COMPUTER Output Devices are devices that are used to

A machine that can be programmed to show the result of the task performed by the
automatically carry out sequences of user.
arithmetic or logical operations
Examples of Output Devices are Monitors,
(computation). Printers, Speakers, etc.

Modern digital electronic computers can Storage Devices are devices that are used
perform generic sets of operations known for storing data and they are also known as
as programs. These programs enable Secondary Storage Data.
computers to perform a wide range of
Examples of Storage Devices are CDs,
tasks.
DVDs, Hard Disk, etc.
Hardware refers to the physical
Internal Components consists of important
components of a computer. Computer
hardware devices present in the System.
Hardware is any part of the computer that
we can touch these parts. These are the Examples of Internal Components are the
primary electronic devices used to build up CPU, Motherboard, etc.
the computer. Hardware refers to the
COMPUTER HARDWARE
external and internal devices and
equipment that enable you to perform major A simple definition of computer hardware is
functions such as input, output, storage,
“any physical parts or components that
communication, processing, and more.
contribute to a computer system.” There are
Examples of hardware in a computer are several different kinds of hardware inside a
the Cases, Memory Devices, Monitor, PC.
Printer, Keyboard, Mouse, and Central
Both desktop and laptop PCs include these
Processing Unit
types of hardware, though the size and type
There are two types of computer hardware: differ because of a laptop’s compact
AND design.
Computer Hardware and Software, both are What is the difference between
essential parts of a Computer System. hardware
and software?
In short, Hardware and Software make a
Hardware: Think of computer hardware as
System compatible with the user. In this
the parts of your computer that you can see
article, we are going to discuss the basic
and touch. These are the tangible
differences between Computer Hardware
components that are likely fitted together
and Computer Software.
inside your computer case and installed
Input Devices are those devices through with a screwdriver.
which a user enters data and information
Software: Computer software, on the other
into the Computer or simply, User interacts
hand, is not something you
with the Computer. Examples of Input
Devices are Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, can touch, but is defined as the programs
etc. you install on your computer,
providing a set of instructions that tell your
PC how to work.C ftware co
Computer software Computer hardware Computer’s motherboard is the hub that
components components connects all the other pieces of computer
Windows 10 Motherboard hardware, acting as the brain to allocate
MacOS Central Processing and coordinate power across all other
Microsoft Office Unit(CPU) components.
Adobe Acrobat Random access
memory(RAM) If you're building a PC or looking to
Reader
Storage drive (HDD or upgrade, it's crucial that you consider
Security Software SSD) motherboard compatibility, as this will
Graphics processing
dictate much of what you'll be able to do.
unit(GPU)
Keyboard, mouse, & The motherboard determines which other
monitor
hardware components can be used with
your computer, such as storage devices
that come in a 2.5-inch SATA SSD or an
M.2 SSD form factor.
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
When looking at a new motherboard, it's
A computer will only function when both also advisable to check the number of USB
hardware and software are working ports and their grade (USB 2.0, 3.0, 3.1).
together, with the system's speed largely Similarly, it's best to check what display
determined by the hardware ports are used (HDMI, DVI, RGB) and how
When building or upgrading a new many there are.
computer, you'll need to consider its High-Definition Multimedia Interface
specific hardware requirements. Check
your computer specs to see what hardware (D)igital (V)ideo (I)nterface
will be compatible with your system. RGB (red, green and blue) refers to a
MOTHERBOARD (also called mainboard, system representing the colors used on a
main circuit board, MB, mboard, backplane digital display screen.
board, base board, system board, mobo or Video Graphics Array (VGA) connector is a
simply logic board) standard connector used for computer
video output.
CPU stands for central processing unit, and
it’s responsible for guiding your computer
as it processes data, much like a brain
guides a body. The speed at which is does
this is known as ‘clock speed’, and is
measured in gigahertz
main printed circuit board (PCB) in general- (GHz). A CPU advertising a high GHz rating
purpose computers and other expandable will likely perform faster than others from
systems. It holds and allows communication the same brand and generation.
between many of the crucial electronic
components of a system, such as the
central processing unit (CPU) and memory,
and provides connectors for other
peripherals.
 A bus has address lines, which match those
of the processor. This allows data to be
sent to or from specific memory locations.
Power

AMD Processor Intel Processor A bus supplies power to various peripherals

that are connected to it. This is unlike a disk
(pin) (no pin)
drive that needs to be connected to the
power supply unit.
Timing
The bus provides a system clock signal to
synchronize the peripherals attached to it
with the rest of the system.
Clock speed is the number of times a
second that a circuit operates and is most Types of Computer Bus
associated with the central processing unit A modern-day computer system can be
(CPU). It is measured in hertz, or cycles per viewed as comprising just two types of
second. The higher the clock speed, the buses. These are the System Bus and the
more processing power. I/O Bus or Expansion Bus.
A computer bus is a common pathway System Bus
through which information is connected
from one component to another. Computers The system bus is a pathway composed of
comprise many internal and external cables and connectors used to carry data
components. For these components to between a computer microprocessor and
communicate with each other, a bus is the main memory. The bus combines the
used. This pathway is used for functions of a data bus to carry information
communication and can be established an address bus to determine where it
between two or more computer should be sent, and a control bus to
components. determine its operation.

In simple words, a computer bus is a set of By combining the three functions,

parallel conductors, which may be manufacturers were able to reduce costs
conventional wires, copper tracks on a and improve modularity. Other names of
Printed Circuit Board, or microscopic the system bus are the internal bus, internal
aluminium trails on the surface of a silicon data bus, memory bus, or Front-Side-Bus.
chip.
The design of the system bus varies from
Functions of Computer Bus computer to computer. Sometimes
depending on the manufacturer, it can be
Data sharing buses are designed to transfer specific to a particular computer design or
data between the computer and the may be based on an industry standard.
peripherals connected to it.
Using the industry standard makes it easy
Addressing to upgrade the computer using standard
components such as the memory and IO
devices from independent manufacturers.
I/O Bus or Expansion Bus
Short for input/output (pronounced “eyeoh”). MCA (Micro Channel Architecture)
This is a bus made up of electronic Computer Bus
pathways that connect the different external
This bus design was developed by IBM as a
devices, such as a printer, storage,
replacement for ISA when they designed
monitors, keyboard, mouse, etc.
the PS/2 PC which was launched in 1987.
Thus I/O bus connects various peripheral The bus offered several technical
devices to the CPU – these are connected improvements over the ISA bus.
to the system bus via a ‘bridge’
implemented in the processor’s chipset.
The term I/O is used to describe any
program, operation or device that transfers
data to or from a computer and to or from a
peripheral device.
Every transfer is an output from one device
and an input into another. Devices such as
keyboards and mice are input-only devices The MCA bus was eventually replaced by
while devices such as printers are the Peripheral Component Interconnect
outputonly. A writable CD-ROM is both an (PCI) bus in the mid-1990s.
input and an output device.
Other names for the I/O bus include
expansion bus, external bus or host bus. An
expansion bus typically comprises a series
of slots on the motherboard into which
cards are inserted. The common expansion
bus types include:
ISA Bus (Industry Standard Architecture)
This is the most common type of early
expansion bus, which was designed for use The PS/2 (Personal System/2) port, also
in the original IBM PC. called the mouse port or keyboard port, was
developed by IBM. It is used to connect a
computer mouse or keyboard to an IBM
compatible computer.
EISA ( Extended Industry
Standard Architecture)
EISA was developed by a group of
manufacturers as an alternative to the MCA
bus.
The EISA expansion slots are twice as
deep as an ISA slot. If an ISA card is
placed in an EISA slot it will use only the
top row of connectors, whereas a full EISA
card uses both rows. EISA provided a much
better performance than the ISA equivalent.
EISA was introduced* in 1988 by the Gang
of Nine – a group of PC manufacturers.
Announced in September 1988 for IBM
compatible computers that competed with
the MCA (Micro Channel Architecture) bus.

PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)

PCI brought about changes in the design of
the bus and its communication with the
processor bus. It was developed by Intel
and launched as the expansion bus for the
Pentium processor in 1993. It is a local bus
like VESA meaning that it connects the
CPU, memory, and peripherals to a wider,
faster data pathway. PCI was used in
VESA Bus (Video Electronics Standards developing Plug and Play (PnP). All PCI
Association) cards support plug-and-play specifications.
This means you plug a new card into the
It is also known as the Local bus or the computer, power it on and it will
“selfidentify” and “self-specify” and start
VESA-Local bus. VESA was invented to
working without manual configuration using
solve the problem of proprietary technology
jumpers.
where different manufacturers were
attempting to develop their buses. It was A PCI slot is a built-in slot on a device that
developed with the main aim of providing allows for the attachment of various
enhanced video performance on hardware components such as network
computers. It was thus aimed at cards, modems, sound cards, disk
standardizing PC’s video specifications. controllers and other peripherals.
VL-Bus is short for VESA local bus (VLB).
VESA is an acronym that stands for the
Video Electronics Standards Association.
The VLB is an older local bus architecture
popular on 486 computer systems in 1993
and 1994. PCI and AGP bus architectures
have completely replaced the VLB.
The PCI Express Bus
The VESA standard is a standard for
attaching flat screens / LCD / monitors / Peripheral Component Interconnect
televisions to monitor mounts or TV Express (PCIe or PCI-E) is a serial
mounts. expansion bus standard for connecting a
computer to one or more peripheral
devices. PCIe provides lower latency and
higher data transfer rates than parallel
busses such as PCI and PCI-X.
PCIe, or peripheral component interconnect
express, is an interface standard for
connecting high-speed input output (HSIO)
components. Every high-performance
computer motherboard has a number of
PCIe slots you can use to add GPUs, RAID
cards, WiFi cards, or SSD (solid-state drive) Advantages of AGP over PCI
add-on cards.
AGP was introduced as a replacement for
the slower Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI) interfaces. AGP provides
a direct line of communication to the CPU
and RAM, which in turn allows for quicker
rendering of graphics.
AGP will deliver a peak bandwidth that is 4
times higher than the PCI bus

AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) Computer

Bus
The need for high-quality and very
fastperformance of video on computers led
to the development of the Accelerated
Graphics Port (AGP). The AGP port is
connected to the CPU and operates at the
speed of the processor bus. This means
that video information can be sent more
quickly to the card for processing.
An Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is a Both the AGP and the PCI Express are
point to point channel that is used for created in order to provide high-speed
highspeed video output. This port is used to transfer, and to handle videos.
connect graphic cards to a computer’s
The AGP is primarily designed for graphics
motherboard. It increases the speed at
and videos. The PCI Express can also be
which machines can render graphics while
utilized to help with the speedy transfer of
using the system’s resources more
other types of data and information used in
efficiently. The primary purpose of an AGP
a personal computer.
is to convey 3-D images much more
smoothly than is possible on a regular PC. PCI Express card is an advanced version of
the PCI graphics card. AGP cards and PCI
cards are placed in certain specific slots
only. AGP cards are slower than PCI
express cards. They primarily differ in the
connector configuration. AGP (Accelerated
Graphics Port) was the commonly used reached by the device's processor. RAM is
type of graphic card during the 2000s. the main memory in a computer. It is much
Later, it got replaced by the PCI express faster to read from and write to than other
card kinds of storage, such as a hard disk drive
(HDD), solid-state drive (SSD) or optical
drive.
Like other components in your devices,
though, there are many different types of
RAM. RAM speed can be affected by its
type, the model, or its generation, and its
price can vary wildly depending on the
capacity you’re buying, and what device it’s
going into.
Gone are the days when computers were
used only for word processing. Thanks to What is RAM, and what does it do?
major advancements in technology during
RAM is essentially a device’s short-term
the past decades, the computer has now
memory. It reads information that an
been transformed into a device that can be
application or operating system might need
used to quicken business activities, handle
in the near future and stores it temporarily
the creation of documents and
for quick access by the CPU, graphics card,
presentations, communication, and even
or any other component that might need it.
gaming. In fact, one of the primary
That information stays in the RAM, readily
components considered when choosing to
accessible, until you shut down the program
upgrade a computer, is its ability for a
or restart your device. Then the RAM is
speedy connection, and its handling of
cleared and ready to receive new, relevant
videos and images. For many people
data. Like the cache on a CPU, RAM
though, choosing the right components can
makes it so that other components don’t
be tricky, since many of the explanations
have to fetch data from the device’s slower
involve a lot of different technological terms.
storage — like a hard drive or even a solid-
RAM state drive (SSD) — every time you request
a new browser tab or load a new enemy to
MAIN MEMORY - PRIMARY MEMORY-SYSTEM MEMORY shoot. As fast as modern storage is
Random-access memory is an essential compared to drives of years gone by,
component in everything from desktop they’re still far slower than RAM. However,
computers to smartphones. RAM is a those storage components are necessary
highspeed, short-term storage solution that because they provide the longer-term
gives applications, games, and the storage of that data when the RAM is no
operating system itself, quick access to longer powered.
important information. That saves it the time Additional RAM information
of retrieving the data from much slower
storage, like hard drives and SSDs. As the computer boots, parts of the
operating system and drivers are loaded
RAM is the hardware in a computing device into memory, which allows the CPU (central
where the operating system (OS), processing unit) to process instructions
application programs and data in current faster and speed up the boot process. After
use are kept so they can be quickly the operating system is loaded, programs
you open like the browser you're using to Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)
view this page are also loaded into Data is stored in transistors and requires a
memory. constant power flow. Because of the
continuous power, SRAM doesn’t need to
If too many programs are open, the
be refreshed to remember the data being
computer swaps the data in the memory
stored.
between the RAM and the hard disk drive.
SRAM is called static as no change or
A computer's performance is largely
action i.e. refreshing is not needed to keep
attributed to the amount of memory
the data intact. It is used in cache
contained within it. If a computer does not
memories. SRAM is commonly used for a
have the recommended memory to run the
computer's cache memory, such as a
operating system and its programs, it
processor's L2 or L3 cache. It is not used
results in slower performance. The more
for a computer's main memory because of
memory a computer has, the more
its cost and size. Most computers use
information and software it can load and
DRAM instead because it supports greater
process quickly.
densities at a lower cost per megabyte
Currently, the largest single stick of RAM is (MB)
128 GB.
History of RAM
1947 magnetic-core memory
1968 solid-state memory dynamic
randomaccess memory, or DRAM

DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access

Memory. It is a type of RAM which allows
you to stores each bit of data in a separate
Types of RAM Static RAM capacitor within a specific integrated circuit.

Dynamic RAM Dynamic RAM is a standard computer

memory of the many modern desktop
computers.
Capacitors that store data in DRAM
gradually discharge energy, no energy
means the data has been lost. So, a
periodic refresh of power is required in
order to function. DRAM is called dynamic
as constant change or action(change is
continuously happening) i.e. refreshing is
needed to keep the data intact. It is used to quickly as possible to changes in control
implement main memory. inputs. Both SDRAM and DDR RAM have a
synchronous interface, meaning that it waits
for a clock signal before responding to
control inputs and is therefore synchronized
with the computer's system bus.
Why is DRAM preferred?
On the other hand, DRAM is more
commonly used due to its cost
effectiveness and higher storage capacity,
with DDR3 being a well-known example.
SRAM's speed makes it ideal for cache
applications, while DRAM strikes a balance
between performance and affordability,
making it the preferred choice for system
memory.

CPU CACHE MEMORY

How Does CPU Cache Work?

Programs and apps on your
computer are designed as a set of
instructions that the CPU interprets and
runs.
When you run a program, the instructions
make their way from the storage (your hard
drive) to the CPU. This is where the
memory hierarchy comes into play.
The data first gets loaded up into the RAM
and is then sent to the CPU. CPUs are
capable of carrying out a gigantic number of
instructions per second.
Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic
To make full use of its power, the CPU
Random-Access Memory (DDR SDRAM) is
needs access to super-fast memory, which
a double data rate (DDR) synchronous
is where the CPU cache comes in.
dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM)
class of memory integrated circuits used in The memory controller takes the data from
computers. the RAM and sends it to the CPU cache,
the controller is found on the CPU or the
Traditionally, dynamic random access
Northbridge chipset on your motherboard.
memory (DRAM) had an asynchronous
interface, which means that it responds as
Computer and its programs use RAM to temporary stores of data that can exist in
store frequently accessed data, helping both hardware and software. Cache
keep actions on your computer nice and memory refers to the specific hardware
fast. The CPU has even faster memory component that enables computers to
units within itself, known as the CPU create caches at various levels of the
memory cache. network
Computer memory has a hierarchy based Types of cache memory
on its operational speed. The CPU cache
Cache memory is fast and expensive.
stands at the top of this hierarchy, being the
Traditionally, it is categorized as "levels"
fastest. It is also the closest to where the
that describe its closeness and accessibility
central processing occurs, being a part of
to the microprocessor.
the CPU itself.
Cache memory is a chip-based computer
component that makes retrieving data from
the computer's memory more efficient.
It acts as a temporary storage area that the
computer's processor can retrieve data
from easily. This temporary storage area,
known as a cache, is more readily available
to the processor than the computer's main
Level1 (L1) cache, or primary cache, is
memory source, typically some form of
extremely fast but relatively small, and is
dynamic random-access memory (DRAM).
usually embedded in the processor chip as
Cache memory is sometimes called CPU CPU cache
memory because it is typically integrated
L1 (Level 1) cache is the fastest memory
directly into the CPU chip or placed on a
that is present in a computer system. In
separate chip that has a separate bus
terms of priority of access, the L1 cache
interconnect with the CPU. Therefore, it is
has the data the CPU is most likely to need
more accessible to the processor, and able
while completing a certain task.
to increase efficiency, because it's
physically close to the processor. The size of the L1 cache depends on the
CPU. Some top-end consumer CPUs now
In order to be close to the processor, cache
feature a 1MB L1 cache, like the Intel i9-
memory needs to be much smaller than
9980XE, but these cost a huge amount of
main memory. Consequently, it has less
money and are still few and far between.
storage space. It is also more expensive
Some server chipsets, like
than main memory, as it is a more complex
chip that yields higher performance. Intel's Xeon range, also feature a 1-2MB L1
memory cache.
What it sacrifices in size and price, it makes
up for in speed. Cache memory operates There is no "standard" L1 cache size, so
between 10 to 100 times faster than RAM, you must check the CPU specs to
requiring only a few nanoseconds to determine the exact L1 memory cache size
respond to a CPU request. before purchasing. The L1 cache is usually
split into two sections: the instruction cache
Cache memory is not to be confused with
and the data cache.
the broader term cache. Caches are
The instruction cache deals with the Onto the L3 (Level 3) cache. In the early
information about the operation that the days, the L3 memory cache was actually
CPU must perform, while the data cache found on the motherboard. This was a very
holds the data on which the operation is to long time ago, back when most CPUs were
be performed. just single-core processors.
L2 (Level 2) cache is slower than the L1 Now, the L3 cache in your CPU can be
cache but bigger in size. Where an L1 massive, with top-end consumer CPUs
cache may measure in kilobytes, modern featuring L3 caches up to 32MB, while
L2 memory caches measure in megabytes. AMD's revolutionary Ryzen 7 5800X3D
CPUs come with 96MB L3 cache.
For example, AMD's highly rated Ryzen 5
5600X has a 384KB L1 cache and a 3MB Some server CPU L3 caches can exceed
L2 cache (plus a 32MB L3 cache). this, featuring up to 128MB.
L2 cache, or secondary cache, is often more The L3 cache is the largest but also the
capacious than L1. L2 cache may be slowest cache memory unit. Modern CPUs
embedded on the CPU, or it can be on a include the L3 cache on the CPU itself. But
separate chip or coprocessor and have a while the L1 and L2 cache exist for each
high-speed alternative system bus core on the chip itself, the L3 cache is more
connecting the cache and CPU. That way it similar to a general memory pool that the
doesn't get slowed by traffic on the main entire chip can make use of.
system bus.
Contrary to popular belief, implementing
The L2 cache size varies depending on the flash or more DRAM on a system won't
CPU, but its size is typically between increase cache memory. This can be
256KB to 32MB. Most modern CPUs will confusing since the term’s memory caching
pack more than a 256KB L2 cache, and this (hard disk buffering) and cache memory are
size is now considered small. Furthermore, often used interchangeably.
some of the most powerful modern CPUs
Memory caching, using DRAM or flash to
have a larger L2 memory cache, vastly
buffer disk reads, is meant to improve
exceeding 8MB.
storage I/O by caching data that is
When it comes to speed, the L2 cache lags frequently referenced in a buffer ahead of
behind the L1 cache but is still much faster slower magnetic disk or tape. Cache
than your system RAM. memory, on the other hand, provides read
buffering for the CPU.
The L1 memory cache is typically 100 times
faster than your RAM, while the L2 cache is Our computer and its programs use RAM to
around 25 times faster. store frequently accessed data, helping
keep actions on your computer nice and
Level 3 (L3) cache is specialized memory fast. The CPU has even faster memory
developed to improve the performance of units within itself, known as the CPU
L1 and L2. L1 or L2 can be significantly memory cache.
faster than L3, though L3 is usually double
the speed of DRAM. Computer memory has a hierarchy based
on its operational speed. The CPU cache
With multicore processors, each core can stands at the top of this hierarchy, being the
have dedicated L1 and L2 cache, but they fastest. It is also the closest to where the
can share an L3 cache.
central processing occurs, being a part of L1 cache memory has the lowest latency,
the CPU itself. being the fastest and closest to the core,
and L3 has the highest. Memory cache
Cache memory operates between 10 to 100
latency increases when there is a cache
times faster than RAM, requiring only a few
miss as the
nanoseconds to respond to a CPU
request." CPU has to retrieve the data from the
system memory.
Latency continues to decrease as
computers become faster and more
efficient. Low-latency DDR4 and DDR5
RAM and superfast SSDs cut down latency,
making your entire system faster than ever.
In that, the speed of your system memory is
also important.
CPU cache size and speed are important to
The big question: the overall operation of your computer. As
How does CPU cache memory work? with most issues relating to computer
hardware, more is better, and faster is
always the smart choice.
However, you shouldn't let CPU cache
become the ultimate deciding option when it
comes to buying a new CPU. Sure, more
and faster is better, but you also need to
consider other important CPU performance
factors such as the number of cores, CPU
In its most basic terms, the data flows from
the RAM to the L3 cache, then the L2, and
finally, L1. When the processor is looking
for data to carry out an operation, it first
tries to find it in the L1 cache. If the CPU
finds it, the condition is called a cache hit. It
then proceeds to find it in L2 and then L3.
If the CPU doesn't find the data in any of clock speed, and so on.
the memory caches, it attempts to access it
from your system memory (RAM).
When that happens, it is known as a cache
miss. What is a CPU?
The cache is designed to speed up the If you have ever opened up your computer
back and forth of information between the and looked inside, you may have noticed
main memory and the CPU. The time the large “chip” on the motherboard. That
needed to access data from memory is chip is the Central Processing Unit (CPU),
called "latency." and it’s the brain of your computer –
responsible for carrying out all the
instructions that make your computer work. often from the hardware and software
But what exactly does a CPU do, and why programs running on the device.
is it so important? Let’s take a look at what
CPU
makes this component so essential to your
machine. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) forms
the heart of any computer system,
What is a CPU?
controlling the flow of data and instructions
A CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the to carry out a range of tasks. It is an
primary component of any computer or essential component in any modern
electronic device. It’s responsible for computing system.
carrying out the instructions given to it by
The Role of a CPU
the user. The CPU acts as the “brain” of the
computer — it reads and interprets This process occurs very quickly; CPUs can
commands from software programs and execute millions of instructions per second!
uses them to control other components Additionally, CPUs are designed with
within the machine. multiple cores so they can process multiple
tasks simultaneously.

CPU
Is a central processing unit (CPU) is a
hardware component that’s the core The Role of a CPU
computational unit in a server? Servers and
The CPU is responsible for carrying out
other smart devices convert data into digital
these instructions and processing data in
signals and perform mathematical
order to complete tasks assigned by
operations on them.
programs or applications. To do this, it
The CPU is the primary component that needs to fetch data from memory and
processes the signals and makes decode it before executing any commands
computing possible. It acts as the brain of it receives from software.
any computing device. It fetches
Microprocessors
instructions from memory, performs the
required tasks, and sends output back to Microprocessors combined the entire CPU
memory. It handles all computing tasks on a single IC chip, which made computers
required for running the operating system more accessible and led to the
and applications. development of personal computers.
Initially, CPUs could handle 16 to 32 bits of
Central Processing Unit
data at a time. In the early 2000s, 64-bit
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the CPUs emerged, which allowed for larger
primary component of a computer that acts memory addressing and supported more
as its “control center.” The CPU, also extensive data processing.
referred to as the “central” or “main”
Modern-day processors
processor, is a complex set of electronic
circuitries that runs the machine’s operating With the rise of mobile devices, power
system and apps. The CPU interprets, efficiency has become crucial. CPU
processes and executes instructions, most manufacturers now develop low-power and
energy-efficient CPUs for modern portable What are the components of a CPU?
devices like smartphones and tablets.
Modern-day processors
A CPU is a complex electronic circuit that
As artificial intelligence (AI) and graphics- comprises several key components that
intensive tasks became more prevalent, process data and run instructions.
specialized CPUs like graphics processing
units (GPUs) and AI accelerators are now
used to handle the workloads. The main components of a CPU
CPUs and Microprocessors
The bread and butter of a successful Control unit
operating system. They both execute
The control unit manages instruction
integral computer tasks, such as arithmetic,
processing and coordinates data flow within
data processing, logic and I/O operations,
the CPU and between other computer
but CPU vs. microprocessor differences
components. It has an instruction decoder
aren't all so black and white. Though some
component that interprets the instructions
IT administrators use CPU and
fetched from memory and converts them
microprocessor interchangeably, the reality
into micro-operations that the CPU can run.
is that most CPUs are microprocessors but
The control unit directs other CPU
not every microprocessor is a CPU.
components to perform required operations.

Microprocessor and CPU

Registers
A microprocessor is more similar to a CPU
Registers are small, high-speed memory
than it is different. In fact, a CPU is often
storage locations within the CPU. They hold
referred to as a microprocessor. All CPUs
data that the CPU is currently working on
are microprocessors, but not all
and facilitate quick access to data.
microprocessors are CPUs.
CPUs have several types of registers

The main difference between the two is

their functionality and purpose within a  General-purpose registers that hold
computer system. A CPU is a type of operational data CPU types of
processor tasked with a variety of roles. A registers
microprocessor is generally tasked with one  Instruction registers that hold the
specific task and does that one task current instruction being processed
exceedingly well. A CPU issues commands  A program counter that holds the
to microprocessors and in return the memory address of the next
microprocessors send data to the CPU or instruction to be fetched
other component as specified by the CPU.
Microprocessors are tasked with executing
specific and repeatable actions whereas a Registers provide faster access times than
CPU is tasked with executing a wide and other memory levels like
diverse range of tasks.
RAM or cache memory. instruction cycle representing three main
steps.
Core processor cycle
ALU
The basic steps in an instruction cycle
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs
basic arithmetic operations (addition, Instruction fetch
subtraction, multiplication, and division) and
The CPU fetches instructions from memory.
logical operations (AND, OR, and NOT) on
The instructions are binary codes
data. It receives data from registers within
representing specific tasks or operations for
the CPU, processes it based on the
the CPU. The control unit interprets the
instructions from the control unit, and
instruction and determines the operation to
produces the result.
be performed. It also identifies the specific
Memory management unit CPU components required for the task.
Depending on the CPU architecture, there Core processor cycle
might be a separate bus interface unit or
Instruction processing
memory management unit. These
components handle memory-related tasks, The CPU carries out the specified operation
such as managing the CPU and RAM on the fetched data. It performs
interaction. It also handles cache memory— mathematical calculations, logical
a small and fast memory unit located within comparisons, data manipulation, or data
the CPU—and virtual memory that the CPU transfer between registers or memory
requires for data processing. locations.
Clock Core processor cycle
The CPU relies on a clock signal to Result storage
synchronize its internal operations. The
After it executes instructions, the CPU may
clock generates a steady pulse at a specific
need to store the results in memory or
frequency, and these clock cycles
update specific registers with the new data.
coordinate the CPU's operations. The clock
The program counter (PC) is updated to
speed is measured in hertz (Hz) and
point to the address of the next instruction
determines how many instructions the CPU
to be fetched. The CPU repeats the cycle
can execute per second. Modern CPUs
and fetches, decodes, and executes
have variable clock speeds, which adjust
instructions sequentially.
based on workload to balance performance
and power consumption. Additional processor functions
The CPU can also handle control flow
instructions like jumps and branches along
How does a CPU work?
with interrupts, signals generated by
Computer processors work with other external devices, or events requiring
hardware components and software immediate attention. When an interrupt
programs to process data and manage the occurs, the CPU temporarily suspends the
flow of information within electronic devices. current task, saves its state, and jumps to
They typically work in cycles, with each an interrupt service routine. After it
processes the interrupt, the CPU resumes •Multimedia tasks, such as video decoding,
the previous task. audio encoding, and image processing.
Advanced CPU features •Encryption and decryption algorithms, like
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and
The best CPU excels in performance,
Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA).
efficiency, and flexibility, allowing it to
effectively handle a wide range of •Single instruction, multiple data (SIMD)
computing tasks. We give some advanced tasks that require the CPU to
features next. simultaneously perform the same operation
on large datasets. These are tasks like
Cores
graphics rendering, scientific simulations,
While a single-core processor was standard and digital signal processing.
in the past, all CPUs have multiple physical
•Virtualization, allowing virtual machines
cores today. A core is an individual
(VMs) to run more efficiently.
processing unit within a CPU. More cores
allow the CPU to handle multiple threads •AI workloads like neural network
(sequences of instructions) in parallel, operations.
significantly improving overall performance.
Applications can take advantage of the
multi-core design by dividing tasks into
smaller subtasks that can be completed
simultaneously.
Hyperthreading
What is a Thread?
Hyper-threading is a simultaneous
multithreading implementation developed In the context of CPU cores and threads, a
by Intel that allows each CPU core to run thread refers to the smallest sequence of
multiple threads simultaneously. It allows programmed instructions that a scheduler
each physical core to appear as two virtual can manage independently. In simpler
cores in the operating system. The software terms, it’s a set of instructions that can be
uses available hardware resources more executed by a CPU core. Threads are
efficiently. crucial for multitasking, allowing a single
core to perform multiple tasks concurrently.
Advanced instruction sets
What Is Single-Threading And
Modern CPUs also feature advanced
Multithreading?
instruction sets and technologies designed
to accelerate specific tasks. These Single-threading is a process in which one
instruction sets go beyond the fundamental command is executed at a time. On the
arithmetic and logical operations, providing other hand, multithreading, also known as
additional capabilities to handle complex Multithreading CPU, is a technique where a
computations more efficiently. single application can be broken down into
two or more sub-tasks that can be
processed simultaneously. This is
CPUs may include instruction sets particularly useful in programs where
specifically for these tasks: certain tasks are independent of others and
can be executed concurrently, leading to
more efficient use of the CPU’s processing
power.
Microprocessors and CPUs are at the heart
Cores vs Threads of almost all electronics we have in our
lives. Without these modern-day
The main difference between cores and
components, we would not be where we
threads is that a core is an individual
are with advancements in AI, self-driving,
physical processing unit, while threads are
IoT devices, and much more.
virtual sequences of instructions.
The two main microprocessor vendors that
garner significant popularity are Intel and
Advanced Micro Devices. Other
microprocessors on the market include
ARM, Sparc and PowerPC.

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

What is the Self?
The self, in contemporary literature and
even common sense, is commonly defined
by the following characteristics:
separate,
self-contained and independent,
consistent,
unitary,
and private
By separate, the self is distinct from other
selves. The self is always unique and has
its own identity. One cannot be another
person. Even twins are distinct from each
other.
Second, the self is also self-contained and
independent because in itself it can exist. It
allows it to be self-contained with its own that human persons are just passive actors
thoughts, characteristics, and volition. It in the whole process of the shaping of
does not require any other self for it to exist. selves. That men and women are born with
particularities that they can no longer
Consistency also means that a particular
change. Recent studies, however, indicate
self’s traits, characteristics, tendencies, and
that men and women in their growth and
potentialities are more or less the same.
development engage actively in the shaping
Self is unitary in that; it is the center of all of the self.
experiences and thoughts that run through
Self in Families
a certain person. It is like the chief
command post in an individual where all Every child is born with certain givenness,
processes, emotions, and thoughts and disposition coming from his parents’
converge. genes and general condition of life, the
impact of one’s family is still deemed as a
Finally, the self is private. Each person
given in understanding the self. The kind of
sorts out information, feelings, emotions,
family that we are born in, the resources
and thought processes within the self. This
available to us (human, spiritual,
whole process is never accessible to
economic), and the kind of development
anyone but the self.
that we will have will certainly affect us as
The Self and Culture we go through life. As a matter of
evolutionary fact, human persons are one
According to the French Anthropologist, of those beings whose importance of family
Marcel Mauss, every self has two faces: cannot be denied. In trying to achieve the
personne and moi. Moi refers to a person’s goal of becoming a fully realized human, a
sense of who he is, his body, and his basic child enters a system of relationships, the
identity, his biological givenness. Moi is a most important of which is the family.
person’s basic identity. Personne, on the
other hand, is composed of the social Gender and the Self
concepts of what it means to be who he is.
Another important aspect of the self is
Personne has much to do with what it
gender. We have seen in the past years
means to live in a particular institution, a
how people fought hard for the right to
particular family, a particular religion, a
express, validate, and assert their gender
particular nationality, and how to behave
expression. Many conservatives may frown
given expectations and influences from
upon this and insist on the biological.
others.
However, from the point-of-view of the
The Self and the Development of the social sciences and the self, it is important
Social World to give one the leeway to find, express, and
live his identity. This forms part of selfhood
So how do people actively produce their that one cannot just dismiss. One
social worlds? How do children growing up maneuvers into society and identifies
become social beings? How can a boy turn himself as who he is by also taking note of
out to just be like an ape? How do twins gender identities.
coming out from the same mother turn out
to be terribly different when given up for
adoption? More than his givenness, one is
believed to be in active participation in the
shaping of the self. Most often, we think