D17- basic

research
and
statistics
Bed special 2 nd
year
Jamia millia islamia

Submitted to:-

P Ramakrishana
Submitted by:

Sadaf iqbal
CORRELATION
– Product
Moment and
Rank-Order
Correlation
 CORRELATION
Correlation is a term that is a measure of the strength of a linear
relationship between two quantitative variables (e.g., height, weight)
Correlation is a measure of association between to variables. Typically, one
variable is denoted as X and the other variable is denoted as Y. The
relationship between these variables is assessed by correlation coefficient.
Look at the earlier example of optimism and happiness. It states the
relationship between one variable, optimism (X) and other variable,
happiness (Y).
Similarly, following statements are example of correlations:
 As the intelligence (IQ) increases the marks obtained increases
 As the introversion increases number of friends decreases.
 More the anxiety a person experiences, weaker the adjustment with
the stress.
 As the score on openness to experience increases, scores on
creativity test also increase.
 More the income, more the expenditure.
 On a reasoning task, as the accuracy increases, the speed decreases.
 As the cost increases the sales decrease.
 Those who are good at mathematics are likely to be good at science.
 As the age of the child increases, the problems solving capacity
increase. More the practice, better the performance.
All the above statements exemplify the correlation between two variables.

Scatter Diagram
Graphical Presentation of Relationship Scatter diagram (also called as
scatterplot, scattergram, or scatter) is one way to study the relationship
between two variables. Scatter diagram is to plot pairs of values of subjects
(observations) on a graph.
A scatter diagram is a useful technique for visually examining the form of
relationship, without calculating any numerical value. In this technique, the
values of the two variables are plotted as points on a graph paper. From a
scatter diagram, one can get a fairly good idea of the nature of relationship.
In a scatter diagram the degree of closeness of the scatter points and their
overall direction enables us to examine the relationship. If all the points lie
on a line, the correlation is perfect and is said to be unity. If the scatter
points are widely dispersed around the line, the correlation is low. The
correlation is said to be linear if the scatter points lie near a line or on a
line.

Direction of correlation
The scatter plot explains the correlation between the two attributes or
variables. It represents how closely the two variables are connected. There
can be three such situations to see the relation between the two variables –
POSITIVE CORRELATION – when the value of one variable increases with
respect to another.
NEGATIVE CORRELATION – when the value of one variable decreases
with respect to another.
NO CORRELATION – when there is no linear dependence or no relation
between the two variables

CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
The correlation between any two variables is expressed in terms of a
number, usually called as correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient
is denoted by various symbols depending on the type of correlation. The
most common is ‘r’ (small ‘r’) indicating the Pearson’s product-moment
correlation coefficient.
 PEARSON’S PRODUCT MOMENT
COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION
The Person’s correlation coefficient was developed by Karl Pearson in
1886. Person was an editor of “Biometrica” which is a leading journal in
statistics. Pearson was a close associate of psychologist Sir Francis Galton.
The Pearson’s correlation coefficient is usually calculated for two
continuous variables. If either or both the variables are not continuous,
then other statistical procedures are to be used. Some of them are
equivalent to Pearson’s correlation and others are not.
The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearson’s
correlation, for short) is a measure of the strength and direction of
association that exists between two variables measured on at least an
interval scale.
For example, you could use a Pearson’s correlation to understand whether
there is an association between exam performance and time spent revising.
You could also use a Pearson's correlation to understand whether there is
an association between depression and length of unemployment.
A Pearson’s correlation attempts to draw a line of best fit through the data
of two variables, and the Pearson correlation coefficient, r, indicates how
far away all these data points are from this line of best fit (i.e., how well the
data points fit this model/line of best fit).
 Rank-Order Data
Introduction to Spearman’s Rho

The Spearman’s rank-order correlation or Spearman’s rho (rs) developed

by a well-known psychologist; Charles Spearman (1904) is computed when
the data is presented on two variables for n subjects. It can also be
calculated for data of n subjects evaluated by two judges for inter-judge
agreement. It is suitable for the rank-order data. If the data on X or Y or on
both the variables are in rank-order then Spearman’s rho is applicable. It
can also be used with continuous data when the assumptions of Pearson’s
assumptions are not satisfied.
When the data is in rank-order, the correlations that need to be computed
are called as rank-order correlation. Unlike the continuous data, the rank-
order data present the ranks of the individuals or subjects. For example,
scholastic achievement can be measured by actual marks obtained by
individuals in the unit test or any other examination conducted. Suppose,
the school displays just the merit list without the marks of the students,
then we will only know who has obtained maximum marks, and so on. But
we will not be able to know the marks. The data of marks constitute a
continuous variable. Whereas, the merit list (ranks) provide us with the

ordinal scale data.

Table: table shows the marks and the ranks of 10 students in the class. The
marks have provided us with the continuous data whereas merit list have
provided us with the rank-order data.
Marks and rank of 10 students
students Marks( internal data) Merit list ( ordinal data)
A 90 1
B 86 2
C 81 3
D 76 4
E 75 5
F 64 6
G 61 7
H 59 8
I 57 9
J 52 10

If the date available is ordinal or rank-order data, then rank-order

correlation needs to be computed.

Rank-order correlations are applicable especially when the relationship is

monotonic but not linear.
The monotonic relationship is the one when values in the data are
consistently increasing and never decreasing or consistently decreasing
and never increasing. It implies that as X increases Y consistently increases
or as X increases Y consistently decreases.

.
 Reference
https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/kest107.pdf
https://byjus.com/maths/correlation/
http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/23462/1/
Unit-4.pdf
http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/20957/1/Unit-
1.pdf