AY-2024-25-Even Term

GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Course Laboratory Experiment List (INDEX)

Course Code & Name BE01000051-Basic Electrical Engineering

Academic Term: AY-2024-25-Even Term Semester 2
Student Enrollment No: Batch:
Student Name:
Sr. Date of Date of
Objective/Aim CO /PO Marks Sign
No Assigned Completion

To verify the Kirchhoff’s laws for the

1 CO-01
given network.
To verify the Superposition theorem
2 CO-01
for the given network.
To verify the Thevenin’s theorem
3 CO-01
for the given network.

4 To demonstrate B-H curve. CO-03

To determine resistance,
5 inductance, power and power factor CO-02
of series R-L circuit.
To verify the current and voltage
6 relationships in three phase star and CO-02
delta connections.
To measure power in three-phase
7 circuit using two watt-meter CO-02
method.
To Study the introduction of Electric
8 CO-03
Vehicles.
To demonstrate the working of
9 CO-04
miniature circuit breaker (MCB).
To study different types of batteries
10 CO-04
and its applications.

Date of File
Submission:___________________ Course Coordinator:________________
 AY: Even 2024-25
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICAL -01

Course Code & Name BE01000051-Basic Electrical Engineering

Academic Term: AY : Even 2024-25 Semester 2
Student Enrollment No: Batch:
Student Name:

AIM/Objective:
1. To verify the Kirchhoff’s law for the given network

Expected Outcome: CO/PO/PSO

1.

Competency and Practical Skills: Knowledge of Kirchhoff's laws, Familiarity with the
network components, Ability to measure voltage and current.

Relevant CO: Apply fundamental electrical laws and circuit theorems to electrical circuits.

Objectives: (a) To know the basic principles of Kirchhoff’s laws and their significance in
circuit analysis.
(b) To measure the currents at different nodes in the circuit and then compare them
with the sum of the currents entering and leaving the node.
(c) To measure the voltages across different elements in the circuit and then
compare them with the sum of the voltages in the closed loop.
(d) To solve the circuit using KCL and KVL and find the unknown currents and
voltages.
Equipment/Instruments: Resistors, Ammeters, Voltmeters, Regulated DC power supply,
connecting probes.

Theory: Kirchhoff’s laws Kirchhoff’s laws are particularly useful (a) in determining the
equivalent resistance of a complicated network and (b) for calculating the currents flowing in the
various conductors.

 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW :

It states that “the algebraic sum of products of currents and resistances in each of the conductors
in any closed path in a network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs in that path is zero”. In other
words,

∑IR + ∑e.m.f. = 0

It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the polarities of the
voltage drops. Following sign convention is suggested:
SIGN CONVENTIONS:
a) battery e.m.f.: A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a –ve
sign. Keeping this in mind, it is clear that as we move from negative terminal of source to
positive terminal, there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage should be given a +ve sign.
If, on the other hand, we move from +ve terminal to –v terminal of voltage source, then
there is a fall in potential, hence it is to be considered as –ve.

b) Sign of IR Drop: Whenever we move in the direction of current there is a drop in voltage,
Since the current always flows from point at higher potential to the point at lower potential. Hence
Voltage drop in the current direction is taken as –ve. However, if we go in a direction opposite to
that of the current, then there is a rise in voltage.

 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL) :

It states that “in any electrical network, algebraic sum of the currents meeting a point is zero”. In
another way, it simply means that the total current leaving a unction is equal to the total current
entering that junction. It is obviously true because there is no accumulation or depletion of current
at any junction of the network. Consider the case of a few conductors meeting at a node as in fig.

Some conductors have currents leading to node whereas some have currents leading away from
node. Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and the outgoing currents negative, applying
KCL at node we have,

I1 + I2 -I3 -I4 = 0
OR
I1 + I2 = I3 + I4
Set up diagram:

KVL

KCL
Safety and necessary Precautions:
1. Wear protective gear
2. Ensure proper wiring
3. Use appropriate voltage
4. Use appropriate measuring equipment
5. Avoid touching the circuit
6. Handle components with care
7. Follow laboratory guidelines

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diag.
2. Switch on the DC voltage supply, Adjust the voltage to any suitable value.
3. Take the reading of all the ammeters for KCL experiment and measure the voltages across all
the resistors for KVL experiment.
4. Changed the voltage of power supply and repeat step (3) and verify laws.
 Observations:
1) KVL:
Measured:
SR Voltage V1 (V) Voltage V2 (V) Voltage V3 Total Voltage V=
No (V) V1+ V2 + V3

2) KCL:
Measured:
SR No Brach Current I1 (A) Brach Current I2 (A) Source Current I3 (A)

Calculation:

Results:
KVL:
Theoretical Measured
SR Total Voltage V= Total Voltage V=
No V1+ V2 + V3 V1+ V2 + V3
1
2
3
KCL:

Theoretical Measured
SR Total Current I3= Total Current I3=
No I1+ I2 I1+ I2
1
2
3

Conclusion:

Quiz:
1. State kirchhoff’s laws in context of DC circuit.

2. Any closed path formed by the branches in a network is called a_____________.

3. In network having N nodes, the number of independent equations required to solve the
network, with ground is as the reference node, is__________
4. Differentiate loop and Mesh.
Student Report with Experiment Results and Analysis

Inadequate Good Excellent

Evaluation Rubrics Marks
0% 50% 100%
The understanding of the Student regarding the
1 2
objective of the given practical

2 Installation of Software or Hardware Setup level 2

3 Quality of the Analysis done 2

Quality of the report including concluding remarks

4 2
and Findings
Question & Answer related to given practical &
5 2
timely submission

10

Total Marks Obtained Out of 10

Date of Completion: __________________ Course Coordinator: ________________

 AY: Even 2024-25
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICAL -02

Course Code & Name BE01000051-Basic Electrical Engineering

Academic Term: AY : Even 2024-25 Semester 2
Student Enrollment No: Batch:
Student Name:

AIM/Objective:
1. To verify the superposition theorem for the given network.

Expected Outcome: CO/PO/PSO

1.

Competency and Practical Skills: Knowledge of superposition law, Familiarity with the
network components, Ability to measure voltage and current

Relevant CO: Apply fundamental electrical laws and circuit theorems to electrical circuits.

Objectives: (a) To construct a circuit containing multiple sources (such as voltage sources or
current sources) and resistors.
(b) To measure the response (voltage or current) at a specific point in the circuit
using a multimeter.
(c) To verify that the total response of the circuit when all sources are turned on is
equal to the algebraic sum of the responses measured when each source is turned
on individually
(d) To compare the experimental results with the theoretical predictions based on
the superposition theorem
Equipment/Instruments: Resistors , Ammeters, Voltmeters, Regulated DC power supply,
Connecting probes.

Theory: The Superposition Theorem is a fundamental principle in electrical engineering that

states that the response of a linear circuit to a set of multiple inputs can be calculated by
considering the individual responses of the circuit to each input, taken separately.

More specifically, the theorem states that in a linear circuit containing multiple sources (such as
voltage or current sources), the total response at any point in the circuit is the sum of the
responses due to each individual source acting alone, with all other sources turned off. In other
words, the contribution of each source to the final response is calculated independently and then
added together to obtain the total response.

The Superposition Theorem is based on the principle of linearity, which states that a linear
system's response to a sum of inputs is equal to the sum of the responses to each individual input.
The theorem can be applied to any linear circuit, regardless of its complexity, and it is a powerful
tool for simplifying circuit analysis and understanding circuit behavior. However, it can only be
applied to circuits with linear components, and it assumes that all the sources are independent of
each other.

Set up diagram:

Safety and necessary Precautions:

1 Wear protective gear
2 Ensure proper wiring
3 Use appropriate voltage
4 Use appropriate measuring equipment
5 Avoid touching the circuit
6 Handle components with care
7 Follow laboratory guidelines

Procedure:
Connection are made as per the circuit diagram shown in figure given above.
1 Vary the supply voltage VS1 & VS2 and take the corresponding reading (I’1 +I’2)from the
ammeter.

2 Now VS2 is short circuited. Vary VS1 & take the corresponding reading I’1 from the
ammeter as shown in figure
 3 Now VS1 is short circuited. Vary VS2 & take the corresponding reading I’2 from the
ammeter as shown in figure .

4 Finally Verify whether I = ± I’1 ± I’2

Observations:

Measured Value
When both Vs1 and Vs2 are acting (I’1+I’2)
When only Vs1 is acting (I’1)
When only Vs2 is acting (I’2)

Calculation:
Result:

Current Through R2
Theoretical Value Measured Value
When both Vs1 and Vs2 are acting (I’1+I’2)
When only Vs1 is acting (I’1)
When only Vs2 is acting (I’2)

Conclusion:

Quiz:
1. State superposition theorem.

2. What is Node and super Node?

3. What are limitations of super position theorem?

4. Superposition theorem is applicable for linear network or nonlinear network? Justify your
answer.
Student Report with Experiment Results and Analysis

Inadequate Good Excellent

Evaluation Rubrics Marks
0% 50% 100%
The understanding of the Student regarding the
1 2
objective of the given practical

2 Installation of Software or Hardware Setup level 2

3 Quality of the Analysis done 2

Quality of the report including concluding remarks

4 2
and Findings
Question & Answer related to given practical &
5 2
timely submission

10

Total Marks Obtained Out of 10

Date of Completion: __________________ Course Coordinator: ________________

 AY: Even 2024-25
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICAL -03

Course Code & Name BE01000051-Basic Electrical Engineering

Academic Term: AY : Even 2024-25 Semester 2
Student Enrollment No: Batch:
Student Name:

AIM/Objective:
1. To verify Thevenin’s Theorem for given network.

Expected Outcome: CO/PO/PSO

1.

Competency and Practical Skills: Knowledge of Thevenin’s law, Familiarity with the
network components, Ability to measure voltage and current.

Relevant CO: Apply fundamental electrical laws and circuit theorems to electrical circuits.

Objectives: At the end of this experiment, student will be able to

(a) Know about the Thevenin’s Law.
(b) Determine voltage across and current through any branch of circuits.
Equipment/Instruments: Resistors, Ammeters, Voltmeters, Regulated DC power supply,
connecting probes.

Theory: Thevenin's theorem states that any linear circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
containing a single voltage source and a single series resistor, known as the Thevenin equivalent
circuit. This equivalent circuit has the same voltage-current characteristics as the original circuit
between two terminals, also known as the load terminals.

To experimentally verify Thevenin's theorem, you can follow these steps:

 Identify the circuit for which you want to find the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
 Disconnect any load or resistor connected to the circuit.
 Measure the open-circuit voltage across the load terminals. This voltage is the Thevenin
voltage (Vth).
 Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit seen from the load terminals. To do this,
short-circuit the voltage source and measure the current flowing through the load
terminals. This current is the short-circuit current (Isc). The equivalent resistance (Rth) is
given by Rth = Vth/Isc.
 Connect the Thevenin voltage source (Vth) in series with the equivalent resistance (Rth) to
form the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
 Verify that the Thevenin equivalent circuit provides the same voltage-current
characteristics as the original circuit between the load terminals. One can do this by
connecting different resistive loads to the load terminals and measuring the resulting
currents and voltages. The values should match those obtained from the original circuit.
Figure given above illustrates concept of thevenin’s theorem. Figure shows that given network is
replaced by thevenins equivalent which contains a voltage source Voc or Vth and a thevenins
equivalent resistance RTH.
Voc orVth:This voltage is called open circuit voltage .It is the voltage between open circuited load
terminals.
So Voc=Vth=VAB with ZL open circuited.

Set up diagram:

Fig.1

Safety and necessary Precautions:

1 Wear protective gear
2 Ensure proper wiring
3 Use appropriate voltage
4 Use appropriate measuring equipment
5 Avoid touching the circuit
6 Handle components with care
7 Follow laboratory guidelines
Procedure:

1 Connect the circuit as per fig.1.

2 Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply(Vs) to an appropriate value.
3 Note down the response (current) through the branch of interest i.e. AB (ammeter
reading).
4 Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the supply.
5 Disconnect the circuit and connect circuit as per the fig.2.

Fig.2

6 Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply(Vs) to an appropriate value.
7 Note down the voltage across the load terminals AB (Voltmeter reading) that gives Vth.
8 Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the supply.
9 Disconnect the circuit and connect circuit as per the fig.3.

Fig.3

10 Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to an appropriate value.
11 Note down the current (I) supplied by the source (ammeter reading).
12 The ratio of Vs and I gives the Rth (Thevenin’s Resistance).
Observations:

SR No Measured Value
1 Rth=
2 Vth =
3 IL =

Calculation:

Result:

Theoretical Value Measured Value

Rth= Rth=
Vth = Vth =
IL = IL =

Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. State Thevenin’s Theorem.

2. Draw the equivalent circuit for thevenin’s theorem.

3. What is the other name of thevenin’s theorem?

Student Report with Experiment Results and Analysis

Inadequate Good Excellent

Evaluation Rubrics Marks
0% 50% 100%
The understanding of the Student regarding the
1 2
objective of the given practical

2 Installation of Software or Hardware Setup level 2

3 Quality of the Analysis done 2

Quality of the report including concluding remarks

4 2
and Findings
Question & Answer related to given practical &
5 2
timely submission

10

Total Marks Obtained Out of 10

Date of Completion: __________________ Course Coordinator: ________________

 AY: Even 2024-25
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICAL-04

Course Code & Name BE01000051-Basic Electrical Engineering

Academic Term: AY : Even 2024-25 Semester 2
Student Enrollment No: Batch:
Student Name:

AIM/Objective:
1. To demonstrate B-H curve

Expected Outcome: CO/PO/PSO

1.

Competency and Practical Skills: Knowledge of Electromagnetism, Familiarity with

the Equipment, Basic Knowledge of DSO/CRO Ability to measure voltage and current.

Relevant CO: Describe operating principle and applications of static and rotating
electrical machines.

Objectives: (a) To determine the magnetic properties of a material.

(b) To study the hysteresis phenomenon.
(c) To analyze the magnetic behavior of a material.
(d) To compare different materials.

Equipment/Instruments: B-H Curve Kit, CRO/DSO, Connecting probes.

Theory:
The flux density B is the ratio of the total no of lines of force existing in the magnetic field (in
webers) and the area (in m2) . Thus,B=Total no. of lines of force (wb)/ Area (m2)
The permeability (µ) is the ratio of the change in flux density to the change in field intensity.
µ=change in flux density / change in field intensity = Δ B / Δ H

Materials like cobalt, nickel, iron which posses a value of y much greater than unity are called
ferromagnetic materials. Materials with m less than unity are called diamagnetic while materials
with µ values slightly greater than unity are termed as paramagnetic. For vacuum, the value of the
permeability is unity. When an alternating current is allowed to flow through an air core coil the
variation of flux density (B) with magnetising force (H), the flux density increses in phase with
the magnetising force.
Similarly the flux density decreases with the magnetising force in phase. However, for an iron
cored
Coil or a coil consisting of a core of ordinary steel, the B-H or magnetization curve is exhibit. Due
to residual magnetism, the B-H curve or magnetization curve of the Iron core forms a loop called
the Hysteresis loop.
Saturable reactors normally use cores of nickel iron or silicon iron alloys. These materials may be
of(a) high permeability type (mumetal or permalloy) and (b) grain oriented alloys.
Normally saturable reactors employ
a)Thin laminations to reduce eddy current loss
b)Construction without gap to minimise flux leakage.

RETENTIVITY, COERCIVITY AND HYSTERSIS:

Ferromagnetic materials contain large no. of small regions, called domain. In each domain, all the
atomic magnets are fixed in rigid parallelism. Thus each domain has a net magnetization in a
particular direction distributed randomly. When a specimen of ferromagnetic material is placed in
a magnetizing field (H), the specimen is magnetized by induction. As the magnetizing field (H) is
varied, the intensity of magnetization of the specimen, ‘I’ changes. The variation in ‘I’ with
variation in H is shown in Figure (1). The point O represents an initially unmagnetised specimen
and a zero magnetizing field. As H is increased, ‘I’ also increases but not uniformly. When all the
domains are aligned in the field direction, the magnetization of specimen gets saturated at A. Any
further increase in H result no more increase in ‘I’.
If H is now decreased, ‘I’ also decreases but following a path AB. Thus ‘I’ lags behind H.
When H becomes zero, ‘I’ still has a value equal to OB. This amount of magnetization is called
the “residual magnetism" or "retentivity” of the specimen. Thus the retentively of a specimen is a
measure of the intensity of magnetisation remaining in the specimen when the magnetising field is
removed. If the magnetising field H be now increased in the reverse direction, the value of ‘I’
further decreases, still lagging behind H and becomes zero when H has a value equal to OC. This
value of the magnetising field is called the “coercive force" or “coercivity” of the specimen. Thus
coercivity is a measure of the magnetising field required to destroy the residual magnetism of the
specimen.

As H is increased beyond OC, the specimen is increasingly magnetized in the negative

direction, until the magnetic saturation is reached at D. By taking H back from its negative
saturation value, through zero, to its original positive saturation value, a similar curve DEFA is
obtained.

It is thus found that the intensity of magnetization ‘I’ always lags behind the magnetising
field H, when H changes. The lagging of I behind H is called “hysteresis”. The closed curve
ABCDEFA which represents a cycle of magnetization of the specimen is known as the ’hysteresis
‘curve’ of the specimen. A graph between magnetic induction B and magnetising field H is
similar in shape with the only difference that B never becomes constant but always increases with
H. Hence in the B-H curve, the corners A and D are not straight but sloping.
Set up diagram:

Fig.2

Safety and necessary Precautions:

1 Wear protective gear
2 Ensure proper wiring
3 Use appropriate voltage
4 Use appropriate measuring equipment
5 Avoid touching the circuit
6 Handle components with care
7 Follow laboratory guidelines

Procedure:
1 Arrange the connections as Shown in Fig. (2) i.e. by Connecting the dotted A, B & C, D
points through patchcords. Connect X,Y and common points of CRO to points marked On
the front panel. Set the AC output between 3V-15V. Throw the sample select switch
Towards internal position so that FIG. (2) internal sample connects in the Circuit.
2 Switch ON the instrument using ON/ OFF toggle switch provided on the front panel.
3 To get the proper loop vary the resistance (VR) & adjust the horizontal and vertical gain
controls (Gh and Gv) of the CRO to obtain proper shape and size of the waveform
(Hystersis Loop) as shown in Fig. (1).
4 Observe the Coercivity and Retentivity on CRO as shown in Fig. (1).
5 Tracing of B-H Curve: After obtaining a curve of suitable shape on CRO, a tracing paper
is put on the screen. Now, set the vertical gain Gv to zero (with maximum horizontal gain)
to obtain a straight line on the paper which marks the H-axis and then set the horizontal
gain Gh (vertical gain Gv is not zero) to zero to get a straight line which marks B-axis.
Now, adjust horizontal and vertical gain controls to their original position to obtain a curve
of suitable shape. Trace this curve on the paper.

Observations:
Conclusion:

Quiz:

1. The unit of magnetic field intensity is ________________

2. Magnetic circuit obeys
a) Kirchoff’s Law b) Thevenin’s theorem c) Nortorn’s theorem d) None of these
3. The word “Hysteresis” means_______________________
4. The unit of H x B is ______________________

Student Report with Experiment Results and Analysis

Inadequate Good Excellent

Evaluation Rubrics Marks
0% 50% 100%
The understanding of the Student regarding the
1 2
objective of the given practical

2 Installation of Software or Hardware Setup level 2

3 Quality of the Analysis done 2

Quality of the report including concluding remarks

4 2
and Findings
Question & Answer related to given practical &
5 2
timely submission

10

Total Marks Obtained Out of 10

Date of Completion: __________________ Course Coordinator: ________________

 AY: Even 2024-25
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICAL -05

Course Code & Name BE01000051-Basic Electrical Engineering

Academic Term: AY : Even 2024-25 Semester 2
Student Enrollment No: Batch:
Student Name:

AIM/Objective:
1. To determine resistance, inductance, power and power factor of series R-L circuit.

Expected Outcome: CO/PO/PSO

1.

Competency and Practical Skills: Knowledge of circuit theory, Familiarity with electrical
components, Understanding of measuring instruments, Familiarity with safety measures,
Analytical and troubleshooting skills, Ability to construct circuits.

Relevant CO: Analyze single phase and three phase AC circuits.

Objectives: (a) To understand the basic concepts of resistance, inductance, power, and power
factor in R-L series circuits and how they are related to each other.
(b) To learn how to measure the resistance and inductance of a circuit using
appropriate equipment and techniques, such as mustimeters.
(c) To investigate the relationship between the voltage, current, and phase angle in
an R-L series circuit and to determine the power factor of the circuit..
(d) To understand the practical applications of R-L series circuits in electrical
engineering, such as in AC power transmission and electric motors.

Equipment/Instruments: Rheostat, Ammeters, Voltmeters, Wattmeter, single phase AC Supply,

Inductive coil, Connecting probes.

Theory: The series R-L circuit comprises a resistor and an inductor connected in series with a
voltage source. When an AC voltage is applied to the circuit, it causes a current to flow through
the circuit. Due to the presence of inductance, the current lags behind the voltage by an angle. The
phase angle between the voltage and the current is known as the power factor.

The power factor of a circuit is defined as the ratio of the real power (P) to the apparent power
(S). The real power is the power consumed by the circuit, while the apparent power is the product
of the voltage and current. The power factor ranges from 0 to 1, with a power factor of 1
indicating a purely resistive circuit.

The resistance (R) and inductance (L) of the circuit can be calculated using various electrical
measuring instruments, such as a voltmeter, an ammeter, and a wattmeter.
A choke coil can be considered as a series combination of resistance r and self-inductance L.
Choke coil is connected in series with a non – inductive resistance R (lamp-bank) across a 230 V,
50 Hz AC supply. As per the fig.1,

(1)

(2)

(3)

Where Zckt – Impedance of Total circuit

Zcoil – Impedance of choke coil
R – Resistance of Rheostat
Vs – Supply Voltage
VR – Voltage across Rheostat
r – Resistance of choke coil

fig.1

It is evident that (𝑅 + 𝑟) + 𝑋 = Z2ckt (4)

𝑅 + 2𝑅𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑋 = Z2ckt
But Z2coil = 𝑟 + 𝑋
L  X
𝑅 + 2𝑅𝑟 + Z2coil = Z2ckt

2
Z ckt  Z coil
2
 R2
r (5)
2R

Now, Z2coil = 𝑟 + 𝑋
 X  Z coil
2
 r2 (6)
But, L  X
X X
L  H
 2f
Thus, resistance and inductance of choke coil can be calculated.

Set up diagram:

Safety and necessary Precautions:

1 Wear protective gear
2 Ensure proper wiring
3 Use appropriate voltage
4 Use appropriate measuring equipment
5 Avoid touching the circuit
6 Handle components with care
7 Follow laboratory guidelines

Procedure:

1. Set up the series R-L circuit by connecting the rheostat and choke coil in series.
2. Connect the voltmeter across the resistor to measure the voltage (VR).
3. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit to measure the current (I).
4. Connect the wattmeter to measure the power consumed by the circuit.
5. Switch on the AC voltage supply, Adjust the voltage to any suitable value
6. Record the readings of voltage, current, and power.
7. Repeat the measurements for different values of voltages.
8. Calculate the resistance (r), inductance (L), power (P), and power factor (PF).
Observations:

Voltage Voltage
Supply
across across Current Power
Sr. No. voltage
rheostat VR coil Vcoil I (amps) P (watts)
Vs (volts)
(volts) (volts)

1.

2.

3.

Calculation:
(Reading-1)
Vs Vcoil VR
(1) Z ckt  = Z coil  = R =
I I I

2
Z ckt  Z coil
2
 R2 X
(2) r  = X 2  Z coil
2
 r2 = L H=
2R 2f

Rr
(3) cos   = Power P  Vs I cos  =
Z ckt

(Reading-2)
Vs Vcoil VR
(1) Z ckt  = Z coil  = R =
I I I

2
Z ckt  Z coil
2
 R2 X
(2) r  = X 2  Z coil
2
 r2 = L H=
2R 2f
 Rr
(3) cos   = Power P  Vs I cos  =
Z ckt

(Reading-3)
Vs Vcoil VR
(1) Z ckt  = Z coil  = R =
I I I

2
Z ckt  Z coil
2
 R2 X
(2) r  = X 2  Z coil
2
 r2 = L H=
2R 2f

Rr
(3) cos   = Power P  Vs I cos  =
Z ckt

Result:

Inductive
Inductan
Resistance reactance of Power
Sr. ce of coil Power
R Zckt Zcoil of coil coil factor
No (L) H (P) Watt
(r) Ω (X) Ω (cosΦ)

1.

2.

3.

PHASOR DIAGRAM:
1. Select the scale 1 cm = _______ volts.
2. Draw the current (I) as a reference phasor OE as shown in Fig. 1.
3. Draw the phasor OB (=VR) to the scale in phase with the current phasor OE.
4. From the point B, draw an arc of radius equal to Vcoil (to the scale).
5. From the point O, draw an arc of radius equal to Vs (to the scale) such that it intersects the
previous arc at A.
6. Thus, phasor BA represents the voltage across the coil and phasor OA represents the
supply voltage.
7. Draw the perpendicular from the point A intersecting the current phasor at D.
8. Phasor BD represents the voltage across the resistance of the coil. Hence BD = Ir.
9. Phasor AD represents the voltage across the inductive reactance of the coil. Hence AD =
IX
10. Determine r and L from the phasor diagram. Compare the results.

fig.2

Conclusion:

Quiz:

1. Define RMS value.

2. What is phasor?

3. What is impedance triangle?

4. State advantages of sinusoidal alternating quantity.

Student Report with Experiment Results and Analysis

Inadequate Good Excellent

Evaluation Rubrics Marks
0% 50% 100%
The understanding of the Student regarding the
1 2
objective of the given practical

2 Installation of Software or Hardware Setup level 2

3 Quality of the Analysis done 2

Quality of the report including concluding remarks

4 2
and Findings
Question & Answer related to given practical &
5 2
timely submission

10

Total Marks Obtained Out of 10

Date of Completion: __________________ Course Coordinator: ________________

 AY: Even 2024-25
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICAL - 06

Course Code & Name BE01000051-Basic Electrical Engineering

Academic Term: AY : Even 2024-25 Semester 2
Student Enrollment No: Batch:
Student Name:

AIM/Objective:
1. To verify the current and voltage relationships in three phase star and delta connections.

Expected Outcome: CO/PO/PSO

1.

Competency and Practical Skills: Understanding of Three-Phase Systems, Knowledge of Star and
Delta Connections, Familiarity with Electrical Instruments, Practical Skills in Wiring, Analytical and
Problem-Solving Skills, Safety and Lab Etiquette.

Relevant CO: Analyze single phase and three phase AC circuits.

Objectives: (a) To understand the concepts of three-phase power systems, star and delta
connections, and their applications in practical scenarios.
(b) To verify the relationship between line and phase voltages and currents in
three-phase star and delta connections using various measuring instruments such as
voltmeters, ammeters, and wattmeters
(c) To understand the importance of safety measures when working with electrical
circuits and equipment.
Equipment/Instruments: 3-phase Auto Transformer, AC voltmeters and Ammeters, lamp load,
Connecting wires.

Theory: Three-phase power systems are widely used in electrical power distribution. The three-
phase system consists of three conductors carrying alternating currents that are 120 degrees out of
phase with each other. The most common configurations for three-phase systems are star and
delta connections. In this write-up, we will discuss the current and voltage relationships in both
star and delta connections and the methods to verify them.
Star Connection:
In a three-phase star connection, three-phase windings of a transformer or an electrical machine
are connected together at a common point called the neutral. The three-phase conductors are
connected to the remaining ends of the windings, and the voltage between any two of these
conductors is known as the line voltage. The current flowing in each winding is known as the
phase current.
 Fig.1
In the three-phase system, where all the three phases wires are connected to a common point. This
common point is known as the neutral point. And this type of connection is known as Star
Connection. The star connection will be called a three-phase three-wire system when only three
live wires are used. And the star connection will be called a three-phase four-wire system when all
the three phases and the neutral wire is used. The neutral wire is connected to the neutral point
where all three phases are connected. As the star connection looks like the English letter 'Y', it is
also known as wye connection.

 In the star connection, all three phases are connected to a neutral point. If the voltage
across all the phases and the current in each phase are equal, the voltage of the neutral
point will be zero.
 In the star connection, the line voltage and phase voltage are different. Line voltage is root
3 times of phase voltage. Line voltage is measured between any two phases whereas phase
voltage is measured between any one phase and neutral.
 In a star connection, we can have two different voltages, so we can connect it with two
different circuits operated at two different voltages. For example, from a 440V three-phase
system, we can get two different voltages such as 440V and 230V.
 In the star connection, the line current is equal to the phase current.
 In the star connection, less insulation is required for each phase as the phase voltage is less
than the line voltage.

As the line and phase voltage is different for the star connection,

So relationship of line voltage with phase voltage is,

𝑉 = √3 ∗ 𝑉
Line Voltage = √3 * Phase Voltage

The relationship of line current in the star connection is

𝐼 =𝐼
Line Current = Phase Current

Delta Connection:

In a three-phase delta connection, the three-phase windings are connected in a closed loop. Each
winding is connected to the next winding in the sequence, and the end of the third winding is
connected back to the beginning of the first winding. The voltage between any two of the
windings is known as the phase voltage, and the current flowing in each winding is known as the
phase current.

Fig.2
 There is no neutral point in the delta connection.
 In the delta connection, phase voltage is equal to the line voltage.
 In the delta connection, the line current is root three times the phase current.
 Delta connection provides a single voltage. Here, you can not get two different voltages
like the star connection.

As the line and phase current is different for the delta connection,
So relationship of line current is,
𝐼 = √3 ∗ 𝐼
Line Current = √3 * Phase Current
The relationship of line voltage in the delta connection is
𝑉 =𝑉
Line Voltage = Phase Voltage

Set up diagram:
Star Connection:

Delta Connection:
Safety and necessary Precautions:
1 Wear protective gear
2 Ensure proper wiring
3 Use appropriate voltage
4 Use appropriate measuring equipment
5 Avoid touching the circuit
6 Handle components with care
7 Follow laboratory guidelines

Procedure:
Star Connected Load
a. Connect the circuit of star connection as per circuit diagram shown above.
b. Switch on the AC voltage supply by keeping the autotransformer in minimum position.
c. Vary the auto transformer voltage and set at appropriate value.
d. Note down corresponding readings of ammeter and voltmeters.
e. Verify 𝑉 = and 𝐼 = 𝐼
√
f. Repeat the above procedure for different value of voltages.
g. Bring back the auto transformer to minimum position. Switch off the supply and remove all
connections.
Delta Connected Load
a. Connect the circuit of delta connection as per circuit diagram shown above.
b. Switch on the AC voltage supply by keeping the autotransformer in minimum position.
c. Vary the auto transformer voltage and set at appropriate value.
d. Note down corresponding readings of ammeter and voltmeters.
e. Verify 𝑉 = 𝑉 and 𝐼 =
√
f. Repeat the above procedure for different value of voltages.
g. Bring back the auto transformer to minimum position. Switch off the supply and remove all
connections.

Observations:
Star Connection:
SR Line Voltage Phase Voltage Line Current Phase Current IPH VPH = VL/√3
No VL (V) VPH (V) IL (A) (A)
Delta Connection:
SR Line Voltage Phase Voltage Line Current Phase Current IPH IPH = IL/√3
No VL (V) VPH (V) IL (A) (A)

Calculation:

Conclusion:

Quiz:

1. What are advantages of 3-Ø supply over 1-Ø supply?

2. What do you mean by balanced system?

3. Write the formula of Active power for 3-Ø delta connected load.

4. Phase angle between line voltage and phase voltage in star connected load is_________
Student Report with Experiment Results and Analysis

Inadequate Good Excellent

Evaluation Rubrics Marks
0% 50% 100%
The understanding of the Student regarding the
1 2
objective of the given practical

2 Installation of Software or Hardware Setup level 2

3 Quality of the Analysis done 2

Quality of the report including concluding remarks

4 2
and Findings
Question & Answer related to given practical &
5 2
timely submission

10

Total Marks Obtained Out of 10

Date of Completion: __________________ Course Coordinator: ________________

 AY: Even 2024-25
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICAL -07

Course Code & Name BE01000051-Basic Electrical Engineering

Academic Term: AY : Even 2024-25 Semester 2
Student Enrollment No: Batch:
Student Name:

AIM/Objective:
1. To Measure power in three phase circuit by two wattmeter method.

Expected Outcome: CO/PO/PSO

1.

Competency and Practical Skills: Knowledge of three-phase power systems, Knowledge of

Wattmeters, Familiarity with two-wattmeter method, Understanding of safety precautions,

Relevant CO: Analyze single phase and three phase AC circuits.

Objectives: (a) To understand the principle of operation of the two-wattmeter method.

(b) To learn the connection of wattmeters in a three-phase circuit
(c) To verify the theory of two-wattmeter method by calculating power in three-
phase circuit.
(d) To observe the phase angle between the voltage and current in a three-phase
circuit and to determine the power factor of the circuit.
(e) To compare the power calculated by the two-wattmeter method with the power
calculated by the three-wattmeter method and to evaluate the accuracy of the two-
wattmeter method
Equipment/Instruments: 3-phase Auto Transformer, AC voltmeters and Ammeters, lamp load,
Connecting wires.

Theory: Power in a three phase system with balanced or unbalanced load can be measured by two
wattmeter method. The load may be star or delta connected. Here we have considered star
connected load as shown in fig, although it can be equally applied to a delta connected load.
Two wattmeter methods is the most common method for the measurement of power in 3- phase
system. The current coils are of two wattmeters are connected in series in any two lines and the
potential coils are connected between these lines and the third line in which the current coil is not
connected. It can be proved that the sum of instantaneous values of power indicated by these
wattmeters equal s the total power absorbed by the 3-phase load.
Let us consider two wattmeters connected to measure power in three phase circuit as shown in
circuit diagram.
Instantaneous reading of P1 wattmeter, P1 = I1. (V1 - V3)
Instantaneous reading of P2 wattmeter, P2 = I2. (V2 - V3)
Sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeter’s, P = P1+ P2
= I1 (V1 - V3) + I2. (V2 - V3)
 = V1I1+ V2I2 - V3 (I1 + I2)

From Kirchoff’s law, I1 + I2 + I3 = 0 OR I3 = - (I1+I2)

Therefore, the sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeters, V1I1 + V2I2 + V3I3
Therefore the sum of 2 wattmeter readings is equal to the power consumed by the load. This is
irrespective of whether the load is balanced or unbalanced.

For balanced star connected load

ABBREVIATIONS:
Line Voltage (VL) = √3 Phase Voltage (VPH)
Line Voltage (VL) = VRY = VYB = VBR = VL = √ 3 VPH
Phase Voltage (VPH) = VR = VY = VB = VPH =V
Line Current (IL) = Phase Current (IPH) = I

Set up diagram:

Safety and necessary Precautions:

1. Wear protective gear
2. Ensure proper wiring
3. Use appropriate voltage
4. Use appropriate measuring equipment
5. Avoid touching the circuit
6. Handle components with care
7. Follow laboratory guidelines

Procedure:
1. Make connections as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep operating dial of 3-phase variac at its null ('0') position & then switch ON 3-phase
input a.c. supply.
1. By controlling the operating dial of 3-phase variac, set the input phase voltage (V) at
appropriate value making sure that the 3-phase supply is balanced.
2. Gradually increase the load equally in all phases and note down various readings
3. Note line voltages and line currents of respective lines.
4. Note readings of wattmeter (W1) and wattmeter (W2).
5. Calculate ∅ = tan (√3 )
Observations:
Observation Table Calculations
Wattmeter 3 ф Active Power
Sr. Line Voltage Line Current
Reading (=P)
No.
P = W1 P = √3 VL
VRY VYB VBR IR IY IB W1 W2
+W2 IL cos ф
1.

2.

3.

Calculation:
3- ф Active Power P = √3 VL IL cos ф = _________
3-ф Re active Power Q = √3 VL IL sin ф = _________
Apparent Power S = √3 VL IL = _________

Conclusion:
Quiz:
1. Define power factor.

2. Two wattmeter method is applicable for star connected system or delta connected system or
both? Justify your answer.

3. Total number of phase sequence in 3-Ø AC system is___________

4. In the two wattmeter method of measuring power in 3-Ø circuit, the two wattmeter will show
equal readings when the power factor angle is equal to______

Student Report with Experiment Results and Analysis

Inadequate Good Excellent

Evaluation Rubrics Marks
0% 50% 100%
The understanding of the Student regarding the
1 2
objective of the given practical

2 Installation of Software or Hardware Setup level 2

3 Quality of the Analysis done 2

Quality of the report including concluding remarks

4 2
and Findings
Question & Answer related to given practical &
5 2
timely submission

10

Total Marks Obtained Out of 10

Date of Completion: __________________ Course Coordinator: ________________

 AY: Even 2024-25
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICAL - 08

Course Code & Name BE01000051-Basic Electrical Engineering

Academic Term: AY : Even 2024-25 Semester 2
Student Enrollment No: Batch:
Student Name:

AIM/Objective:
1. To Study the introduction of Electric Vehicles

Expected Outcome: CO/PO/PSO

1.

Competency and Practical Skills: Basic knowledge about Vehicles

Objectives:
(a) To know basic skills about different types of vehicles
(b) To understand the working of electric and hybrid vehicles
(c) To gain knowledge about impact of EV

Theory:
Introduction
An electric vehicle is one powered by an electric motor rather than a traditional petrol/diesel
engine. This electric motor is powered by rechargeable batteries that can be charged by
common household electricity.

History of electric vehicles

1900 S

Electric cars are nothing new. Interest in motor vehicles increased greatly around the 1900s and
at that time there were about twice as many electric cars on the road than petrol/diesel cars. It
wasn’t until the 1920s that interest in electric cars dwindled. The reason was that electric cars
were limited by their low top speeds and low range (just a few miles). In addition, in 1912 the
electric starter motor was developed for petrol cars, eliminating the traditional drawback of
petrol cars: having to use a hand crank to get the car moving!
 It was Henry Ford who put the nail in the electric car coffin when his company began to mass-
produce the Model T. This slashed the price of petrol cars to about half that of an electric car
and so in the early 1900s almost all electric car manufacturers began to cease making them.

The limited maximum speed of electric cars (up to 30mph) limited their practicality. For most
of the 20th century, British milk floats made up most of the world’s number of electric vehicles.
Interest in electric cars returned following the energy crises of the 1970s and 80s; with the
availability and
price of oil being shown to be increasingly volatile; people could see the potential benefits of
battery-powered cars. A few big car companies brought out models and some were sold to
environmentally minded members of the public. However, in General Electric vehicles were still
losing out to the style and lower price of their petrol-fueled cousins.

2000S

In the 2000s, the development of hybrid vehicles, plus another fuel crisis, saw the technology
adopted by larger numbers than ever before. Tesla’s Roadster, which went on sale in 2008, was
a game changer for the industry. The attractive design and extended range of the Roadster
appealed to a larger market than ever before and encouraged competitors such as Nissan and
Chevrolet to launch their own models.

Types of EVs

There are four types of electric cars:

1. Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV): These are fully electrified. They are more efficient than
hybrids and plug-in hybrids.
2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV): HEVs have both an internal combustion engine and an
electric motor. The engine gets energy from the fuel and the engine gets power from the battery.
The gearbox is rotated simultaneously by the internal combustion engine and the electric motor.
This drives the wheels.
3. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs): use both an internal combustion engine and a
battery that charges from an external outlet (with a plug). In this way, the vehicle battery can be
charged instead of the engine. PHEV is more efficient than HEV but less efficient than BEV.
4. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV): FCEVs are also known as zero-emission vehicles. It uses
fuel cell technology to generate the power the vehicle needs to run. The chemical energy of the
fuel is converted directly into electrical energy. For example, hydrogen FCEV.

Why there is a need for EVs?

1. Climate change concerns: Growing concerns about climate change are driving global efforts
to electrify the transport sector.
2. Cost Reductions: In parallel, the cost of lithium-ion (lithium-ion) battery technology has fallen
surprisingly significantly over the past decade.
3. Government push: Governments providing incentives to initiate the transition to electric
mobility to position themselves as leading companies in the global market.
4. Private investment: A global race is emerging as automakers, battery makers, and materials
suppliers vie for market share. Market forces are thus also actively pushing the shift of the
mobility sector from petrol/diesel to electric.

Advantages of using EVs

1. Energy Efficiency: Electric vehicles convert more than 60% of the electrical energy from the
grid into electricity at their wheels (gasoline and diesel vehicles only convert 17% to 21% of the
energy stored in their fuel at their wheels). increase).
2. Low maintenance costs: Electric vehicles have very low maintenance costs because they do
not have as many moving parts as internal combustion engine vehicles.
3. Eco-friendly: Driving an electric car reduces your carbon footprint as there are no emissions.
Even taking into account the amount of electricity generated, a petrol or diesel car emits almost
three times more carbon dioxide than the average electric car. You can reduce your environmental
impact by choosing renewable energy options for battery charging To mitigate the impact of EV
charging, India aims to source around 40% of its total installed electricity from non-fossil sources
by 2030.
4. Taxes and economic benefits: Registration fees and road taxes when buying an electric car are
lower than when buying a petrol or diesel car. Depending on the state you live in, there are some
policies and incentives offered by the government.
5. Easy to Use: Electric vehicles do not have a transmission, which is very convenient to drive.
EVs are quiet because there is no motor under the hood. No engine means no noise.
6. Declining reliance on energy: Electricity is a domestic source of energy, and the country’s
reliance on oil imports has decreased significantly.

Major Concerns:
 EVs can finally solve the problem of exhaust emissions, but they do not address all the
damage done to the environment during manufacturing.
 As EVs gain momentum, advances in battery production and research will boost sales.
 This means that material emissions will increase from their current 18% to more than 60%
by 2040.
 Decarbonization of vehicles during production is more difficult than during use. Currently,
electric vehicle battery packs are heavy, increasing the overall weight of the vehicle and
increasing the energy required to drive it. To combat this, automakers are adopting
aluminum to reduce the weight of their bodies, with electric cars using 45% more of his
aluminium than conventional cars. Aluminium emissions started to rise because mining
and production are energy intensive.
 Concerns about the disposal of used & broken batteries are conveniently palmed off on
poor, vulnerable countries – such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, which produces
60% of the world`s Cobalt – that lack the legislation to deal with them.
 Shortage of raw material for home Production: Battery is the most important part of
Electric Vehicles. The country doesn’t have any popular reserves of lithium and cobalt
which are the raw materials of EV batteries.
 Dependence on other countries for the import of lithium-ion batteries is an obstacle to
becoming completely self-reliant in the battery manufacturing sector.
 Weak Manufacturing base: It is estimated that by 2020-30 India`s cumulative demand for
batteries would be approximately 900-1100 GWh. However, there is concern over the
weak manufacturing base for batteries in India, leading to heavy reliance on imports to
meet rising demand.

Electric Vehicle Promotion in India

• Electric Vehicles in India are still relatively new. They account for just 1 % of the total
vehicle density. India unveiled the ‘National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP)
2020’ in 2013 to address the issues of national energy security, vehicular pollution, and
growth of domestic manufacturing capabilities.

• While you might see a lot of e-rickshaws zipping across the narrow lanes of Karol Bagh
in Delhi, a major shift has yet to arrive towards Electric Vehicles. Only a handful of
electric cars are available in the market, and the small-vehicle market is still dominated
by conventional vehicles.

• “We are going to introduce electric vehicles in a very big way. We are going to make
electric vehicles self-sufficient like UJALA. The idea is that by 2030, not a single petrol
or diesel car should be sold in the country,” Power Minister Piyush Goyal said while
addressing the CII Annual Session, 2017.

Introduction to Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)

Consistent with the definition of hybrid above, the hybrid electric vehicle combines a gasoline
 engine with an electric motor. An alternate arrangement is a diesel engine and an electric motor
(figure 1).

Figure 1: Components of a hybrid Vehicle that combines a pure gasoline with a pure EV.

As shown in Figure 1, a HEV is formed by merging components from a pure electrical vehicle
and a pure gasoline vehicle. The Electric Vehicle (EV) has an M/G which allows regenerative
braking for an EV; the M/G installed in the HEV enables regenerative braking. For the HEV, the
M/G is tucked directly behind the engine. In Honda hybrids, the M/G is connected directly to the
engine. The transmission appears next in line. This arrangement has two torque producers; the
M/G in motor mode, M-mode, and the gasoline engine. The battery and M/G are connected
electrically.
Functions of different parts of Electric Vehicle
Controller

An electric vehicle motor controller is a machine that is employed to regulate the torque
generated by the motors of electric vehicles by means of modifying the energy flow from the
power sources to the motor.

Brushless DC motor

A brushless DC motor (known as BLDC) is a permanent magnet synchronous electric

motor which is driven by direct current (DC) electricity.

Potentiometer

The signal from the potentiometers tells the controller how much power to deliver to the
electric car's motor.

Battery:

A rechargeable battery is made up of secondary cells. The most familiar rechargeable battery is
the leadacid battery that is commonly used as a car battery.

DC-to-DC converter

Therefore, an electric car has a normal 12-volt lead-acid battery to power all of the accessories.
To keep the battery charged, an electric car needs a DC-to-DC converter. This converter takes
in the DC power from the main battery array (at, for example, 300 volts DC) and converts it
down to 12 volts to recharge the accessory battery. When the car is on, the accessories get their
power from the DC-to-DC converter.

Conclusion:

Quiz:

1. Draw the circuit diagram of electric vehicle and hybrid electric vehicles.
2. Explain different between conventional vehicle and hybrid electric vehicles
3. Compare electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles.
Student Report with Experiment Results and Analysis

Inadequate Good Excellent

Evaluation Rubrics Marks
0% 50% 100%
The understanding of the Student regarding the
1 2
objective of the given practical

2 Installation of Software or Hardware Setup level 2

3 Quality of the Analysis done 2

Quality of the report including concluding remarks

4 2
and Findings
Question & Answer related to given practical &
5 2
timely submission

10

Total Marks Obtained Out of 10

Date of Completion: __________________ Course Coordinator: ________________

 AY: Even 2024-25
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICAL -09

Course Code & Name BE01000051-Basic Electrical Engineering

Academic Term: AY : Even 2024-25 Semester 2
Student Enrollment No: Batch:
Student Name:

AIM/Objective:
1. To demonstrate the working of miniature circuit breaker (MCB)

Expected Outcome: CO/PO/PSO

1.

Competency and Practical Skills: Knowledge of electrical circuits, Familiarity with

MCBs, Understanding of measuring instruments, Practical skills in wiring and circuit
assembly, Knowledge of safety precautions.

Relevant CO: Comprehend electrical installations, their protection and personnel safety.

Objectives: (a) To understand the operating principles of miniature circuit breakers and their
role in electrical circuit protection.
(b) To plot the current vs. time characteristics of the MCB for different levels of
overcurrent and to observe the trip time of the MCB.
(c) To identify the limitations and applications of MCBs and to appreciate their
importance in electrical safety.
Equipment/Instruments: Ammeter, Voltmeter, Single phase supply, MCB, Connecting Wires.

Theory: The theory behind the laboratory experiment to plot the characteristics of miniature
circuit breaker (MCB) involves understanding the operation and behavior of the MCB under
different abnormal conditions.

An MCB is a type of circuit breaker that is commonly used in low-voltage electrical systems to
protect against overcurrents and short circuits. It is designed to trip and open the circuit when the
current exceeds a certain value, which is known as the tripping current.
Construction of MCB:
MCB embodies a complete enclosure in a moulded insulating material. This provides
mechanically strong and insulated housing.

The switching system consists of a fixed and a moving contact to which incoming and outgoing
wires are connected. The metal or current carrying parts are made up of electrolytic copper or
silver alloy depending on the rating of the circuit breaker.
As the contacts are separated in the event of an overload or short circuit situation, an electric arc is
formed. All modern MCBs are designed to handle arc interruption processes where arc energy
extraction and its cooling are provided by metallic arc splitter plates.

These plates are held in a proper position by an insulating material. Also, arc runner is provided to
force the arc that is produced between the main contacts.

The operating mechanism consists of both magnetic tripping and thermal tripping arrangements.

The magnetic tripping arrangement essentially consists of a composite magnetic system that has a
spring-loaded dashpot with a magnetic slug in a silicon fluid, and a normal magnetic trip. A
current carrying coil in the trip arrangement moves the slug against spring towards a fixed pole
piece. So the magnetic pull is developed on the trip lever when there is a sufficient magnetic field
produced by the coil.

In case of short circuits or heavy overloads, strong magnetic field produced by the coils
(Solenoid) is sufficient to attract the armature of the trip lever irrespective of the position of the
slug in the dashpot.
The thermal tripping arrangement consists of a bimetallic strip around which a heater coil is
wound to create heat depending on the flow of current.

The heater design can be either direct where current is passed through a bimetal strip which
affects part of electric circuit or indirect where a coil of current carrying conductor is wound
around the bimetallic strip. The deflection of a bimetallic strip activates the tripping mechanism in
case of certain overload conditions.

The bimetal strips are made up of two different metals, usually brass and steel. These metals are
riveted and welded along their length. These are so designed such that they will not heat the strip
to the tripping point for normal currents, but if the current is increased beyond rated value, the
strip is warmed, bent and trips the latch. Bimetallic strips are chosen to provide particular time
delays under certain overloads.
Working & Operation of MCB
Under normal working conditions, MCB operates as a switch (manual one) to make the circuit
ON or OFF. Under overload or short circuit condition, it automatically operates or trips so that
current interruption takes place in the load circuit.
The visual indication of this trip can be observed by automatic movement of the operating knob to
OFF position. This automatic operation MCB can be obtained in two ways as we have seen in
MCB construction; those are magnetic tripping and thermal tripping.

Under overload conditions, the current through the bimetal causes it to raise the temperature of it.
The heat generated within the bimetal itself is enough to cause deflection due to thermal
expansion of metals. This deflection further releases the trip latch and hence contacts get
separated.

In some MCBs, the magnetic field generated by the coil causes it to develop pull on bimetals such
that deflection activates the tripping mechanism.

Under short circuit or heavy overload conditions, magnetic tripping arrangement comes into the
picture. Under normal working conditions, the slug is held in a position by a light spring because
the magnetic field generated by the coil is not sufficient to attract the latch.

When a fault current flows, the magnetic field generated by the coil is sufficient to overcome the
spring force holding the slug in position. And hence slug moves and then actuate the tripping
mechanism.

A combination of both magnetic and thermal tripping mechanisms are implemented in most
miniature circuit breakers. In both magnetic and thermal tripping operations, an arc is formed
when the contacts start separating. This arc is then forced into arc splitter plates via arc runner.

These arc splitter plates are also called arc chutes where arc is formed into a series of arcs and at
the same time energy extracted and cools it. Hence this arrangement achieves the arc extinction.

To plot the characteristics of an MCB, the experiment typically involves measuring the tripping
current of the MCB under different conditions. This can be done by connecting the MCB in series
with a power source and a load, and then introducing different levels of fault current by varying
the load or introducing a short circuit.

The experiment involve measuring the tripping current at different time intervals to observe the
behavior of the MCB over time. This can help to determine the tripping characteristics of the
MCB, such as the time-delay characteristics and the instantaneous trip characteristics.

Set up diagram:

Safety and necessary Precautions:

1. Wear protective gear
2. Ensure proper wiring
3. Use appropriate voltage
4. Use appropriate measuring equipment
5. Avoid touching the circuit
6. Handle components with care
7. Follow laboratory guidelines

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit setup diag.
2. Switch on 1-Ø AC supply and set appropriate voltage.
3. Gradually vary the load until MCB gets tripped.
4. Note down the tripping current.
.
Observations:

Tripping Current=
Conclusion:

Quiz:
1. What is the function of MCB?

2. State difference between MCB and MCCB.

3. What is the difference between fuse and MCB?

Student Report with Experiment Results and Analysis

Inadequate Good Excellent

Evaluation Rubrics Marks
0% 50% 100%
The understanding of the Student regarding the
1 2
objective of the given practical

2 Installation of Software or Hardware Setup level 2

3 Quality of the Analysis done 2

Quality of the report including concluding remarks

4 2
and Findings
Question & Answer related to given practical &
5 2
timely submission

10

Total Marks Obtained Out of 10

Date of Completion: __________________ Course Coordinator: ________________

 AY: Even 2024-25
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICAL -10

Course Code & Name BE01000051-Basic Electrical Engineering

Academic Term: AY : Even 2024-25 Semester 2
Student Enrollment No: Batch:
Student Name:

AIM/Objective:
1. To study different types of batteries and its applications.

Expected Outcome: CO/PO/PSO

1.

Competency and Practical Skills: Knowledge of basic chemistry, Familiarity with electrical
circuits, Understanding of battery technology.

Relevant CO: Comprehend electrical installations, their protection and personnel safety.

Objectives: (a) To understand the basic principles of battery operation.

(b) To identify the differences between primary and secondary batteries, and their
respective advantages and disadvantages.
(c) To explore the various types of primary batteries, such as alkaline, lithium, and
zinc-carbon batteries, and their unique properties and applications.
(d) To investigate the different types of secondary batteries, such as lead-acid,
nickel-cadmium, and lithium-ion batteries, and their specific characteristics and
uses.

Equipment/Instruments: Batteries.

Theory: A battery is a collection of one or more cells that go under chemical reactions to create
the flow of electrons within a circuit. There is lot of research and advancement going on in battery
technology, and as a result, breakthrough technologies are being experienced and used around the
world currently. Batteries came into play due to the need to store generated electrical energy. As
much as a good amount of energy was being generated, it was important to store the energy so it
can be used when generation is down or when there is a need to power standalone devices which
cannot be kept tethered to the supply from the mains. Here it should be noted that only DC can be
stored in the batteries, AC current can’t be stored.

Battery cells are usually made up of three main components;

1. The Anode (Negative Electrode)

2. The Cathode (Positive Electrode)
3. The electrolytes
The anode is a negative electrode that produces electrons to the external circuit to which the
battery is connected. When batteries are connected, an electron build-up is initiated at the anode
which causes a potential difference between the two electrodes. The electrons naturally then try to
redistribute themselves, this is prevented by the electrolyte, so when an electrical circuit is
connected, it provides a clear path for the electrons to move from the anode to the cathode thereby
powering the circuit to which it is connected. By changing the arrangement and material used to
build the Anode, Cathode and Electrolyte we can achieve many different types of battery
chemistries enabling us to design different types of battery cells.

Types of Batteries
Batteries generally can be classified into different categories and types, ranging from chemical
composition, size, form factor and use cases, but under all of these are two major battery types;

1. Primary Batteries
2. Secondary Batteries

1. Primary Batteries
Primary batteries are batteries that cannot be recharged once depleted. Primary batteries are
made of electrochemical cells whose electrochemical reaction cannot be reversed.

Primary batteries exist in different forms ranging from coin cells to AA batteries. They are
commonly used in standalone applications where charging is impractical or impossible. A good
example of which is in military grade devices and battery powered equipment. It will be
impractical to use rechargeable batteries as recharging a battery will be the last thing in the mind
of the soldiers. Primary batteries always have high specific energy and the systems in which they
are used are always designed to consume low amount of power to enable the battery last as long
as possible.

Some other examples of devices using primary batteries include; Pace makers, Animal
trackers, Wrist watches, remote controls and children toys to mention a few.

The most popular type of primary batteries are alkaline batteries. They have a high specific
energy and are environmentally friendly, cost-effective and do not leak even when fully
discharged. They can be stored for several years, have a good safety record and can be carried on
an aircraft without being subject to UN Transport and other regulations. The only downside to
alkaline batteries is the low load current, which limits its use to devices with low current
requirements like remote controls, flashlights and portable entertainment devices.

2. Secondary Batteries
Secondary batteries are batteries with electrochemical cells whose chemical reactions can be
reversed by applying a certain voltage to the battery in the reversed direction. Also referred to
as rechargeable batteries, secondary cells unlike primary cells can be recharged after the energy
on the battery has been used up.

They are typically used in high drain applications and other scenarios where it will be either too
expensive or impracticable to use single charge batteries. Small capacity secondary batteries are
used to power portable electronic devices like mobile phones, and other gadgets and appliances
while heavy-duty batteries are used in powering diverse electric vehicles and other high drain
applications like load levelling in electricity generation. They are also used as standalone power
sources alongside Inverters to supply electricity. Although the initial cost of acquiring
rechargeable batteries is always a whole lot higher than that of primary batteries but they are the
most cost-effective over the long-term. Secondary batteries can be further classified into several
other types based on their chemistry. This is very important because the chemistry determines
some of the attributes of the battery including its specific energy, cycle life, shelf life, and price to
mention a few.

The following are the different types of rechargeable batteries that are commonly used.

1. Lithium-ion(Li-ion)
2. Nickel Cadmium(Ni-Cd)
3. Nickel-Metal Hydride(Ni-MH)
4. Lead-Acid

1. Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
The nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd battery or NiCad battery) is a type of rechargeable
battery which is developed using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. Ni-
Cd batteries excel at maintaining voltage and holding charge when not in use. However, NI-Cd
batteries easily fall a victim of the dreaded “memory” effect when a partially charged battery is
recharged, lowering the future capacity of the battery.
In comparison with other types of rechargeable cells, Ni-Cd batteries offer good life cycle and
performance at low temperatures with a fair capacity but their most significant advantage will be
their ability to deliver their full rated capacity at high discharge rates. They are available in
different sizes including the sizes used for alkaline batteries, AAA to D. Ni-Cd cells are used
individual or assembled in packs of two or more cells. The small packs are used in portable
devices, electronics and toys while the bigger ones find application in aircraft starting batteries,
Electric vehicles and standby power supply.

Some of the properties of Nickel-Cadmium batteries are listed below.

 Specific Energy: 40-60W-h/kg

 Energy Density: 50-150 W-h/L
 Specific Power: 150W/kg
 Charge/discharge efficiency: 70-90%
 Self-discharge rate: 10%/month
 Cycle durability/life: 2000cycles

2. Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries

Nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH) is another type of chemical configuration used for rechargeable
batteries. The chemical reaction at the positive electrode of batteries is similar to that of
the nickel–cadmium cell (NiCd), with both battery type using the same nickel oxide
hydroxide (NiOOH). However, the negative electrodes in Nickel-Metal Hydride use a hydrogen-
absorbing alloy instead of cadmium which is used in NiCd batteries

NiMH batteries find application in high drain devices because of their high capacity and energy
density. A NiMH battery can possess two to three times the capacity of a NiCd battery of the
same size, and its energy density can approach that of a lithium-ion battery. Unlike the NiCd
chemistry, batteries based on the NiMH chemistry are not susceptible to the “memory” effect
that NiCads experience.

Below are some of the properties of batteries based on the Nickel-metal hydride chemistry;

 Specific Energy: 60-120h/kg

 Energy Density: 140-300 Wh/L
 Specific Power: 250-1000 W/kg
 Charge/discharge efficiency: 66% - 92%
 Self-discharge rate: 1.3-2.9%/month at 20oC
 Cycle Durability/life: 180 -2000

3. Lithium-ion Batteries
Lithium-ion batteries are one of the most popular types of rechargeable batteries. There are
many different types of Lithium batteries, but among all the lithium-ion batteries are the most
commonly used. You can find these lithium batteries being used in different forms popularly
among electric vehicles and other portable gadgets. If you are curious to know more about
batteries used in Electric vehicles, you can check out this article on Electric Vehicle
Batteries. They are found in different portable appliances including mobile phones, smart
devices and several other battery appliances used at home. They also find applications in
aerospace and military applications due to their lightweight nature.

Lithium-ion batteries are a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions from the
negative electrode migrate to the positive electrode during discharge and migrate back to the
negative electrode when the battery is being charged. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated
lithium compound as one electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in non-
rechargeable lithium batteries.

Lithium-ion batteries generally possess high energy density, little or no memory effect and
low self-discharge compared to other battery types. Their chemistry alongside performance and
cost vary across different use cases, for example, Li-ion batteries used in handheld electronic
devices are usually based on lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) which provides high energy density
and low safety risks when damaged while Li-ion batteries based on Lithium iron phosphate which
offer a lower energy density are safer due to a reduced likelihood of unfortunate events happening
are widely used in powering electric tools and medical equipment. Lithium-ion batteries offer the
best performance to weight ratio with the lithium sulphur battery offering the highest ratio.

Some of the attributes of lithium-ion batteries are listed below;

 Specific Energy: 100: 265W-h/kg

 Energy Density: 250: 693 W-h/L
 Specific Power: 250: 340 W/kg
 Charge/discharge percentage: 80-90%
 Cycle Durability: 400: 1200 cycles
 Nominal cell voltage: NMC 3.6/3.85V

4. Lead-Acid Batteries
Lead-acid batteries are a low-cost reliable power workhorse used in heavy-duty applications.
They are usually very large and because of their weight, they’re always used in non-portable
applications such as solar-panel energy storage, vehicle ignition and lights, backup power and
load levelling in power generation/distribution. The lead-acid is the oldest type of rechargeable
battery and still very relevant and important into today’s world. Lead-acid batteries have very low
energy to volume and energy to weight ratios but it has a relatively large power to weight ratio
and as a result, can supply huge surge currents when needed. These attributes alongside its low
cost make these batteries attractive for use in several high current applications like powering
automobile starter motors and for storage in backup power supplies.

Selecting the right battery for your application

One of the main problems hindering technology revolutions like IoT is power, battery life affects
the successful deployment of devices that require long battery life and even though several power
management techniques are being adopted to make the battery last longer, a compatible battery
must still be selected to achieve the desired outcome.
Below are some factors to consider when selecting the right type of battery for your project.

1. Energy Density: The energy density is the total amount of energy that can be stored per unit
mass or volume. This determines how long your device stays on before it needs a recharge.

2. Power Density: Maximum rate of energy discharge per unit mass or volume. Low power:
laptop, i-pod. High power: power tools.

3. Safety: It is important to consider the temperature at which the device you are building will
work. At high temperatures, certain battery components will breakdown and can undergo
exothermic reactions. High temperatures generally reduces the performance of most batteries.

4. Life cycle durability: The stability of energy density and power density of a battery with
repeated cycling (charging and discharging) is needed for the long battery life required by most
applications.

5. Cost: Cost is an important part of any engineering decisions you will be making. It is important
that the cost of your battery choice is commensurate with its performance and will not increase the
overall cost of the project abnormally.

Some important characteristics of batteries include:

Capacity: This refers to the amount of energy that a battery can store and deliver. The unit of
measurement for capacity is ampere-hours (Ah) or milliampere-hours (mAh), and it determines
how long a battery can power a device before it needs to be recharged.

Voltage: This is the electrical potential difference between the positive and negative terminals of
a battery. It determines the amount of electrical energy that can be delivered by the battery and is
typically measured in volts (V).

Chemistry: The chemical composition of a battery determines its performance characteristics,

such as its capacity, voltage, and discharge rate. Different types of batteries use different chemical
compositions, including alkaline, lithium-ion, lead-acid, and nickel-cadmium.

Discharge rate: This refers to how quickly a battery can deliver its energy. It is usually measured
in amperes (A) or milliamperes (mA) and can be affected by factors such as the temperature, load,
and age of the battery.

Cycle life: This is the number of charge and discharge cycles that a battery can go through before
its performance starts to degrade. It is influenced by factors such as the chemistry of the battery,
its usage patterns, and the quality of its construction.

Self-discharge rate: This refers to the rate at which a battery loses its charge when it is not in use.
It can vary depending on the chemistry of the battery and its storage conditions.

Temperature range: The performance of a battery can be affected by the temperature at which it
is used and stored. Different types of batteries have different temperature ranges for optimal
performance.
Overall, these characteristics are important to consider when selecting a battery for a particular
application, as they can impact the battery's performance, lifespan, and overall cost-effectiveness.
Conclusion:

Quiz:

1. What is primary cell and secondary cell?

2. Do temperature have effect on battery?

3. Mercury cell is primary cell. True/False? Justify your answer.

Student Report with Experiment Results and Analysis

Inadequate Good Excellent

Evaluation Rubrics Marks
0% 50% 100%
The understanding of the Student regarding the
1 2
objective of the given practical

2 Installation of Software or Hardware Setup level 2

3 Quality of the Analysis done 2

Quality of the report including concluding remarks

4 2
and Findings
Question & Answer related to given practical &
5 2
timely submission

10

Total Marks Obtained Out of 10

Date of Completion: __________________ Course Coordinator: ________________