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MACHINE ELEMENTS AND DESIGN

Indicative Content

a. Fundamentals of machine design

Design philosophy

b. Designs for Strength

Design for static loading and dynamic loading

Stress Concentration

c. Design of springs

Introduction to Springs

Design of Helical Springs

Design of Leaf Springs

d. Design of Shaft

Shaft and its design based on strength

Design of shaft for variable load and based on stiffness

e. Brief overview of bearings

Fluid Film bearings

Rolling contact bearings

f. Design of gear tooth

Analysis of forces on spur, and helical gears, bevel and worm gears Lewis equation for
design, Dynamic loading and wear-Buckingham equations for design.

Design approach for spur and bevel gears, Gear Box

References to add:

Design of Machine elements(8th Edition). M.F. Spotts. T.E. Shoup. L.E. Hornberger, 2003.

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 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

Many thighs around us that are not natural, they have been designed by someone. The design
activity is aimed at improving human conditions in all aspects through physical change and has
recognized as an important in human life for more than 4000 years. In general the word design is
used in different contexts such as: dress designers, sound designers, architectural designers,
automobile designers, machine designers, etc. Although the names indicate different professions
the common issue with the word design is the art of producing specific information used to make
things.

In engineering the word design is used to symbolize the activities of developing a product which
meet some requirements. It involves establishing terms of reference which specify the objective
to be achieved but giving the designer the freedom to choose the means of achieving the
objectives.

As shown above, the interpretation of the meaning of design may vary to relate with a particular
discipline. The following is the most applicable interpretation in engineering:

Engineering design is the process of devising a system, component or process to meet

desired needs. It is a decision making process, in which the basic sciences, mathematics and
engineering sciences are applied to convert resources optimally to meet a stated objective.

In engineering, design is a problem solving exercise conducted by people of varying skills and
experience. This means that although there are common elements of activity when dealing
with a design problem, the result of each activity depends on the individual designer’s
knowledge, and experience. It is important also to know that design is critically dependent on
many other sources of knowledge and therefore it is largely an information generating and
processing activity.

The dependency of the results on individuals and other factors makes design a difficult subject to
teach.

1.1 . THE DESIGN PROCESS

The design process is the activity of turning ideas into reality. It represents a sequence of
activities that are essential in solving design problem. The heart of the design process consists
of the basic module shown in figure 1. The module shows a number of important aspects of the
design process as follows:

• Inputs to the operation

• Output of the operation
• Evaluation of the output against the objective of the operation which involves making
decision to continue to the other steps, repetition of the operation or termination of the
operation.

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 General
Information

Specific Design operation Outcome

Information
n

Feedback loop No Evaluation Yes Go to the step

Figure 1

The full design process will have a chain of the modules in figure 1 representing various design
operations (stages). There are several combinations of design steps that can enable a designer to
achieve the design objective but the most common sequences include the following six steps as
show in figure 2

PROBLEM
IDENTIFICATION

PRELIMINARY IDEAS
IMPLEMENTATION
DESIGN PROCESS

DECISION
REFINEMENT

ANALYSIS
Figure 2

1.1.1. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Most engineering problems are not clearly defined at the outset as they originate from non –
design engineering sources. Normally the client will provide a problem statement and is up to
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designers to make a considerable study to identify what is actually needed. This involves
gathering various data such as: field data, opinion survey, historical records, personal
observations, experimental data, and physical measurements and characteristics, etc. The
collected information should be interpreted both graphically and in written form in order to
define the problem. Example of inputs to the problem identification step is given in figure 3

BACKGROUND
ECONOMICS

PROBLEM
DATA
IDENTIFICATION NEEDS

CAUSES EFFECTS Figure 3

1.1.2. PRELIMINARY IDEAS

After the identification of the problem many ideas that can produce possible solutions should be
accumulated. The ideas should sufficiently be broad to allow for unique solution that if possible
could revolutionise present designs. The ideas can be from individuals or working groups and
should be recorded in written form e.g. sketches and comments that will serve as a basis for the
next design steps. The commonly used methods to gather or generate preliminary ideas are
brainstorming, market analysis, or research of existing designs. The inputs to the preliminary
ideas are shown in figure 4.

MATHEMATICS SCIENCE

PRELIMINARY
GRAPHICS IDEAS LOGIC

ENGINEERING EXPERIENCE
Figure 4

1.1.3. PROBLEM REFINEMENT

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From the accumulated ideas several are selected for further refinement to establish their true
advantages. The refinement involves converting the sketches to scale drawings that will allow
the space analysis, determination of critical dimensions and calculation of areas and volume.
Also the drawings will allow the consideration of special relationship of members, intersections
of surfaces, determine the feasibility of manufacture and the physical characteristics of the
design. The elements that contribute to problem refinement are shown in figure 5.

ANGLES AND
WEIGHTS AND
LENGTHS
VOLUMES

SCALE REFINEMENT
INTERSECTIONS
DRAWINGS

PHYSICAL SHAPES AND

PROPERTIES FORMS
Figure 5

1.1.4. ANALYSIS

In the design process this is the step where engineering and scientific principles are used most.
Analysis involves the study of the best design to determine its advantage in terms of cost,
strength, function and market appeal. The things that constitute analysis are shown in figure 6.

MATHEMATICS SCIENCE

ANALYSIS
GRAPHICS LOGIC

EXPERIENCE
ENGINEERING Figure 6

1.1.5. DECISION

The refinement stage will result to designs with unique features that cannot all be combined into
a single design there a decision must be made to select the solution that is more acceptable. The
decision can be made by either an individual designer or by a group. Things that influence the
decision- making are shown in figure 7.

ACCEPT REJECT
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DECISION
COMBINE RESTUDY
 Figure 7

1.1.1. IMPLEMENTATION

After deciding on the final design it must be presented in a workable form that will be used as
the reference for the fabrication of the product. The outputs of the implementation stage are
shown in figure 8.

WORKING SPECIFICATIONS
DRAWING
IMPLEMENTATION
DR

MODEL DETAILS

FINISHED
SOLUTION Figure 8

MACHINE ELEMENTS DESIGN - INTRODUCTION

The subject Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the
existing ones. A new or better machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of
production and operation. The process of design is long and time consuming one. From the study
of existing ideas, a new idea has to be conceived. The idea is then studied keeping in mind its
commercial success and given shape and form in the form of drawings, care must be taken of the
avaibility of resources of money, in men and in materials required for the successful completion
of the new idea into an actual reality.

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In designing a machine component, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of many subjects
such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, Kinematics of Machines,
Workshop Processes, and Engineering Drawing and CAD.

A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE DESIGN.

1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine
3. Selection of materials
4. Form and size of the part
5. Frictional resistance and lubrication
6. Convenient and economical features
7. Use of standards parts
8. Safety of operation
9. Workshop facilities
10. Number of machine parts to be manufactured
11. Cost of construction
12. Assembling.

B. DESIGNER ENGINEER

A designer engineer is expected to exhibit a variety of different talents and back –grounds:

1. Ability to work well in a team

2. Greater ability to communicate and “sell” one’s ideas orally, electronically and paper, not
only among fellow employees, but to the suppliers and the customers.

3. More manufacturing experience or at least ability to work with and communicate with
manufacturing persons.

4. Greater flexibility, performing more and different tasks.

5. Greater computer aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) background and some
experience in solid modeling.

6. Greater creativity.

7. Increased problem – solving or project experience.

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 C. DESIGN PROCEDURE

Designing of machine elements involves following steps:

a) Specifying the problem

b) Selection of proper mechanism
c) Analysis of forces
d) Selection of materials
e) Selection of factor of safety
f) Calculation of cross – sectional dimensions using design equation
g) Modifying and finalizing dimensions with proper tolerances and preparing drawings
with proper instruction for manufacturing.

DESIGN AGAINST STATIC LOAD

A static load is defined as a force, which is gradually applied to a mechanical component and
which does not change its magnitude or direction with respect to time.

A ductile material is one which has a relatively large tensile strain before fracture takes place. On
the other hand, a brittle material has a relatively small tensile strain before fracture. A tensile
strain of 5% is considered to be the dividing line between brittle and ductile materials. Structural
steels and aluminum are ductile materials, while cast iron is an example of a brittle material.

A mechanical component may fail, that is, may be unable to perform its function satisfactorily,
as a result of any one of the following three modes of failure:

(i) failure by elastic deflection;

(ii) failure by general yielding; and
(iii) failure by fracture.

A mechanical component made of ductile material loses its engineering usefulness due to a
large amount of plastic deformation after the yield point stress is reached.
Components made of brittle material cease to function satisfactorily because of the sudden
fracture without any plastic deformation. The failure in this case is sudden and total. In such
cases, ultimate tensile strength of the material is an important property to determine the
dimensions of these components.
The following assumptions are made in the analysis of stress and strain:
(i) The material is homogeneous.
(ii) The load is gradually applied.
(iii) The line of action of force P passes through the geometric axis of the cross-section.
(iv) The cross-section is uniform.
(v) There is no stress concentration.

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D. SIMPLE STRESSES.

D.1. INDUCED STRESS.

A machine element offers resistance to failure when an external force acts on it. This
resistance per unit area is termed as induced stress. Normal stress σ, and tangential stress τ.

D.2. STRENGTH

Any material can resist the effect of external force acting on it up to a limited value of
induced stress. This limiting value is termed as the strength of material.

D.3. LOAD – CAPACITY

Different forces acting on a machine element due to useful work to be done or due to the
situation of working constitute the load on the machine member. This load may deform the
member, cause wear and tear, or in extreme case cause fracture of the member. The material
used for manufacture and the dimensions of the cross – section of machine element decide
capacity of the member to resist the above mentioned effects of load.

D.4. DESIGN OF MACHINE MEMBER

The procedure of machine design basically involves selection of material and dimensions of
cross – section of the machine member in such manner that load does not cause failure of the
member by deformation, wear or fracture. This may be achieved by writing in equation form
as

σ ≤ σa and τ ≤ τa

D.5. FACTOR OF SAFETY

The above equations may be conveniently written by using sign of equality as

 ult
a =
F .S

The factor of safety decides how much more the strength should be as compared to the
induced stress. It assures the safety of machine member from failure and hence is termed as
factor of safety.

D.6. SIMPLE STRESS

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 P
Direct tensile stress  =
A

P
Direct shear stress =
A

When the external force acting on a component tends to slide the adjacent planes with respect to
each other, the resulting stresses on these planes are called direct shear stresses.
Two plates held together by means of a rivet are shown. The average shear stress in the rivet is
given by

P
=
A

(a) Riveted Joint (b) Shear Deformation (c) Shear Stress

M  E
Bending stress = =
I y R

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(a) Distribution of Bending Stresses (b) Section at XX

COMBINED STRESSES

Definition

A part subjected to two types of loading simultaneously gets a combination of stresses

induced at a point in the section. The design equations are based on the failure of the
component at that point where these combined stresses exceed the limit.

COMBINED BENDING MOMENT AND AXIAL LOAD

A hypothetical member subjected to two loads simultaneously may be treated as member

subjected to P1 and P2 superimposed on each.

M P1l P2
 t1 = = and  t2 =
Z Z A

P1l P2
Total induced stress the top fibre =  t1 +  t 2 = +
Z A

P1l P2
And total induced stress at the bottom fibre = −  t1 +  t 2 = − +
Z A

P1 P1 P2

P2 = +

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 σt1 + σt2

σt1 + σt2 σt1 σt2

= +

σt2 - σt1

Design equation

y P1l P2
Design equation for the component may be written as  +
F .S Z A

Combined normal ad shear stress

A machine component subjected simultaneously to B.M and T or direct tension and

tortion has both normal ad shear stresses acting simultaneously on a small elemental area.
Effect of this type of loads is to cause principal stresses, σ1 and σ2 and maximum shear
stress τmax.

 x + y  x + y
2

1 = +   +  xy 2
2  2 

 x − y  x + y
2

2 = −   +  xy 2
2  2 

 max =
1
( x −  y ) + 4 xy
2 2

Principal stresses act o the planes termed as principal planes. These are planes on which
only normal stresses act and there are no shear stresses. Maximum shear stress acts on the
planes making an angle of 45º with principal planes.

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