involves removal any foreign matter from plant.

Size reduction/milling: Can be achieved by mortar and pistil.

 Improve the subsequent extraction by rendering the sample more homogenous,

 Increasing the surface area, and facilitating the penetration of solvent into the cell.

VI. Extraction

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 is the release of natural products from the natural material or biomass (plants, animals or
microbes) into the solvent
 Is the process of obtaining the medicinally important components of a plant.
VII. Checking extracts/ fractions for pharmacological activity
VIII. Phytochemical screening: test for the chemical constituents of the extract

3.1.Crude drug extraction methods

 Maceration  reflexation /decoction

 expression of fresh plant  Soxhlet

 percolation  Sublimation

 Supercritical fluid extraction.  Steam distillation

Maceration
Maceration is soaking the powdered plant material in any shaped glass or stainless steel container
that is stoppered with occasional stirring.
 Simple
 Carried out at room temperature, cold extraction method
 Suitable for both initial and bulk extraction
Percolation
 Discontinuous type of extraction
 Cold or hot extraction depending on whether cold or hot solvent used for percolation.
 Adequate for both initial and large-scale extraction
 The powdered plant material is soaked initially in a solvent in a percolator (a
cylindrical or conical container with a tap at the bottom).
 Additional solvent is then poured on top of the plant material and allowed to
percolate slowly (drop wise) out of the bottom of the percolator.

 Additional filtration of the extract is not required because there is a filter at the outlet of
the percolator.

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 As for maceration, successive percolations can be performed to extract the plant material
exhaustively by refilling the percolator with fresh solvent and pooling all extracts
together.
 To ensure that percolation is complete, the percolate can be tested for the presence of
metabolites with specific reagent.

Hot Continuous (Soxhlet) extraction

 Hot method of extraction
 Heat facilitate dissolution of the active constituents
 required where the desired compound has a limited solubility in a solvent
 Continuous type of extraction
 Not suitable for thermolabial constituents.
 Volatile solvents are used as solvents.
 is only required where the desired compound has a limited solubility in a solvent,
and the impurity is insoluble in that solvent

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 Boiling cheeps or pumice is added into the flask containing the solvents to avoid
bumping of the solvent.
 Most commonly used

Decoction/Infusion
 Infusion is extraction by hot solvent and the contact time between the plant
material and the solvent is relatively short.
 Decoction is extraction by boiling. The plant material is boiled in the solvent, the
crude drug is boiled in a specified volume of water for a defined time; it is then
cooled and strained or filtered. This procedure is suitable for extracting water-
soluble, heat-stable constituents.
Refluxing
 Is a methods of boiling a liquid in a vessel attached to a condenser so that the
vapors continuously condense for re-boiling

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 Increasing the temperature of the solvent increases the solubility of the active
principle, which increases the concentration gradient and therefore enhances
the mass transfer of active principle from solid material to the solvent,
provided the active principle is not heat sensitive.
 The purpose is to thermally accelerate the solubility of the components at an
elevated temperature (i.e. the solvent’s boiling point.)

Water outlet

Condenser

Water inlet

Flask

Heat source

Distillation
Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatilities of components
in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and
not a chemical reaction.

Distillation of aromatic herbs implies vaporizing or liberating the oils from the plant cell
membranes of the herb in presence of high temperature and moisture and then cooling the vapour
mixture to separate out the oil from water.

Distillation is used to separate volatile components from non-volatile components.

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Activity Two: Dear, trainee answer the following questions and reports it to your
trainer.

1. discuss and explain one by one why extraction is necessary (need for
extraction).
2. Discuss with small groups about advantages and disadvantages of each type of
extraction methods, write up and report to your trainer and present it in class.

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Module Syllabus and schedule: Basic Concepts in Pharmaceutical Sciences II

Module title: Basic Concepts in Pharmaceutical Sciences II

Module code: PHA 3 M3 1017

Nominal duration: 40 hrs (1 week)

Module Description:

This module aims to provide the learners with the knowledge, skills and right attitudes required to
identify, collect, extract and promote safe use of commonly used traditional medicines in Ethiopia.

Unit of Competencies

 Enhance safe use of traditional medicines

Module Objective

By the end of this module, you will be able to

o Describe basic concepts of traditional medicine, techniques of and crude drugs; and
improve its safe use

o Identify commonly used traditional medicine in their locality

Teaching/learning methods

 Interactive Lectures
 practical attachment/community visit
 Individual and group work/exercise
 Demonstration

Teaching/learning materials
 Learning modules,
 Text books
 Audiovisual aids (LCD, computer, DVD)

Methods of assessment

 Written/oral examinations (quizzes, final examinations)

 Report writing
 Group assignments

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 Learning Module: Basic Pharmaceutical sciences II | ORHB

Module Schedule

Week Learning Activity Required Reading /

Assignment

Week Day 1 Learning Modules

one Text books
Interactive lecture (4hrs)

 Traditional Medicine in Ethiopia

o History of traditional medicine
o The role of traditional medicine in Ethiopian health care
system
Individual reading activity (4hrs)

O Advantages and disadvantages of traditional medicines

Day 2

Interactive lecture (4hrs)

o Advantages and disadvantages of traditional medicines

o Commonly used herbal medicines in Ethiopia
Interactive lecture (2hrs)

o Steps in scientific analysis of medicinal plants (selection,

collection, preparation for extraction)
Reading (2hrs)

Crude drug concepts

Day 3

Interactive lecture (4hrs)

 Crude drug
o Definition
o Type
o Techniques of extraction
Demonstration (4hrs)

 Techniques of extraction
Day 4
Traditional medicine practice assessment in their locality
Day 5
Presentation and discussion

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Learning Module: Basic Pharmaceutical sciences II | ORHB

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