Prepared By : Ankur Gajendra Meshram

Production Technologies For Horticultural Crops

Course No. :- HORT-121

Credits :- 03 (2+1)
Course Title :- Production Technologies For Horticultural Crops
Course Teacher :- Dr. M. M. Desai
Student’s Name :-
College Name :- M. G. College of Agri. Biotechnology , Pokharni , Nanded

COURSE SYLLABUS OUTLINE

Lec. No. Topics Weightage (%)

Unit : 1
1. Definition and meaning of horticulture, Importance and scope of fruit 03
cultivation.
2. Branches of horticulture 03
3. Classification of fruit crops, vegetables and flowers; 03
4. Climatic zones of Maharashtra and India in relation to horticultural crops. 03
5. Selection of site; Fencing and wind break; 03
6. Lay out and planting systems of horticultural crops; 03
7. Sexual and asexual methods of plant propagation; Its advantages and 03
disadvantages.
8. Asexual propagation : Cutting, layering, grafting, budding, etc 04
9. Production technology of important fruit crops – Mango. 03
10. Banana, Guava 04
11. Pomegranate, Sapota 04
12. Grape 03
13. Citrus sp. 04
14. Ber, Fig 03
15. Aonla, Papaya 03
16. Coconut, Cashewnut 03
17. Arecanut, Jackfruit 03
Unit : 2
18. Importance of vegetable cultivation for nutritional security 03
19. Production technology of important vegetable crops : potato, brinjal, 04
 20. Tomato, Chilli, 04
21. Onion, Okra 03
22. Cabbage, cauliflower. 03
23. Musk melon, water melon, cucumber. 04
24. Leafy vegetables. 03
Unit : 3
25. Status and scope of floriculture in India and abroad; 03
26. Production technology of commercial flower crops : Chrysanthemum, 04
Rose
27. Gladiolus, Marigold 03
28. Gerbera, carnation. 03
29. Lilium, jasmine, 02
30. Anthurium, orchids 02
31. Major pests of horticultural crops and their control 02
32. Major diseases of horticultural crops and their control 02

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Exercise No. Title

1-2. Identification of different fruit and vegetables.
2. Identification of differentornamental and flower crops.
3-4. Lay out and planning for planting orchards.
5-6. Preparation of seed beds.
7-8. Raising of seeds of horticultural crops
9-10. Raising of rootstocks
11-12. Propagation techniques of major fruit crops
13-14. Propagation techniques of major vegetable and flower crops
15-16. Visit to commercial nurseries and orchards.
 UNIT : 1 – POMOLOGY

1.1 HORTICULTURE : MEANING , DEFINITION , SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE

Meaning and Definition :-
The word horticulture is modeled after agriculture, and comes from the Latin hortus "garden" and
cultura "cultivation".
Horticulture is defined as the science and art for growing of fruits , vegetables , and flowers and also
crops like spices , condiments and other plantation crops.

SCOPE OF FRUIT PRODUCTION IN INDIA :-

1. To increase the production to meet the dietary requirements :
The per capita consumption of fruits in India is very low eg. USA 202 kg / capita / year , Pakistan 100 kg /
capita / year and India 10 kg / capita / year .The low consumption of fruits is only due to very small
fraction of the total cropped area under fruits. India needs to step up the production of fruits till the
country becomes self sufficient and prices of fruits fall to a level which both rich and poor can afford to
buy.
2. Increasing irrigation facilities in Maharashtra :
Most of the commercial fruit trees require perennial irrigation. The area receiving perennial irrigation
which was 6% in 1960 reached a level of 12.5 to 13% today. By exploiting all the resources , the
maximum area that can be brought under irrigation would be 25% of the total cropped area. Thus there
is still scope to increase irrigated area in near future , as Government is giving priorities to such works.
This would definitely help to increase area under fruit crops.
3. Scope for increasing area under dryland fruits :
It is not entirely true that all the fruits require perennial irrigation. There are many fruit trees like ber ,
custard apple , cashewnut , aonla etc. which are hardy in nature and can be grown purely under rain-fed
conditions. In India. 86 million ha and in Maharashtra 35 lakh ha land is available for development of
dryland horticulture.
4. Increasing urbanization and change in food habits :
Increased urbanization due to industrial growth has increased demands for fruits. Change in food habits
is also being noticed due to education and assured income which has also helped in increasing demands
for fruits.
5. Increased transport facilities :
Most of the fruits are highly perishable , having less storage life and need quick disposal after harvest.
Lack of good transportation system was one of the major constraints in area expansion of fruits.
However , now a days quick transport facilities by road , rail and air are available enabling growers to
transport fruits , to long distance markets in good condition in a short period of time. Increase in
transport facilities provide scope for fruit farming.
6. Increasing cold storage facilities and precooling centre :
Fruits have highly perishable and have less shelf-life. During the peak harvest periods , the market gluts
reduce prices of fruits. Cold storage facilities help to regulate market supply and stabiles the rates.
Similarly , to extend shelf life , pre cooling after harvest is necessary. Govt. of Maharashtra and also
other agencies providing funds for developing these facilities in production centres. This would help to
increase more area under fruit in the year to come.
7. Scope for agro based industries :
Even after so much of industrial progress , country depends on agricultural sectors for employment
generation. For another 100 years , our major employment is going to come from agricultural sector.
Development of agro-based industries to generate employment is a must to keep our economy on
sound footings. Besides sugarcane , fruit farming is the only area where there is a potential to develop
agro-based industries like canning and preservation and hence , the scope in near future.
8. Development of new technique :
Use of growth regulators , Insitu grafting drip irrigation for water economy , tissue culture special
horticultural practices like ringing , girding , notching , bahar treatment , high density planting etc. have
helped to increase productivity and also to bring more lands under horticulture.
9. Evolution of new high yielding varieties and hybrids :
Development of high yielding varieties of fruit like pomegranate , Ganesh , Thompson seedless ; Guava-
Sardar (L-49); cashewnut – Vengurla No.1,2,3,4 and 5 , have helps to bring more area under fruits.
Similarly , introduction of commercial cultivation of some of the new crops like ber , aonla etc. would
also indicate scope for area expansion.
10. Availabilities of loan facilities :
Fruit crops being capital intensive , lack of capital was one of the major hurdles in the area expansion.
Nowadays there are several cooperative and commercial banks providing finance for fruit farming which
has increased the scope for it.
11. Government incentives :
Realising the need for area expansion of fruit crops , the Government of Maharashtra have started a
very ambitious programme of fruit development under which it gives 100% subsidy to marginal farmers
and farmers from backward communities and 70% subsidy for others on establishment and
maintenance of fruit orchard for a period of 3 years. This would increase the area under fruits. It is
expected that due to this programme , the area under fruits in Maharashtra by 94-95 would be 5,58,000
hectares.
12. Scope for export of fruits :
Market surveys in Europe and other markets have revealed that there is a good scope for export of
grapes , mango , banana , pomegranate , citrus , ber , cashewnut to Gulf and European markets. The
availability of these export markets would help to increase area under these fruits.
13. Availability of cheap labour
14. Very high productivity of fruits
15. Suitability of climate for fruits are some of the other factors indicating scope for fruits.
IMPORTANCE OF FRUITS PRODUCTION :-
A. Economic Importance :
1) Per unit area yield are high – well maintained and established orchard bring better return than many
of the field crops. From an unit area of land more yield is obtained than any of the agronomic crop.
2) Higher net profits – through the initial cost of establishment of an orchard is high it is compressed by
higher net profits due to higher productivity or due to high value of produce.
Following tables illustrates the yielding ability of crops.
Name of the crop Av. Yield kg/h Harvest value (Rs/ha) Production value (Rs/ha)
Wheat 3000 to 4000 6.0 18000-24000
Groundnut 2500 8.0 20000
Grapes 20000 12.0 24000
Banana 35000 3.0 105000
Sweet Orange 12000 3.0 60000

3) Source of raw material for agro based industries – Fruit and vegetables provide raw material for
various agro based industries like canning and preservation , coir industries , pharmaceutical industries
have a potential of generating employment.
4) Efficient utilisation of resources :
Agronomic crop are seasonal in nature and hence farmers have to engage themselves in other
occupation during slack season , but fruit growing being perennial in nature , enables grower to remain
engaged throughout the year in farm operations and to utilise fully the resources and assets like
machinery , labour , land water for production purpose throughout the year.
5) Utilisation of waste and barren lands for production :
Although most of the fruit crops require perennial irrigation and good soils for production , there are
many fruit drops of hardy in nature like mango, ber, caschewnut, custard apple, aonla, phalsa, jamun,
etc. which are grown on poor, shallow, undulated soils considered unsuitable for growing grain/lands.
6) Ability to earning foreign exchange :
Many fresh fruits and processed products and spices are exported to several countries earning good
amount of foreign exchange. Out of the total exports of agricultural produce of Rs. 29,000 million ,
horticulture crops which mostly include fruits and its products contribute Rs. 15,640 million (52% of
total export of Agri produce). India earns a foreign exchange of Rs. 277.4 crores by exporting spices.
7) One time capital investment :
Most of the fruit crops are perennial in nature and hence , there is no recurring expenditure on planting
and layout of an fruit orchard.
8) Continuous flow of money :
Harvesting of most of the fruit is of continuous in nature and being highly perishable , need to be
marketed immediately after harvest. This provides a source of continuous flow of money throughout the
season which is useful to the grower for purchase of inputs and for other expenses of immediate nature
as against agronomic crops which are harvested at one time.
9) Fruit growing in kitchen gardens helps to reduce family budget on purchase of fruits.
10) Planting of trees helps to maintain ecological balance and to increase precipitations of the locality.
Fruit trees for such planting programmes also generate economy.
11) Fruit tree farming also reduces soil erosion , silting tanks and air pollution.
12) Generate Employment – Fruit tree farming being highly intensive and skillful enterprise , generate
employment even for trained persons.

B. Nutritional Importance
1) As a Source of Vitamins :
• Vitamin A – It is a fat soluble and essential for growth and reproduction. Deficiency of vitamin A
causes night blindness , drying of tear glands , roughness of skin in children , formation of stones
in kidney. It is found in mango , papaya , jackfruit , banana.
• Vitamin B – Deficiency causes berry berry disease , loss of appetite , loss in weight , fall in body
temperature , sore throat etc. It is found in fruits like cashewnut , almond , banana , apple ,
bael , litchi , papaya and pomegranate.
• Vitamin C – It is water soluble and essential for general good health. Deficiency causes
unhealthy gums, scurvy disease , delay in wound healing , enlargement of heart and damage to
heart muscles. It is available in fruits like aonla , citrus fruits , ber , strawberry , pineapple , etc.
2) As a source of Minerals :
At least 10 different mineral elements are required for proper growth and development of human body.
Out of these , Ca , Fe , and P are required on large scale. Ca is badly lacking in Indian diet.
• Calcium – Needed for development of bones , absence causes rickets , pigeon chest , retarted
growth.
• Iron – It is essential part of RBC and best known O2 carrier.
• Phosphorus – Required for cell multiplication and oxidation of CHO , liberating energy.
• Sources – Almond , cashewnut , guava , jamun , fig , karonda , mango.
3) As a Source of Energy :
Carbohydrates and fats provide energy , while proteins besides providing energy are also responsible for
building body tissues. Most of the fruits are good source of CHO.
Sources – Banana ( 36% ) , Grapes ( 20% ) , Custard apple ( 25% ) , apples , ber , cashewnut. To meet the
annual calorific requirement one would need to cultivate 1.45 acres of wheat or 0.50 acres of mango or
0.09 acres of banana.
4) Medicinal value –
The fruits like aonla , pomegranate , kokam , jumun , Bihada etc. have great medicinal value.
Nutritive Values of Fruits :-
The importance of fruits in human diet is universally recognised. It has been realized that fruits should
no longer be considered a luxury , since they are protective foods necessary for the maintenance of
human health. A balanced diet is one that contains calorie yielding food and body building elements in
the appropriate proportion for the normal growth well being a person. The Indian Council of medical
Research has recommended a balanced diet which should contain 30% of fruit. On these basis the total
requirement and thus there is an urgent need to increase area under important fruits.
The fruits are the chief source of vitamins , without which the human body cannot maintain proper
health. Vitamin which vies resistance to disease , prevents tight-blindness promotes growth in young
age , is found abundantly in mango , papaya , and persimmon. It is also plentiful in dates , jackfruit , and
walnut. It’s daily requirement in our diet varies from 3000 to 4000 I.U. Vitamin B (Thiamine) , the lack of
which cause beri beri , paralysis , and loss of sensitivity of skin etc. is most abundant in cashewnut ,
walnut and almond.
Vitamin C , the absence of which causes scurvy characterized by the pains in joins , swelling of limbs ,
bleeding of gums , tooth decay and rheumatism (disease marked by the inflammation and pain in joints)
is most plentiful in Barbados cherry. Aonla and guava are also very rich source of this vitamin. Other
good sources of this vitamin are citrus fruits , tomato , bael , mango , jujube and papaya. The average
requirement of adult per day is 50-70 mg.
Fruits are also contain mineral salts like Ca , P , K , Mg , S and Fe , the deficiency of which can lead to
changes in metabolism , resulting in ill health.
Besides this the pectin and cellulose found in several fruits stimulate the intestinal activity and protect
the human body against the various disorders. The daily requirement of Ca is 0.6 to 1.0 gm and iron 15
to 30 mg.

1.2 BRANCHES OF HORTICULTURE

The horticulture science comprises of following seven branches :
1) Pomology : This branch deals with the cultivation of fruit crops.
2) Olericulture : This branch deals with the cultivation of vegetable crops .
3) Ornamental Horticulture : Originally the Victorian term floriculture was considered as a branch of
horticulture. However with the change in times , this branch deals with the art and science of growing
ornamental foliage and flowering trees , shrubs , climbers , seasonal flowers , cacti , orchids , indoor and
outdoor garden plants etc. This branch includes the following sub-branches.
a) Commercial Floriculture : It is an art and science of growing flowers on a large scale for supply
to domestic markers as well as for export.
b) Arboriculture : This branch deals with planting of various types of ornamental plants for their
scientific study.
c) Landscape Gardening : It is an interesting and fascinating subject of great aesthetic value and
deals with the planting of ornamentals of different types in such a way that it creates
picturesque effect by imiting nature in the garden. A landscape designer should have knowledge
of botany , architecture and engineering.
4) Plantation Crops and Spices : Cultivation and processing tropical crops groen on a large scale ,
centered on a factory , constitute the plantation crops. Eg. Coffee , black pepper , palms , etc.
Spice crops are grown and used for flavouring and providing fragrance to various foodstuffs , eg. Clove,
cinnamon, pepper, condiments. Coriander adds taste of food preparations.
5) Medicinal Plants and Aromatic Plants : Medicinal plants are a rich source of alkaloids and steroids
having prophylactic and curative properties for treatment in several diseases. They are used in
pharmaceutical industries in preparing medicines for human beings and animals (Veternary medicines)
eg. Vinca , Isabgol.
Aromatic plants are a rich source of essential oils and are in great demand in cosmetic and perfumery
industries. Eg. Lemon grass , Patchouli.
6) Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables : This branch deals with the principles and practices for their
use out of season or in areas where these crops are not grown. The major demand for these products is
for Defence and Para military forces in India and for export. The demand is only a little in civilian market.
7) Mushroom Growing : Mushroom is richer in high quality proteins than any other vegetable and
therefore it’s cultivation in recent times is gaining considerable importance. In India , three edible
mushroom types are grown namely – white button mushroom (Agaricus bisphorus) , oyster or dhingri
(Pleurotus spp.) , and Chinese or paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea). These have export
potential as well as are in demand in internal market.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF FRUIT CROPS , VEGETABLES AND FLOWERS

The classification of Horticultural crops is follows :
I) Classification on the basis of duration of life
a) Annual : A plant which completes it’s life cycle seed → plant seed in one season or an one year
is called annual. Eg. Tomato, brinjal, balsam, marigold.
b) Biennials : A plant which completes it’s life cycle in two seasons or two years is known as
biennial. Eg. Onion.
c) Perennials : A plant which completes it’s life cycle in more than one year is known as perennial.
Eg. Bahunia , Mango.

II) Classification based on climatic requirements

a) Temperate Horticulture Corps : In Temperate region , during winter the temperatures fall below
the freezing point. Under these conditions , temperature help the plants to put forth new
growth , flowering and fruiting with the onset of nspri g season. Examples : Fruits – Apple , Pear ,
Almond , Walnut ; Spices – Saffron , Kala jira, asafoetida ; Vegetable – Cabbage , Snowball ,
Cauliflower.
b) Sub-tropical Horticulture Crops : In Sub-tropical climate, the summer are hot and dry and
winter are less mild. Eg. Fruits – Citrus , Guava , Pomegranate , Fig ; Spices : Turmeric , Onion ,
Ginger , Garlic. Vegetables – Tomato , Brinjal , Chilli , Potato , Okra , Leafy vegetables , Pointed
gourd.
 c) Tropical Horticultural Crops : The climatic conditions in such areas are hot and humid in
summer and mild in winter. Eg. Fruits – Mango, Banana, Pineapple ; Spices – Black pepper ,
Turmeric , Ginger , Clove ; Plantation Crops – Coconut , Servant , Cocoa , Coffees ; Vegetables –
Tomato, Brinjal , Chilli, Onion.
Based on tolerance to the relative humidity of atmosphere, the fruit plants can be classified as under :
Arid Region Fruit Crops : Low humidity , high temperatures and intense radiation are the characteristic
climate conditions. Examples : Fruits – Ber , Annona , Data Palm. Vegetables – Cowpea , Cluster bean.
Semi-arid region exhibit low amd erratic rainfall , low humidity and high temperatures. Fruits of arid
region can be grown successfully are mangosteen , litchi , etc.

III) Classification based on habit of growth

An outline of fruit crops with typical examples are :
1) Tree Fruits : trees have distinct stem or trunk which may be woody or herbaceous. They may
also be evergreen or deciduous.
• Woody tree fruits : Apple , Citrus , Mango , Guava.
• Herbaceous tree fruits , upright growth : Banana , Pineapple.
• Herbaceous tree fruits , prostrate growth : Strawberry
• Evergreen tree fruits : Litchi , Citrus , Mango , Sapota.
• Deciduous tree fruits : Apple , Pear , Peach , Apricot.
2) Shrub or Bush Trees : shrubs or bushes produce a large number of branches and are smaller in
size than trees. Fruits : Phalsa , Coffee. Ornamental shrubs : Barleria , Cristata Analysis.
3) Climbers : These plants attach themselves to support such as trellises , arches or live plant.
Fruits : Grape , Spices : Black pepper (live support). Ornamental Climbers : Allamanda ,
Antigonan.

IV) Classification on the basis of part of plant used for consumption

A) Fruits
Sr. No. Name of Fruit Edible Part
1. Apple (Pome) Fleshy Thalamus
2. Banana (Berry) Mesocarp and Endocarp
3. Cashewnut (Nut) Peduncle and Cotyledons
4. Coconut (Fibrous Drupe) Endosperm
5. Custard Apple (Etaerio of berries) Fleshy Pericarp of individual berries
6. Fig (Syconus) Fleshy Receptacle
7. Guava (Berry) Thalamus and Pericarp
8. Grape (Berry) Pericarp and Placenta
9. Mango (Drupe) Mesocarp
10. Orange (Hesperidium) Juicy Placental Hair
11. Papaya (Berry) Mesocarp
12. Pineapple (Sorosis) Fleshy Thalamus
13. Pomegranate (Pome) Arill
B) Plantation Crops and Spices
Sr. No. Name Edible Part
1. Coconut (Fibrous Drupe) Endosperm
2. Arecanut (One seeded avold Drupe) Seed (Fresh and Dried)
3. Cocoa (5-Ribbed Drupe) Beans (Seed)
4. Coffee (Fleshy Drupe) Seed (Bean)
5. Black Peppers (One seeded spherical drupe) Dried Wrinkled Fruit
6. Clove (Fleshy Drupe) Unopened Flower Bud
7. Cinnamon (Fleshy Berry) Bark
8. Chilli (Berry) Fruit with seeds
9. Turmeric Rhizome
10. Ginger Rhizome
11. Onion Leaves and Bulb
12. Garlic Cloves

C) Vegetables
Sr. No. Name of Vegetables Edible Part
1. Radish , Carrot , Turnip , Beetroot , Sweet Potato Roots
2. Knolkhol , Potato Stem
3. Palak , Methi , Amaranthus Leaf
4. Cauliflower , Broccoli Flowers
5. Tomato , Brinjal , Okra , Cucurbits Fruits
6. Beans and Pea Pod
7. Onion Bulb

V) Classification of Vegetables based on hardiness

Hardy vegetable are those which can endure frost without injury , eg. Cabbage , Asparagus , Tender
Vegetables are injured by ordinary frost , eg. Tomato , Cucurbits.

VI) Classification of Vegetables based on season of growth

1) Kharif Season : Bhendi , Chilli , Tomato , Cucurbits , Beans , Sweet Potato , Brinjal and Raddish.
2) Rabi Season : Cole crops , Potato , Onion , Raddish , Carrot , Turnip , Pea , Methi , Spinach ,
Beetroot.
3) Summer Season : Gourd , Cucumber , Watermelon , and Muskmelon , Brinjal , Bhendi , Beans ,
Cucurbits , Amaranthus.

VII) Classification of Vegetables on the basis of cultural requirements

1) Perennial Vegetables : Coccinea , Pointed Gourd , Sesbania , Gandiflora (Angathi).
2) Leafy vegetables : Spinach , Fenugreek , Amaranthus.
3) Cole Crops : Cabbage , Cauliflower , Knolkhol.
4) Root Crops : Raddish , Carrot , Beetroot , Turnip.
5) Bulb Crops : Onion , Garlic.
 6) Tuber Crops : Potato , Sweet Potato.
7) Fruit Vegetables : Tomato , Brinjal , Chilli.
8) Cucurbits : Gourd , Melons , Pumpkin.
9) Pod Vegetables : Cowpea , Cluster bean , Indian bean , Pea.
10) Others : Okra.

VIII) Botanical Classification of Vegetables

A) Monocot
1) Araceae – Colocasia
2) Alliaceae – Onions , Garlic.
3) Diascoreaceae – Yan
B) Dicots
1) Chenopodiaceae : Spinach
2) Cruciferae : Cole crops , Turnip , Raddish
3) Leguminaceae : Pea , Beans , Fenugreek
4) Euphorbiaceae : Tapioca
5) Malvaceae : Okra
6) Umbelliferae : Carrot
7) Convovulaceae : Sweet Potato
8) Solanaceae : Tomato , Brinjal , Chilli , Potato
9) Cucurbitaceae : Gourd , Melons , Pumpkin
10) Compositae : Lettuce

IX) Botanical Classification of Fruits

A) Monocot
1) Musaceae : Banana
2) Bromeliaceae : Pineapple
B) Dicot
1) Rhamnaceae : Ber
2) Sapotaceae : Sapota (Chiku)
3) Rutaceae : Nagpur Santra , Sweet Orange , Acolid lime , Lemon
4) Annonaceae : Custard Apple , Bullock's Heart
5) Moraceae : Fig , Jackfruit
6) Vitiaceae : Grape
7) Myrtaceae : Guava
8) Apocynaceae : Karonda
9) Anacardiaceae : Mango , Cashewnut
10) Caricaceae : Papaya
11) Punicaceae : Pomegranate
X) Botanical Classification of plantation crops and Spices
A) Monocot
1) Arecaceae (Palmae) : Coconut , Arecanut
2) Alliaceae : Onion , Garlic
3) Zingiberaceae : Turmeric , Ginger
B) Dicot
1) Lauraceae : Cinnamon
2) Myrtaceae : Clove
3) Piparaceae : Black Pepper
4) Rubiaceae : Coffee
5) Solanaceae : Chilli
6) Sterculiaceae : Cocoa

1.4 CLIMATIC ZONES OF MAHARASHTRA AND INDIA

The Indian union can be broadly divided into temperature , sub-tropical and tropical regions from the
climatic point of view. Different fruits can be grownin these regions. They can be classified accordingly in
the following three groups. However ,these are not water-tight zones. For example , Grape , though a
sub-tropical fruit. Mango , a tropical fruit , can be grown in sub-tropical zone also.
1) Temperate Zone :-
This class of fruit grows successfully in cold regions where temperature falls below freezing point during
winter. During the cold season , the trees shed their leaves and enter into rest period. For breaking this
q period , a definite chilling period is required. This class includes fruits like Apple , Pear , Walnut ,
Almond , Plum , Peaches , etc.
2) Tropical Zone :-
This class of fruit crops which are unable to endure cool temperature , some of them being severally
injured by even the temperature somewhat above the freezing point. This class includes fruits like
Mango , Banana , Papaya , Pineapple , Cashewnut and Sapota (Chiku).
3) Sub-tropical Zone :-
This class includes fruits crops intermediate in character to tropical and temperate. These fruits grow
mostly in plains where the climate is hot and comparatively dry and winter is less severe. This class
includes fruits like Citrus , Phalsa , Fig , Guava and Pomegranate.
The States growing different kinds of fruits are :
1) Temperate Zone : Jammu and Kashmir , Himachal Pradesh , U.P. , Arunachal Pradesh , Part of
Nagaland , Nilgiris and Plain Hills of Tamilnadu.
2) North-Western Sub-tropical Zone : Rajasthan , Punjab , Haryana , Part of U.P. Part of M.P.
3) North-Eastern Sub-tropical Zone : Bihar , Assam , Meghalaya , Tripura , Part of Orissa , Part of
West Bengal , Part of A.P. , Part of Karnataka.
4) Central Tropical Zone : Part of M.P. , Part of Maharashtra , Gujarat , Part of Orissa , Part of West
Bengal , Part of A.P. , Part of Karnataka.
 5) Southern Tropical Zone : Part of Karnataka , Part of A.P. , Part of Tamilnadu , Part of Kerala.
6) Coastal/Tropical Zone : Part of Maharashtra , Kerala , Andhra Pradesh , Orissa , Tamilnadu ,
West Bengal , Tripura and Mizoram , Part of Gujarat along sea side and the Indian Islands.

Fruit Growing Zone of Maharashtra :-

1) Warm Coastal Region : Ratnagiri , Raigad , Tane and Sindhudurg. Crops grown – Mango ,
Cashewnut , Coconut , Sapota , Banana , etc.
2) Western Deccan Region : Part of Kolhapur , Nashik , Satara , Sangali and Pune. Crops Grown –
Guava Mango , Banana , Grape , Pomegranate , etc.
3) Eastern Deccan Region : Jalgaon , Dhule , Ahmednagar , Solapur , Need and Osmanabad.
Crops Grown – Sweet Orange , Lime , Grape , Papaya , Fig , Banana , etc.
4) Western Vidarbha and Eastern Marathwada Region : Buldhana , Akola , Parabhani , and
Nanded. Crops Grown – Mango , Banana , Mandarin , Guava , etc.
5) Northern region of Vidarbha : Amaravati , Wardha , Nagpur , Chandrapur and Bhandara. Crops
Grown – Santra , Papaya , Lime , Guava , Sweet Orange , etc.

1.5 SELECTION OF SITE

Selection of site is of paramount importance in fruit industry as the fruit plants are paramount nature
and mistake committed at the outset are difficult to rectify at a later date.
It is always better to start an orchard in a predominantly fruit-growing area than in a new locality where
few or no orchard exists. This will not only help in sharing experience of local fruit growers but also
purchasing of plant materials, orchard equipments, transport, marketing, storage of fruits etc. It would
be easier through co-operation with growers.
Besides, the site for an orchard should be either as close to a consuming centre/market as possible or on
a metal road or connected by rail. Over and above, the orchard site should have favourable climatic and
soil conditions and good source of irrigation.
A) FENCING :-
To protect the trees of the orchard from frequent visits of wild and stray animals, and to prevent
stealing of fruits and other orchard properly, some kind of fence is highly necessary. This may be made
by erecting mud walls or high brick walls with tops lined with glass pieces, or barbed wire fencing.
The first one through quite effective against big animals offer very little obstacle to monkeys and
thieves. The second one being permanent and very effective from the security point of view is preferred.
But it involves a large initial expenditure which is beyond the means of ordinary fruit growers. The third
one, the barbed wire fencing which costs moderately, is not only effective against practically all animals
and human beings, but it also neither shades nor takes away any plant food from it.
Characteristics of a good fence plant :-
• Drought resistant
• Easy to raise from seed
• Quick growing
• Should have dense foliage
 • Should stand severe pruning
• Should be preferably thorny

B) WIND BREAKS
The wind Breaks means ' Close planting of tall growing trees all around the orchard is called as wind
Breaks '.
Fruit orchards usually causes heavy losses when exposed to strong wind. Heavy wind increases the
losses of moisture both by increasing transpiration and surface evaporation. The high yields also causes
the damage to fruit trees breaking of branches , destruction of blooms dropping of immature fruits and
erosion of surface soil.
Selection of wind Breaks :-
While selecting wind break more importance is given to the height than the thickness. Windbreak will
give full protection to a distance of 4-5 times the height of trees and partial protection for some distance
where land is level. The wind break should be erect and tall growing , quick growing , hardy and drought
resistant , occupy less space as for as possible. It should be mechanically strong and dense to resist
maximum wind.
Planting band spacing of wind break :-
Planting of wind breaks should be done at least 2 years after planting of fruit trees. These wind breaks
they are planted in rows. The first row of it should be planted 40 feet away from plants on to two rows
of such trees are planted on the west and south side of orchard at a close spacing to form a thick screen.
They are planted at the spacing of 12 feet × 12 feet or 15 feet × 15 feet distance for growing tall and
close of wind. If the orchard is big , additional rows of wind break can be planted every after 400 feet to
500 feet distance.
Precaution after planting of windbreak :-
The wind break trees sometimes may compete to the trees for water and nutrient. To prevent this
competition , a trench may dug about 3 feet deep and about 20 feet away from the row of wind break
trees and all the roots wind break trees exposed in the tench are cut of.
Species used as wind breaks :-
The trees are commonly used as wind breaks are as follows :
Polylthia langifolia , Casuarina equsitiflolia , Erythrina indica , Eucalpotus citraddors , Gravilla robusts ,
Dalbergia sisso , Syzygium cumini , Magnifera indica , Averhoa carambola , Bambusa spp. To stop soil
erosion by wind the wind breaks which are used , they are Erythrina indica , Biononia megaputomica ,
Millingtonia hortensia , Cossia pungam etc.
For protection of banana , papaya and beetlevine orchard a wind break of Sysabenia app. are used.
Advantages of wind breaks :-
1) It reduces the wind velocity.
2) It checks the evaporation losses of water from soil surface.
3) It prevents the damage caused by cold wind and frost.
4) It increase the fruit production by minimising wind damage.
C) SHELTER BELTS
Shelter belts is defined as a belt of trees or shrubs maintained for the purpose of shelter from wind sum
and snow fall etc.
Shelter belts is a wide range of trees , shrubs and grasses planted in rows which go right across the land
at right angles to the direction or the prevailing to deflect air movement , to reduce wind velocity and to
give general protection to cultivated areas against wind erosion and decreasing effect of hot winds.
Shape and Composition :-
A typical shelter belt has a triangular cross section. This can be done by planting tall trees in the center ,
flanked on the sides , successfully on other trees , tall shrubs and then low spreading shrubs and grasses.
Then there should be a systematic mixture of trees , shrubs and grasses keeping their height , shape,
crown form , longitivity , resistance to insect and usefulness in view.
Density and Width :-
A certain amount of penetrability is desirable in shelter belts. It has been found from experience that
through solid walls provide considerable protection immediately behind them on the Lee ward side , the
effect disappears after a short distance and there is a great fluctuation in velocity on the leeward side.
But is partially penetrable shelter belt the zone of influence is very much greater and velocity curve
shows a smooth , slowly declining trend. This penetrability is done by planting trees and shrubs
adequetly in their rows. The planting of shrubs should be done by 1 to 1.5 apart and trees 2-3 m apart in
rows.
The width of shelter belt depends upon local climatic conditions , wind velocity and the soil type. The
Central Arid Zone Research Institute , Jodhapur has advised that in Arid Zone, wind velocity not exceeds
20 km/hr. A typical belt may consist of 3-5 rows and in the same cases 7 rows may be planted at a
distance of 4 m.
Orientation :-
The orientation of shelter belt depends upon the wind direction and velocity , particularly during the
vulnerable season and shelter belt should oriented as early as possible at right angles to the prevailing
wind or to the winds that are more damaging to the fruits at a particular time of the year. In case where
winds blow from different directions shelter belt should be raised in quadrangles.
Height and spacing :-
Height of shelter belt is more important because it affects the distance to which protection will be given
on the leeward side. Higher the trees forming shelter belt , the greater is the beneficial effect on
leeward side.
Shelter belt protect the area upto 15 to 20 times the height or belt. In Rajasthan , taking the height of
shelter belt to about 7.5 m spacing recommended is two times the height ie. 75 m.
Choice of Species :-
The choice of species to be raised in shelter belt is governed by the climate , soil and topography of the
area. It is better to grow local species which may serve the object in view , as they can be easily
established.
The selected species should be fast growing , drought resistant and unpalatable to animals. It should not
be leafless at a time where protection is required.
Species recommended :-
The following species are recommended :
• Shrubs : Calotropis procers , Crotolania burhia , Calligonum polygonoides , Clearodendron
phymodes , Cassia curiculata , Dedonea viscosa , Jatropha curcas , Sebania aculeta.
• Small trees : Acacia Jacyuemontil , Acacia leucophllea , Salvadora oleodes.
• Trees : Acacia arabica , A. Senegal , Albizzia labbock , Azadirchta indica , Dalbergia sisso , Lannea
coromendoica , Prosopis juliflora , Pongemia pinnata , Cucalyptus spp.
Advantages of Shelter Belts :-
1) Moderating effect on temperature : It can increase or decrease the temperature.
2) It can increase the humidity from 1 to 50% because faster evaporation from soil and crops
retained due to reduced air movement.
3) It increases the evapotranspiration.
4) It increases the soil moisture.
5) It reduces the wind velocity and wind erosion of soil from the orchard.
6) It increases the fruit production by minimising wind damage.

1.6 LAYOUT AND PLANTING SYSTEMS OF HORTICULTURE CROPS

The layout of the orchard is a very important operation. Under this, the arrangement of fruit plants in
the plot is carefully done to put the plants at a suitable distance for proper development and for
accommodating the requisite number of plants per unit area in addition to improving the aesthetic look
of the orchard.
Hence, the factors which are considered important for proper layout of the orchard are :
1) system of planting and
2) planting distance of individual fruit species which again would provide the following advantages:
• Allow equidistance for each tree for uniform growth.
• Allow easy orchard operations like cultivation, intercropping, irrigation, spraying of plant
protection chemicals and growth regulators, harvesting etc.
• Proper utilization of orchard space avoiding wastage of land.
• Help in proper supervision and management of the orchard.
• Also further extension of area from time to time so that subsequent planting would
match with the existing orchard planting.

PLANTING SYSTEMS :-
The system of planting to be adopted is selected after considering the slope of land, purpose of utilizing
the orchard space, convenience etc. Generally, six systems of planting are recommended for fruit trees.
1) Square system : This system is considered to be the simplest of all the system and is adopted widely.
In this system, the plot is divided into squares and trees are planted at the four corners of the square, in
straight rows running at right angles.
2) Rectangular system : In this system, the plot is divided into rectangles instead of squares and trees
are planted at the four corners of the rectangle in straight rows running at right angles.
3) Triangular system : In this system, trees are planted as in the square system but the plants in the
2nd , 4th, 6th and such other alternate rows are planted midway between the 1st, 3rd, 5th and such
other alternate rows.
4) Hexagonal system : In this system, the trees are planted at the corners of an equilateral triangle and
thus, six trees from a hexagon with the seventh tree at the centre. This system is generally followed
where the land is costly and very fertile with ample provision of irrigation water.
5) Quincunx system : This system of planting fruit trees is similar to square system, except that a fifth
tree is planted at the centre of each square.
6) Contour system : It is generally followed on the hills with high slopes. It particularly suits to a land
with undulated topography, where there is greater danger of erosion and irrigation of the orchard is
difficult.

Fig 1. Square System Fig 2. Rectangular System

Fig 3. Triangular System

Fig 4. Hexagonal System
 Fig 5. Quincunx System

Fig 6. Contour System

1.7 PROPAGATION
Propagation of plants may be defined as the controlled reproduction of plants by man to perpetuate
selected individual of groups of individual's plants which have specific value to him.
Plant propagation is the process which grows new plants from a variety of sources : seeds, cuttings, and
other plant parts. Plant propagation can also refer to the man-made or natural dispersal of seeds.
A) Sexual Propagation (By Seeds) :-
Seeds and spores can be used for reproduction (through e.g. sowing). Seeds are typically produced from
sexual reproduction within a species, because genetic recombination has occurred. A plant grown from
seeds may have different characteristics from its parents. Some species produce seeds that require
special conditions to germinate, such as cold treatment.
Advantages :-
• It is the simple and cheap method and can be employed by the growers at their own fields.
• Plants produced are hardy and have strong root system.
• When the plant cannot be propagated through vegetative means, then it is the only method of
propagation.
 • Many commercial cultivars of mango, e.g. Dasheri and Langra and Loquat e.g. Golden Yellow,
etc. originated as chance seedlings.
• Hybridization work depends upon seed germination.
Disadvantages :-
• Plants raised through seeds have long juvenile period. It takes long time to fruiting.
• The seedling trees have very deep root system hence the trees attain big size at maturity.
• The bigger trees compel the growers to plant few trees/ acre. Thus in early years little yield per
acre and in latter years trees get intermingled among themselves, producing poor quality of
fruits due to shade.
• Some viruses are seed borne, for example, mosaic in peaches and psorosis in citrus. These
viruses perpetuate through seed.
• Some seedless fruits cannot be propagated through seed. The only method to. produce these
plants will be asexual method.

B) Asexual Propagation :-
Plants have a number of mechanisms for asexual or vegetative reproduction. Some of these have been
taken advantage of by horticulturists and gardeners to multiply or clone plants rapidly.
1) Cutting :- A plant cutting is a piece of a plant that is used in horticulture for vegetative (sexual)
propagation. A piece of the stem or root of the source plant is placed in a suitable medium such as moist
soil. If the conditions are suitable, the plant piece will begin to grow as a new plant independent of the
parent, a process known as striking.
A stem cutting produces new roots, and a root cutting produces new stems. Some plants can be grown
from leaf pieces, called leaf cuttings, which produce both stems and roots. The scions used in grafting
are also called cuttings.
There are two types of cuttings :-
• Leaf cutting – Eg. African violet, peperomia, episcia, hoya, and sedum.
• Root cutting – Eg. raspberry, blackberry, rose, trumpet vine, phlox, fig, lilac, and sumac.
2) Budding :- Propagation by budding is a pretty common method of plant propagation, in which a plant
bud is grafted onto the stem of a rootstock plant. Creating bizarre fruit trees that bear many types of
fruit is not the only reason for propagation by budding.
There are four types of budding :-
• Shield budding or T-budding
• Patch budding
• Chip budding
• Ring budding
3) Grafting :- Grafting is one of the most difficult types of propagation. Propagation by grafting results in
offspring that are genetically identical to the parent plant. This is useful for replicating superior cultivars
of fruit or flowering trees. Grafting involves joining a piece of a mature tree (scion) to a seedling
(rootstock).
There are four types of Grafting :-
• Veneer Grafting
• Whip Grafting
• Tongue Grafting
• Wedge Grafting
4) Layering :- Layering is a means of plant propagation in which a portion of an above-ground stem
grows roots while still attached to the parent plant and then detaches as an independent plant. Layering
has evolved as a common means of vegetative propagation of numerous species in natural
environments.
There are different types of Layering :-
• Simple Layering
• Compound Layering
• Mound Layering
• Trench Layering
• Tip Layering
• Air Layering
Advantages of Asexual Propagation :-
• Asexually propagated plants are true to type to their mother plants.
• Asexually propagated plants possess short juvenile phase and flower and fruits early in the age.
• Propagated plants are smaller in statures and hence harvesting and spraying become easy.
• Plants in which seed setting does not take place eg. Pineapple and banana. Asexual propagation
serves as a substitute for sexual propagation.
• Using asexual method noble plant can be created.
Disadvantages of Asexual Propagation :-
• Asexually propagated plant have short life.
• Asexual propagation restricts diversity.
• In Citrus tristeza virus is transmitted through bud wood. Thus sometime sexual propagation
disseminates diseases.
 1) MANGO

Botanical name :- Mangifera indica

Family :- Anacardiaceae
Origin :- South - East Asia
Soil :- Well drained , lateritic , alluvial , sandy loam and sandy. pH should be 7.5.
Climate :- Tropical and sub-tropical climate is required. It grows on the altitude of 1500 m. The
temperature range for mango between 24-27o C.
Varieties :- Alphonso , Ratna , Kesar , neelam , Totapuri , Langra , Dasheri , Nagin. Hybrid varieties like
Amrapali , Malika , Sindhu , Hy-13 , Hy-17-3 , RAR-M-1 , Sai Sugandh , Parabhani Bhushan.
Planting :- Onset of Monsoon and planted at the spacing of 5m × 5m.
Propagation :- By seed or vegetative propagation. Methods used for the propagation are approach
grafting , veneer grafting , stone grafting , wood grafting.
Training and Prunning :- It require very less or no Pruning however , the training is require in the initial
stages is very essential to give them proper shape.
Manuring and Fertilization :- 10 kg FYM , 300 g urea + 300 g SSP + 100 g MOP per plant.
Irrigation :- Irrigation is required in first four to five years. In 1st year , irrigation is given after every 6-7
days in winter and 2-3 days in summer. In 2nd and 3rd year , after 10-11 days in winter and 8-9 days in
summer is given. In 4th and 5th year , after 14-15 days in winter and 10-11 days in summer ; the
irrigations are given. No irrigations are required during monsoon season.
Pests :-
1) Mango Hopper – Spraying with Carbaryl 0.15 %
2) Mealy bugs – Spraying with Carbaryl 0.2 %
3) Shoot Borer – Spraying with Carbaryl 0.02 %
4) Termties – Spraying with 5 % Adrian
Diseases :-
1) Powdery Mildew – Spraying with Carbendazim , Bavistin 0.1 %
2) Anthracnose – Spraying with Bavistin , Benlate 0.1 %
Harvesting :- Harvesting of Mango is done when colour development on the shoulder and specific
gravity of fruits ranges between 1.01 – 1.02.
Yield :- The yield of mango upto 10 years is 400-600 fruits per plant. After the age of 10 years of the tree
it gives 2500 fruits per plant.
 2) CITRUS

Botanical Name :-
1) Citrus sinnensis (Sweet Orange)
2) Citrus reticulate (Mandarin Orange)
3) Citrus auentifolia (Lime)
Family :- Rutaceae
Origin :- Asia
Soil :- Well drained , medium black , alluvial loams. pH of soil should be in between 5.5 – 6.5.
Climate :- Sweet orange and mandarins require subtropical and dry climate and temperature between
35-40o C. For Lime Dry climate is required and temperature between 10-35o C.
Varieties :-
1) Sweet Orange – Malta blood red , Sathgudi , Jaffa , Hamlin.
2) Mandarin – Nagpur santra , dancy.
3) Lime – Sai Sharbati , Pramalini.
Propagation :- By seeds and vegetative means. The mostly used method for the propagation is budding.
Training and Pruning :- It is evergreen plant requires no pruning , while training is required to give the
shape to the tree.
Manuring and Fertilization :- 50-100 g N per plant is given. 10 kg FYM , 1.0 kg N , 0.5 kg P and 0.5 kg K
are given to the trees per hectare.
Irrigation :- It should be frequently irrigated. A ring should be made around the tree to hold the
irrigation. It given to the tree for 1 – 1 ½ months before taking bahar.
Pests :-
1) Citrus Caterpillar – Nuvan 1 ml per litre of water.
2) Aphids – Rogar 2 ml per litre of water.
Diseases :-
1) Dry Root Rot – Carbendazim 1 g per litre of water.
2) Powdery mildew – Sulfex 0.3 %
Harvesting :- Sweet orange and mandarins are harvested after 8-9 months of planting while the lime is
harvested after 4-5 months of planting. The fruits are harvested when the colour is changes from green
to yellow.
Yield :- Sweet Orange and Mandarins gives the yield of 500-600 fruits per plant and Lime is gives the
yield of 1500-2000 fruits per plant.
 3) BANANA

Botanical Name :- Musa paradisiaca , Musa cavendish

Family :- Musaceae
Origin :- Asia
Soil :- Well drained fertile soil , moisture retentive. pH should be in between 6-8.
Climate :- It is a tropical crop which requires the warm humid and rainy climate. The humidity in the
nature is 90 % or above. The temperature is should be 13-40o C.
Varieties :- Basrai , Harichal , Lal velchi , Safed velchi , Ardhapuri (V.N.M.K.V. Parabhani) , Shrimanti
Propagation :- It do not produce produce visible seeds hence propagation is by vegetative means. There
are only two methods of its propagation by sours suckers or by tissue culture techniques.
Spacing and Planting depth :- Planting is done at 15-20 cm depth and spacing should be 1.25-3.0 m.
Manuring and Fertilization :- 100-150 cartoads of FYM or Compost per hectare , 100 g N , 40 g P , 100 g
K plant. The dose of nitrogen is splits in three doses and it given to the tree at the required stages.
Irrigation :- Basrai under Poona conditions requires 40-45 irrigations per year. Under Jalgaon conditions
it requires 80-90 irrigations per year.
Pests :-
1) Banana Aphid – Spraying of Rogar
2) Thrips – Protects by covering the branches
3) Banana stem borer – 3 g of Carbofuren granules per stoot.
Diseases :-
1) Panama / Banana wilt – Use disease resistant varieties such as Basrai , Poova , Moongil , etc.
2) Leaf spot or Sigatoka disease – Diathene M-45 and Diathene M-45 F
3) Banchy top - Metasystox 0.1 to 0.5 %
4) Banana Mosaic – Spraying of Monocrotophos or methyldemeton at 0.5 to 0.2 ml / L water
Harvesting :- Banana starts flowering in 9-12 months and fruits matures in about 3-5 months. Banana
are harvested at 3/4 the maturity when drying off top leaves , change in colour of fruits , fruits become
plumpy.
Yield :- Average yield of Maharashtra is 28.7 ton / ha. And , Average yield of Basrai is 40 tons / ha.
 4) POMEGRANATE (DALIMB)

Botanical Name :- Punica granatum

Family :- Punicaceae
Origin :- A Native of Iran
Soil :- Alkaline and wet soils , at the foot of hills of at the top of high lying areas , which very little
moisture. Loamy or alluvial soils. pH should be 6 – 7.5.
Climate :- Cool winters and hot and dry summers where rainfall is low. Elevation of about 1800m.
Temperature should not be below 11o C.
Varieties :- Ganesh (M.P.K.V. Rahuri) , Dhokla , Alandi , P-23 (M.P.K.V. Rahuri) , G-137 (M.P.K.V. Rahuri) ,
Mridula (M.P.K.V. Rahuri).
Propagation :- By Seed as well as vegetative means. Propagation by cutting or air layer is easy as well as
quick and gives true to type characters. Use regulators like 1 IAA 200 ppm helps in early and profuse
rooting.
Planting :- Planting of Pomegranate is done in onset of monsoon. And the distance of planting is should
be 5 × 5 m.
Manuring and Fertilization :- It is done regularly 2-3 times a year. Every time 5 kg FYM and 20-30 g N
should be given. Bearing tree at the age of 4-5 years should receive about 50 kg FYM , 625 g N , 250 g P ,
and 250 g K.
Training and Pruning :- Immediately after planting , the plant should be supported with bamboo and
allowed to grow straight upto 1m height. No branches are allowed to arise on the main stem. The fruits
borne terminally on short branches known as spurs.
Irrigation :- Newly planted orchard requires frequent and regular irrigation. Irrigation is given at every
15-25 days interval.
Problems :-
1) Cracking of fruits – It is caused due to hardening of skin of fruits during the period of shortage of
water.
Pests :-
1) Stem borers – Controlled by Spraying of Carbaryl at flowering.
Harvesting :- Harvesting of Pomegranate is done in 5-6 months , after blossoming. When colour of fruits
changes to yellowish brown.
Yield :- Yield of Pomegranate is varies from 100-125 fruits per tree.
 5) BER

Botanical Name :- Zisyphus mouritiana

Family :- Rhamnaceae
Origin :- Central Asia
Soil :- Soils require ranging from shallow to deep and from gravelly and sandy to clayey.
Climate :- Tropical and Sub – Tropical climate and thrives upto the elevation of 1000 m above sea level.
Varieties :- Gola , Seb , Kalthli , Umran , Mehrun , ZG – 3 , Ilaichi.
Propagation :- It is generally propagated by budding. Different types of budding methods are shield ,
ring , patch and forkert have been used.
Planting :- In sub – tropical region planting in spring , while in tropics , time of planting is during July to
August. Pits are made with 60 × 60 × 60 cm size at 8 × 8 m apart.
Training and Pruning :- Proper training during first 2-3 years in very essential to develop balanced and
strong frame work. This exercise should start from nursery stage. All the secondary branches upto 75 cm
from the ground level should be removed.
Manuring and Fertilization :- 30 kg FYM , 2 kg N , Calcium ammonium nitrate , 1 kg P and 500 g K per
tree per year for a plant of five and above year old is recommended.
Irrigation :- In xerophytic nature , ber plant is very hardy and once established it needs very little care
and irrigation. It bears even without irrigation. No irrigation is required in rainy season.
Pests :-
1) Fruit fly – 0.1 % Adrin or Dieldrin
2) Bark eating caterpillar – Mixture of 10 ml Monocrotophos 40 EC or 40 ml Trichlorophos 50 EC
3) Lac Insect – Spray of Rogar 250 ml / L water.
Diseases :-
1) Powdery Mildew – Spray of 0.2 % Karthane
2) Fruit rot – Spray of 0.2 % Diathane
Harvesting :- The harvesting of ber is done when the specific gravity of fruits is less than 1 , when colour
of the fruits is changes from yellow to golden yellow.
Yield :- The average yield of ber is 80-100 kg per tree. In dry areas , the yield obtained is about 50-80 kg
per tree.
 6) AONLA

Botanical Name :- Emblica arficinalis

Family :- Euphorbiaceae
Origin :- South – Eastern Asia
Soil :- Sandy loam to clay soils. It has a great tolerance and sodicity and cultivated in pH range of 6-8.
Production high in deep and fertile soil.
Climate :- It requires the sub-tropical climate while the tropical climate is quite successful. The
temperature is high as 46o C.
Varieties :- Banarsi , Francis , Chakaiya and Banarsi Red , Krishna (NA-4) , Kanchan (NA-5)
Propagation :- By seeds as well as by vegetative methods. There is no dormancy , therefore fresh seeds
give 100 % germination. Both budding and inarching methods of propagation are used.
Planting :- Beginning of monsoon in the months of June to July. Distance of 8 to 10 m both ways is
recommended. In areas of irrigation facilities planting can also be done in spring ( February to March ).
Training and Pruning :- Trained to single stem up to the height of 0.75 m from the ground. The plant
should trained to modified leader system. The pruning can be done after termination of the crop each
year.
Manuring and Fertilization :- The young plant should be given 15-20 kg FYM and the matured tree 30 to
40 kg FYM per year during September – October. In addition , 30 g N , each year upto 10 years and 1 kg
N , 1 kg P , and 1 to 1.5 kg K per plant per year.
Irrigation :- Aonla trees are hardy and sand very well against drought. Therefore , hardly any irrigation is
practised. The crop shall be benefited by 2-3 irrigations at the time of full bloom and set.
Pests :-
1) Shoot Gall Caterpillar – Spray of 2 % Parathion
2) Bark eating caterpillar – Spray of 0.03 % Endrin
3) Mealy bugs – Monocrotophos 0.04 %
Diseases :-
1) King rust / Aonla rust – Spray of Diathene Z-78 ( 0.2 % )
2) Fruit rot – Treatment of fruits with borax
Harvesting :- Aonla are harvested in November – December. When colour of fruits changes from light
green to greenish yellow.
Yield :- The average yield of Aonla is 187-299 kg fruits per tree.
 7) SAPOTA (CHIKOO)

Botanical Name :- Achras zapota

Family :- Sapotaceae
Origin :- Mexico
Soil :- All types of soil but with good drainage. It grows well in alluvial soils , sandy loams , red lateral
soils of the heavy rainfall area. pH having 6 to 8 optimum for sapota farming.
Climate :- Tropical fruit requires warm moist weather , rainfall ranging from 125-255 cm. Temperature
do not go beyond 34o C and 11o C of maximum and minimum temperature.
Varieties :- Kallipatti , Pillipatti , Cricket ball , PKM-1 , Kirthabharti.
Propagation :- It usually not propagated by seed as it grows very slowly. Commercially propagated by
vegetative methods such as
• air – layering and
• inarch grafting
Air – layering is the most commonly used method for the propagation of Sapota which is done in the
months of May – June.
Planting :- Planting of Sapota is done during the summer season. During summer , the square system is
adopted the pits of 13 m are dug at 10 m apart both sides and filled with top soil and FYM.
Manuring and Fertilization :- In 1st year , 20 kg FYM , 100 g N , 50 g P , 50 g K be given. An adult tree
requires 50 kg FYM , 1000 g N , 500 g P and 500 g K.
Irrigation :- Irrigation should be given at the interval of 10 to 12 days during winter and 7-8 days during
summer. Irrigation helps the development of fruits.
Pests and Diseases :- Sapota is comparatively free from Pests and Diseases. The most serious pest is the
caterpillar which feeds on buds , leaves and young fruits. It is controlled by spraying calcium arsenate.
Harvesting :- It takes several months for maturity. It harvested when fruits showing dull brown colour
and that colour when scratched is of a lighter shade should be harvested.
Yield :- It is slow growing tree , the yield continues to increase upto 30 years. The yield varies from 1500-
3000 fruits per tree.
 8) FIG (ANJIR)

Botanical Name :- Ficus carica

Family :- Moraceae
Origin :- South – Eastern Asia
Soil :- Sandy soils are not suitable. It grows well in rich loamy soils. Deep soils are preferred then shallow
soils as the roots go very deep. A good quality of fruits is obtained on heavy soils. The pH of soil for fig
trees should be 6 to 6.5.
Climate :- The quality fruits requires slightly warm during fruiting. Irrigated arid and semi-arid regions
are considered better for fig. Temperature not above 39o C.
Varieties :- Poona fig , Marseilles , Black Ischia fruits , Brown Turkey , Dinkar ( MAU Parabhani )
Propagation :- Ground layering is a way of rooting figs by burying a portion of low growing branch with 6
to 8 inches of the tip showing above ground and allowing the buried portion to root before severing it
from the parent tree. While this is the simplest method of fig propagation, it can prove awkward for
ground maintenance while the branches root.
Planting :- Planting should be done in the beginning of monsoon and in North in early spring. For
plantation , pits of 60 × 60 × 60 cm spaced at 6 m both ways are made.
Training and Pruning :- Fig plants are essentially to be trained and pruned. Pruning and training are
done in order to provide desired height and shape.
Manuring and Fertilization :- For quality fruits and good yield , 50 to 75 kg FYM , 900 g N , 250 g P and
250 g K per tree is given.
Irrigation :- Fig is drought tolerant initially requires no irrigation , but in summer during ripening stage
and also at essential stages irrigation is required for high quality crop.
Pests :-
1) Stem borer – Use of Cotton wool soaked in carbon bisulphite and chloroform (1:1) in the holes
and plug them with mud.
2) Leaf eating caterpillar – 5-10 % BHC or 0.05 % Metasystox
Diseases :-
1) Leaf Rust – Spraying with 5:5:50 Bordeaux mixture at regular intervals.
Harvesting :- Fruits of fig are harvested when they mature which can judged on the basis of colour
development. In ripen fruits , sugar content does not increase.
Yield :- On a average 300-500 fruits per tree can be obtained.
 9) JACKFRUIT (PHANNAS)

Botanical Name :- Artocarpus heterophyllus , Artocarpus integrifolia

Family :- Moraceae
Origin :- Western Ghats of India
Soil :- It prefers a rich , deep and well – drained , alluvial soil. It loves a good shade , but thrives in open.
The pH of 6.0 to 7.5 is suitable for the jackfruit.
Climate :- Humid and warm climate of hill slopes is best to grow the jackfruit. It is grown upto 1500 m
MSL. The optimum temperature range of 22 – 35o C is suitable for jackfruit.
Varieties :- Though no distinct type could be identified. The variety of Singapore or Ceylon Jack is
remarkable for early bearing in 2 ½ to 3 years. Another new promising variety in Kerala is Mutton varica.
Propagation :- It is universally grown from seed. Germination will take place in 3 to 8 weeks. The
variability of jack seeds is short.
Plantation :- Pits of 13 m dug at 9-12 m apart , a month or two before planting. Seedling with ball of
earth lifted and planted. Planting is done during June – September.
Training and Pruning :- Pruning method is not commonly practiced in Jackfruit. Non-pruned seedling
trees normally develop a strong central leader, which is desirable for its timber value. Training starts
with planting a jackfruit tree. Jackfruit trees are trained so that the least amount of shading occurs
inside the tree canopy. A jackfruit tree that is pyramidal in shape exposes a greater percentage of total
leaf surfaces to adequate sunlight.
Manuring and Fertilization :- Haq (2006) suggested a manorial dose of 20 g urea, 300 g triple super
phosphate, 500 g Murate of potash, 250 g gypsum and 25 kg FYM for an 8-10 years old jack tree.
Irrigation :- Generally, ring system of irrigation should be adopted for irrigating jackfruit trees as it also
economises the use of water. For young orchards, hand watering is necessary during first two to three
years. The frequency of irrigation will depend on the soil moisture condition.
Pests and Diseases :- No insect pest or disease of jack fruit is serious.
Harvesting :- Jack fruits are harvested after ripening. In North India the plants flower in winter and the
fruits ripen in summer but in Assam and South India the fruit is available almost throughout the year.
Yield :- Production would be 3700 kg per acre.
 10) GRAPE

Botanical Name :- Vitis vinifera

Family :- Vitiaceae
Origin :- Armenia near the Caspian sea in Russia.
Soil :- Well drained fertile soils with 1 m depth should be selected. Medium alluvial or loamy soils are
considered best. The pH should be 6 to 8.5.
Climate :- Dry summers and cool winters with the moderate rainfall. Dry cloudless weather during
flowering , fruitset and its development. It grows well at the altitude of 400-600 m and requires the
rainfall of about 750 mm.
Varieties :- Thompson seedless , Anab-E-Shahi , Cheema sahebi , Kali sahebi , Black manukka.
Propagation :- Grapes are propagated by hardwood cuttings. In tasgaon method of planting cuttings
from April pruning are used. IBA 1000 ppm gives early and profuse rooting.
Planting :- Planting of grapes done in October to January. In tasgaon method , planting is done in April -
June. Plant distance is different for different varieties ranges between 1.0-3.0 m × 1.2-3.0 m.
Training and Pruning :- Training primarily concerns with the frame work of wine to obtain maximum
benefits. Vines are trained to single stem with bamboo support initially by removing side shoots. Pruning
is nothing but an art and science of removing scientifically certain part of plant with a view to divert sap
flow towards fruiting area to reduce vegetative and fruitful growth. Vine is pruned for three purposes -
For training , For vegetative growth , October Pruning or Pruning for fruits.
Manuring and Fertilization :- 20 kg FYM + 1 kg P + ½ kg per vine is applied before planting. During
development in the 1st year 1 kg ammonium sulphate or ½ kg urea be given.
Irrigation :- After April Pruning the vine should be irrigated at 6-7 days interval upto middle of June.
After October pruning the vine is irrigated at 7-9 days upto January onwards upto harvest the interval
should be 9-12 days.
Pests :-
1) Flea beetle – Spray 0.05 % quinalphos 4 days after Pruning
2) Chaffer beetles – Spray Monocrotophos or Quinalphos at 0.05 %
3) Thrips – Spray Methyl Parathion at 0.05 %
Diseases :-
1) Downy mildew – Spraying 1.0 % Bordeaux mixture
2) Anthracnose – Spraying 0.8 % Bordeaux mixture
Harvesting :- Nearly 100-125 days after October Pruning bunch becomes ready for harvest. Change in
colour and development of standard TSS are the other standards of maturity.
Yield :- The yield of grapes is different for different varieties. Thompson seedless (Tasgaon) yields 20-25
tons / ha , Anab-E-Shahi : 30-35 tons / ha , Cheema sahebi : 30-35 tons / ha.
 11) GUAVA

Botanical Name :- Psidium guajava

Family :- Myrtaceae
Origin :- America
Soil :- Light sandy loam , Clayey , deep , rich alluvial or shallow , rocky. However it does well in medium
black , well aerated river soils.
Climate :- It is a tropical crop but it can be grown in wide range of climate conditions. It is grown to its
best where rainfall is upto 40 inches , well distributed during 4 months from June – September. It can
stand summer temperature at 46o C.
Varieties :- Sardar , Kothrad , Nasik , Dharwar , are the important varieties of guava. Other varieties are
Allahabad Safeda , Chittidar , Kerala , etc.
Propagation :- Both the methods ie. Seed and Vegetative are useful. Seed propagation though very
quick and easy gives lot of variation due to heterozygous in nature.
Planting :- Planting is done in beginning of rainy season. The planting is done at spacing of 6 × 6 m.
Training and Pruning :- Under Maharashtra conditions , it needs no Pruning. Training is required to give
shape. All the branches that may arise from the main trunk are removed.
Manuring and Fertilization :- Depending upon growth 20-50 g N , per plant is added for quick and better
growth. One tree should receive 20 kg FYM and 125 g N. The dose should be increased with the age of
tree and after 4 years the tree receive 100 kg FYM , 600 g N , 300 g P , and 300 g K.
Irrigation :- Immediately after planting, Orchard is irrigated on 1st and 3rd day. After this if there are no
rains irrigates the orchard at shorter intervals for about 2 months till the plants get established.
Normally no irrigation required in monsoon , while in winter and summer season orchard is irrigated at
an interval of 10-15 and 4-6 days respectively.
Pests :-
1) Fruit fly – Spraying of 0.1 % Fenthion
2) Shoot and Bark borer – Nivacron or Malathion 0.05-0.1 %
3) Guava Scale – Spray of 0.1 % Rogar or Metasystox
Diseases :-
1) Guava wilt – 0.3 % Thiram or 0.1 % Benlate
2) Anthracnose – Spraying with 3:3:50 Bordeaux mixture
Harvesting :- It harvested after the maturity of fruits , which is judged by observing the change in colour
of fruits from green to pale green.
Yield :- The variety of Sardar gives yield of 25 tons / ha ie. 1000-1300 fruits or plant whereas the local
varieties yields about 10-15 tons / ha.
 12) PAPAYA

Botanical Name :- Carica papaya

Family :- Caricaceae
Origin :- America
Soil :- It is a evergreen plant and it requires a soil of high fertility and good drainage. Papaya has shallow
root system and can even be grown in soils having 40 cm depth. The pH of soils should be in 6.5-7.0
Climate :- Although papaya performs best under tropical conditions , it can also be grown in sub-tropical
areas. It requires a warm humid climate and can be cultivated upto an elevation of about 1000 to 1200
m. It thrives well at temperature 38-44o C.
Varieties :- Washington , Co-1 (Coimbatore-1) , Co-2 (Coimbatore-2) , Pusa Majesty , Pusa Giant , Pusa
Dwarf , Pusa Delicious , Pusa Nanha.
Propagation :- Papaya is propagated by seeds. Vegetative Propagation is not possible due to hollow and
fragile nature of stem.
Planting :- The best season for planting is the beginning of the monsoon but transplanting be continued
from June to November. The spacing should be 1.8 × 1.8 m.
Manuring and Fertilization :- Papaya is differ from other fruit crops because of its quick growth. The
successful papaya crops could be raised with the application of organic manures like FYM. The
application of NPK at 200 g each as ammonium sulphate , SSP and MOP in addition to 25 kg FYM in split
doses in the 1st , 3rd , 5th and 7th months after planting.
Irrigation :- Papaya is irrigated at 5 days interval in summer and at 10-15 days interval in winter months.
Ring system of irrigation minimises excessive loss of plants due to basal plotting caused by water logging
Hoeing and Weeding :- Weeding should be done regularly to keep the field weed free. At the initial
stages , earthing up of the plants in necessary.
Pests and Diseases :- The plant is not affected by any serious pests in India. While it affected by fungal
diseases such as the following –
1) Collar rot – Spraying of 1 % Bordeaux mixture
2) Anthracnose – Spread with Diathane M-45 @ 200 g / litre of water
Harvesting :- It is harvested in 12-14 months after transplanting or 4-6 months after the fruit set. Fruits
showing yellow colour at the apical end should be harvested.
Yield :- The yield per tree varies from 25 to 75 fruits. The weight of fruits range from ½ to 3 kg on even
more. On a average 30-45 kg fruits per tree is obtained in one season. Papaya gives the profit of 10,000
to 15,000 per year.
 13) COCONUT

Botanical Name :- Cocos nucifera

Family :- Arecaceae
Origin :- In the Pacific , Coconuts likely were first cultivated on islands in Southeast Asia.
Soil :- Coconut is grown under different soil types such as loamy , laterite , coastal sandy , alluvial ,
clayey and reclaimed soils of the marshy low lands. pH of soil should be 5.5 to 8.0.
Climate :- It is essentially a tropic plant , growing mostly between 20o N and 20o S latitudes. The ideal
temperature for coconut growth and yield is 27 ± 5° C and Humidity should be more than 60 % . The
coconut palm grows well upto an elevation of 600 m above MSL.
Varieties :- A) Tall Varieties :- West coast tall , East coast tall , Tiptur tall , Andaman ordinary. B) Dwarf
Varieties :- Chowght green , Malayan orange , Malayan green. The varieties grown in Maharashtra are –
Kalpa pratibha , Kalpa Dhenu , Kalpa Mitra , Chandra Kalpa etc.
Propagation :- Like most palms , Coconuts are Seed propagated.
Planting :- Under Tamilnadu conditions it is planted in June-July and December-January. While under
Karnataka conditions it is planted in May-June and in Kerala it is planted in April-May and Sept-Octo.
Manuring and Fertilization :- Apply 50 kg of FYM or Compost or Green manures. 500 g N , 320 g P and
1200 g K in two equal splits during June-July and December-January.
Training and Pruning :- None required , older fronds or those injured by frost or disease are sometimes
pruned off. Injury to the apical bud in fatal.
Irrigation :- The irrigation requirements varies according to the soil type and climatic conditions.
Generally an adult palm requires the irrigation in every 4-7 days interval.
Pests :-
1) Coconut Skipper – Monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 10 ml / lit of water
2) Leaf Caterpillar – Dichlorvas 76 WSC @ 2 ml / lit of water
3) Termite – Chlorophyriphos @ 3 ml / lit of water
4) Mealy bug – Malathion 50 EC @ 2 ml / lit of water
Diseases :-
1) Ganoderma wilt – 1 % Bordeaux mixture
2) Bud Rot – Spray 0.25 % Copper oxychloride
3) Leaf Rot – 1 % Bordeaux or 0.4 % Manozeb
Harvesting :- The fruit of the coconut palm is harvested at different stages of maturity. For copra , it is
harvested fully ripe at about 11 to 12 months when the husk was turned brown. For coil , it is picked at
least a month earlier , when the fruit is still green.
Yield :- The tall varieties of Coconut yields about 80-100 nuts per year , Dwarf Varieties yields 70-80 nuts
and Hybrid Varieties yields about 100-130 nuts per year.
 14) CASHEWNUT

Botanical Name :- Anacardium occidentale

Family :- Anacardiaceae
Origin :- Africa
Soil :- The best soils for cashew are deep and well-defined sandy loams without a hard pan. Red sandy
loam , lateritic soils and coastal sands with slightly acidic pH are best for cashew. pH is in between the
range of 5 to 6.5.
Climate :- Cashewnut requires warm humid tropical conditions. It can tolerate temperature of more that
36oC for a shorter period but the favourable temperature is 24-28oC .
Varieties :- Vengurla-1 , Vengurla-2 , Vengurla-3 , Vengurla-4 , Vengurla-5 , Vengurla-6 , Vengurla-7 & 8.
Propagation :- Cashew is propagated by both seeds and also by vegetative methods. Seed Propagation
results in enormous variability in the seedling progeny. Therefore , high yielding cashew varieties are
commercially propagated by different vegetative methods to produce true to type planting material.
Planting :- The planting of cashewnut is done in onset of monsoon season ie. during May-June. Cashew
trees are generally planted with a spacing of 7 to 9 m adopting square system. A spacing of 7.5 × 7.5 m
(175 plants / ha) or 8 × 8 m (156 plants / ha) is recommended.
Training and Pruning :- Initial training and pruning of cashew plants during first 3-4 years is essential for
providing proper shape to the trees. The sprouts coming from the rootstock should be removed
frequently to ensure better health of the plant.
Manuring and Fertilization :- Applications of 10-15 kg of FYM per plant is recommended to ensure
adequate organic matter in the soil. A mature cashew tree requires 500 g N , 125 g P , and 125 g K.
Irrigation :- For cashew trees , Irrigation can be beneficial during the period from flowering to the start
of harvest , but reliable estimates of water productivity have yet to be established.
Pests :-
1) Tea Mosquito – Spraying Carbaryl 0.1 % or Phosalone 0.07 %
2) Thrips – 0.05 % Monocrotophos or 0.1 % Carbaryl
3) Stem and root borer – 0.1 % BHC Swabbing twice a year
Diseases :- Fortunately cashew crop does not have any serious diseases problem except the powdery
mildew which is controlled by dusting with 2 % sulphur W.P.
Harvesting :- Cashew harvesting can take place about two months after the fruit has set , when the
apple takes on a pink or red cast and turns grey.
Yield :- The yield of Cashewnut is 2 kg / tree at 3-5 years , 4 kg at 6-10 years and 5-10 kg when trees are
11-15 years of age.
 15) ARECANUT

Botanical Name :- Areca catechu

Family :- Arecaceae
Origin :- Malaysia or Philippines
Soil :- Arecanut can be grown wide range of soils. However , this crop thrives best in well drained soils
with good organic matter. The pH should be below 5.0.
Climate :- Arecanut is a crop in areas where abundant rainfall is present as it cannot tolerate drought or
low rainfall. This crop requires rainfall of 750 mm to 4500 mm. It grows well in temperature climates
within the range of 14-36oC.
Varieties :- Mangala , Sumangala , Subamangala , Mohitnagar , Srimangala. Samruthi , VTALH-1,2.
Propagation :- Arecanut is propagated only by seeds. There are four steps in Selection and raising of
arecanut seedling , viz. Selection of mother palms , Selection of seed nuts , germination and raising the
seedlings , and selection of seedlings.
Planting :- The Planting is done during May-June with the onset of monsoon. A spacing of 2.5-3 m × 2.5-
3 m is optimum for arecanut.
Manures and fertilizers :- A fertilizer dose of 100 g N , 40 P and 140 g K per palm per year is
recommended. 12 kg of green leaf and 12 kg compost of cattle manure should be applied every year.
Irrigation :- Irrigation is required to the each palm from flowering to fruit maturation with the interval of
every 6-7 days which helps to increase the productivity.
Pests :-
1) Spindle bug – Spray of dimethoate 0.05 %
2) Cholam or White mite – Spray of Dicofol @ 2 ml or Rogar @ 1.5 ml / lit of water
3) Root grub – Application of Phorate (Thimate 10G) @ 15 g / palm
4) Inflorescence caterpillar – Spray with Malathion 0.05 %
Diseases :-
1) Koleroga – Spraying Bordeaux Mixture 1 %
2) Anabe or foot rot – Captain 0.3 %
3) Bud rot – Bordeaux mixture 1 %
4) Stem bleeding – Coalter or Bordeaux 1 %
Harvesting :- In arecanut farming , the nut bearing starts after 5 years of planting. Generally , nuts are
harvested when they are three quarters ripe. The number of harvestings will vary from 3 to 6 in one year
depending upon the season and place of cultivation.
Yield :- An average yield of 300 to 400 nuts / palm / year or 1250 kg / ha can be obtained.
 UNIT : 2 – OLERICULTURE

IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLE CULTIVATION FOR NUTRITIONAL SECURITY :-

Consumption of less than 300 g of vegetables per person per day in many countries is common today
and this low amount, often in conjunction with poverty and poor medical services, is associated with
unacceptable levels of mortality and malnutrition in present school children and other vulnerable
groups.
The diversified and highly nutritive vegetables are of great importance in alleviating malnutrition. The
scientific community is ready to play its role in battling malnutrition and hunger, but unless the political
resolve can be found to support the causes of both food and nutritional security together, it is unlikely
that the Millennium Development Goals will be achieved in a timely fashion.
Presently the two major concerns of the developing countries are to overcome hunger and malnutrition.
Therefore, the food security and nutritional security are the important issues in national development
programmes.
The highly nutritive vegetables are of great importance in alleviating the malnutrition. The dieticians
advocate intake of 125 g leafy vegetables, 75 g other vegetables and 100g root and tuber vegetables
everyday to make our diet balanced. Vegetable are rich source of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and
minerals, hence called as protective foods.
Nutritional components in Vegetables :-
1. Carbohydrates :
Carbohydrates are chief source of energy in the food. It is also called as protein sparing food. Daily
requirement of CHO is 400-500 g. Vegetables like potato, sweet potato, cassava, elephant foot yam,
taro, garlic, pea and onion are good source of carbohydrates. In fact, sweet potato is cheapest source of
calorie.
2. Proteins :
Proteins are complex nitrogen containing organic compounds. They constitute a major part of
protoplasm. Daily requirement of proteins is 60-70 g. Vegetables contain less protein compared to the
product of animal origin. Although sulfo-amino acids (methionine and cystine) are most of the time
limited in vegetable proteins. Peas, beans and leafy vegetables are good source of proteins.
3. Flavonoids :
Like quercetin, kaempferol other flavonoids are present in vegetables. Quercetin is present in onion. The
flavonoids containing vegetables help to prevent high blood pressure.
4. Folates :
Folates reduce the risk of heart disease, strokes and colon cancer. Their deficiency causes anaemia in
infants and pregnant women. Leafy vegetables are rich source of folic acids.
5. Vitamins :
Vitamins are biologically active compounds and are essential for normal physiological process. Specific
vitamin deficiency produces characteristics symptoms.
6. Minerals :
Minerals play major role in functioning of physiological activities. They are components of various vital
body constituents. As for example :
Calcium is essential component of bones and teeth. Iron is important component of hemoglobin.
Phosphorus along with C, H, O and N are the components of DNA. Iodine is vital constituents of thyroid
hormones, thyroxin and triidothyronine.
Mg is required for cellular metabolism. Zinc is cofactor of many enzymes and performs a range of
functions in body.
7. Dietary Fiber :
Plant cell walls comprising of cellulose, pectin, xylan are main source of dietary fiber. Dietary fiber
provides protection against some cancer, lower blood cholesterol etc. Gums and pectin reduce the post
parandial level of glucose in blood.

SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLE CULTIVATION IN INDIA :-

It is a matter of satisfaction, we are second largest producer of vegetables and fruits and our presence in
global market is significant. The development achieved in the horticulture sector is indicative of the fact
that there is growing demand for horticulture produce. The past experience have been rewarding for
enhanced output from the investment. Availability of timely robust information in this sector will
certainly improve the socioeconomic conditions of Indian citizens by providing self-reliance besides
environmental protection
Scope :-
Production and marketing of fruits and vegetables must delve into production aspects, marketing
aspects, processing and manufacturing aspects. There is tremendous production of fruits and vegetables
in a shorter period. Therefore, to avoid the post-harvest loss and to increase substantial returns to
processors for off season consumption. Availability of cheap labour, Government Subsidy for cold
storage and processing units, convenience of roads in case for marketing and transport. Availability of
cans, bottles, and other equipment at cheap rate, there is tremendous for export of processed products
like Jam, jelly, marmalade, pickles, etc. dehydrated and dried vegetables in addition to domestic demand
in India.
Area and Production of Fruits and Vegetables :-
IASRI as a “study to test the developed alternative methodology for estimation of area and production
of horticultural crops”. The study will be taken Up in eight states, namely Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. In each of the states,
about 40% districts out of the total number of districts, covering about 70-80% of the total area under
fruits and vegetables in the entire state, and two districts out of the remaining districts, covering about
20-30% of the total area under fruits and vegetables in the entire state, will be undertaken for the study.
Area Assessment :-
Area assessment will be carried out for the selected crops in the selected districts of major states. The
area under fruits in the country has increased from4.01 million hectares in the year 2001-02 to 6.32
million hectares in the year 2014-15 and the area under vegetables has increased from 6.16 million
hectares in the year 2001-02 to 9.30 million hectares in the year 2014-15.
Importance of fruits and vegetables :
Fruits and vegetables play an important role in agriculture and industrial economy. These crops, which
are among the perishable commodities, are important ingredients of human diet. Fruits are one of the
oldest forms of food known to human being. Moreover, in a country like India, where 20-40 per cent of
the population 4 is vegetarian, the need of fruits and vegetables in our diet is evident. Almost all fruits
and vegetables contain varying amount of food contents, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals, etc. The benefits of eating fruits and vegetables are many.
• Fruits are the excellent source of Vitamin A (which is good for hair and eyes), Vitamin C (helps in
neutralizing free radicals), Potassium (which regulates blood pressure) and Magnesium (helps in
relaxing muscles and protecting the heart against diseases).
• Vegetables are plant parts. Different parts of plants vary in their water, Protein, Vitamin,
Mineral And Carbohydrate Contents.
Apart from the health improvements, the production of vegetables improves the economy of a country
as these are very good source of income and employment. The contribution of vegetables remains
highest (59-61%) in horticulture crop productions over the last five years.
The nutritional intake from fruits and vegetables is higher among urban population than that of rural
population. Along with the urbanization, people are likely to increase their calorie intake at a higher
pace through fruits and vegetables – the increase in calorie intake is more than 10% in urban area
whereas it is merely 1.89% in rural area over the period from 2004-05 to 2009-10.
Export of fruits and vegetables from India :-
In terms of global trade, India’s share in agricultural export is insignificant. While India contributes 8.56%
and 13.5% respectively to world’s fruits and vegetables production, its share in global exports of these
products is less than 1.0%. Delhi, Bombay and Trivandrum are the three main parts for air freighting of
fruits and vegetables. These are mainly exported to Kuwait,
Dubai and Saudi Arbia. Grapes are exported in large quantities from Bombay during January to March,
while mango is exported during April to June. West Asia, the Far East and West Europe are the main
export markets for Indian fruits and vegetables. Fruits juices, fruit pulp and pickles are mainly imported
by the USSR, Yemen, Arab Republic. The other markets for processed fruits are UK, UAE, Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait, Germany, USA, Holland and Switzerland. Nearly half of India’s processed fruit exports are mango
based fruit juice, canned and bottled fruits.
Fresh onions and mangoes are the main commodities entering in export trade. The other important
fruits exported are melon, sweet melon, grapes, pomegranate, sapota, custard apple, orange, papaya,
pineapple. Among other vegetables the principal items are tomato, ladies finger bitter gourd, chillies,
fresh beans, cabbage, brinjal etc.
 1) TOMATO

Botanical Name :- Lycopersicon esculentum

Family :- Solanaceae
Botany :- The tomato fruit is a fleshy berry.
Soil :- Sandy loam soil with a well drained clay sub soil is best suited. Light soils are good for early
varieties. While clay loam or slit loam soils are well suited for heavy yield , grows at pH 6.0 to 7.0
satisfactory.
Climate :- Tomato is warm season crop. It can’t be grown successfully in places of higher rainfall.
Temperature requirement is different at different stages –
• 26 to 32oC for seed germination
• 15 to 27oC for its cultivation
• In tomato red colour is due to the pigment Lycopene. It is highest at 18 to 26oC , while
production of this pigment drops off rapidly above 30oC and 'nil' above 40oC.
Seed and Sowing :- Sowing is done in May-June for Kharif crop , August-September for Rabi crop and
December-January for Summer crop. The seeds are sown in well prepared nursery beds. 500 to 600 gm
seed is enough for planting 1 ha of land. The spacing should be 75 cm × 60 cm.
Improved Varieties :- Marglobe , Pusa Rubi , Roma , Sioux , Pusa early dwarf , Panjab Chohara , Devgiri.
1) M.P.K.V. Rahuri – Bhagyashree , Dhanashree , Rajshree. 2) M.A.U. Parabhani - ATV-1 , Vasundhara ,
Parabhani Yashsree.
Manures and fertilizers :- 30 to 50 Cartoads of FYM or Compost , 75 to 100 kg P and 50 kg K are required
for the one hectare land.
Irrigation :- The crop is irrigated twice or thrice in a month when rainy season is over. In winter ,
irrigation once in 20 days. While , the crop transplanted during spring season will need irrigation more
frequently , one in 10 days in the beginning and later on during the hot season , irrigated in every week.
Pests :-
1) Fruit borer – Spray Carbaryl 50 WP @ 0.3 %
2) Jassids – Spray Endosulfan 35 EC @ 0.5 %
3) Mealy bug – Malathion @ 1 ml / lit of water
Diseases :-
1) Early blight – Spray Zineb 75 WP @ 0.2 %
2) Damping off – Treat seed with 1 % Mercuric fungicide 2.5-3 g / kg seeds
3) Fruit rot – Spray Bordeaux mixture
Harvesting :- Tomato is harvested at different stages for different uses – 1) Green stage : To sent distant
markets , 2) Pink stage : For local market , 3) Ripe stage : For home or table use , 4) Fruit ripe stage : For
canning and pickling.
Yield :- The average yield of tomato is 100-120 quintals / ha.
 2) BRINJAL OR EGG PLANT

Botanical Name :- Solanum melongena

Family :- Solanaceae
Soil :- Brinjal is grown in different types of soils , yet it is grown with considerable success in fine and rich
loam soils that are deep and well-drained. The pH should not be higher than 5.5 to 6.0 for its better
growth and development.
Climate :- It is a warm season crop and is very susceptible to frost. Cool nights and short summers are
unfavourable to its satisfactory yield. It requires a long growing season with high average day and night
temperature. A daily mean temperature of 13-21oC is most favourable for successful production.
Seed and Sowing :- Brinjal can be grow twice during the year. The Sowing time is May-June , August-
September , and December-January . The 700 to 1000 g seeds are required per hectare. The spacing
should be 75 × 60 cm to 75 × 75 cm.
Improved Varieties :- Manjiri gota , Pusa purple round , Pusa purple long , Pusa purple cluster , Pusa
Kranti , Pragati , Aruna.
Manures and fertilizers :- 30 to 50 Cartoads of FYM or Compost is applied at the time of field
preparation. In brinjal , 60 kg N , 50 kg P should be applied per hectare.
Irrigation :- Irrigate the field after every third or fourth day during the summer season and after 12 to 15
days during the winter season.
Pests :-
1) Brinjal fruit and shoot borer – Spray with Carbaryl 0.2 % or Monocrotophos 0.05 %
2) Brinjal stem borer – Carbaryl 0.2 % or Monocrotophos 0.05 %
3) Leaf eating beetle – Endosulfan or Phenthrothion @ 2 ml / lit of water
4) Nematode – Metasystox or Malathion @ 2 ml / lit of water
Diseases :-
1) Damping off – Seeds should be treated with hot water or Cerasan or Agrosan before sowing
2) Phomopsis blight and fruit rot – Zineb or Manozeb @ 2.5 g / lit of water
3) Little leaf of Brinjal – Rogar or Monocrotophos @ 1 ml / lit of water
Harvesting :- Fruits are harvested when they are immature. They should be served from the plant by
cutting with small shears or a knife. Fruits are allowed to attain a good size and colour till they do not
loose their bright , glossy appearance and become dull.
Yield :- The average yield of Brinjal is 250 to 300 quintals / ha.
 3) CHILLI

Botanical Name :- Capsicum annum L , Capsicum frutescens L.

Family :- Solanaceae
Soil :- Chilli can be grown in all types of soil. But the sandy loam , clay loam and loam soils are best
suited for it , the soil must be well drained and well aerated. pH of soil should be 6.5 .
Climate :- The chilli is a plant of tropical and subtropical region. It grow well in warm and humid climate
and a temperature of 20oC to 25oC .
Seed and Sowing :- In case of chilli crop , for Kharif it sown in May-June and for Summer crop it is sown
in the month of January. 1 to 1 ½ kg seeds are required for 1 ha area. Spacing for rainfed crop is 60 × 45
cm and for irrigated crops is 60 × 60 cm.
Improved Varieties :- N.P.46 , Jwala , G-3 , CA-960 , Pant C-1 , X-235 , AKC-79-18 , Parabhani Tejas.
1) M.P.K.V. Rahuri – Agnirekha , Musalwadi , Phule Jyoti , Phule Sai , Phule Suryamukhi , Phule
Mukta.
2) P.D.K.V. Akola – Surkta , Jayanti.
Manures and Fertilizers :- 9 to 10 tonnes / hectare of FYM or compost is applied at the time of field
preparation. For rainfed crop 50 kg N and 25 kg P should be applied ½ dose of N full dose of P applied at
the time of transplanting . Remaining ½ dose of N applied 30 days after transplanting. For irrigated crop ,
100 kg N , 50 kg P , and 50 kg K should be applied per hectare.
Irrigation :- Chilli is grown both as rainfed and irrigated crop. First irrigation is given after transplanting
and subsequent irrigations are given 5-7 days interval depending on weather and conditions of soil
during summer and rainy season and after every 10 to 15 days in winter.
Pests :-
1) Chilli Thrips – Spraying Carbaryl @ 3 g or Zolone @ 3 ml / lit of water.
2) Pod Borer – Quinalphos @ 4 ml or Carbaryl @ 3 g / lit of water
3) Aphids – Spraying Dimethoate or Methyl Parathion @ 1 ml / lit of water
Diseases :-
1) Damping off – Seed treatment with Cerasan or Agrosan
2) Bacterial Leaf Spot – Agrimycin 100 K at 200 ppm plus copper oxychloride 0.3 %
3) Anthracnose – Spraying Manozeb @ 2.5 g per litre of water
Harvesting :- Chillies which are used for vegetable purposes are generally harvested while they are still
green but full grown. Chillies are harvested at red stage for caning purpose.
Yield :- Rainfed crop gives the yield of about 200-400 kg , While Irrigated crop gives the yield about 600-
1000 kg per acre.
 4) POTATO

Botanical Name :- Solanum tuberosum L.

Family :- Solanaceae
Soil :- The potato develops best on deep , fertile , sandy to clay loams with good water retention
capacity. Aeration of the soil has a great effect on the set and development of tubers. pH range should
be 5.5 to 7.0 .
Climate :- The potato has a wide range of seasonal adaptability. It is a cool season crop and is
moderately frost – tolerant. Young plants grow best at a temperature of 24oC , later growth is favoured
at 18oC .
Spacing :- In hilly areas , potatoes are spread at 60 × 30 cm and the tubers are planted in furrows. In the
plains , 45-60 × 30 cm.
Varieties :- Kufri Sindhuri , Kufri Chandramukhi , Kufri Jyoti , Kufri Dewa , Kufri Bahar , Kufri Lalima , Kufri
Swarna , Kufri Megha , Kufri Ashoka , Kufri Jawaha , Kufri Sultej .
Propagation :- Potatoes are propagated by tubers , planted either whole or cut into pieces. To obtain
maximum yields , healthy disease free tubers , free from mixture of other varieties , should be used.
Manures and Fertilizers :- Well rotted FYM at 30 tons / ha should be incorporated into the soil three to
four weeks before planting , 119 kg of N , 50 kg of P and 225 kg of K. Research on fertilizer requirements
conducted in the Panjab and Sindh suggests that 100 kg N , 80-100 kg P and 50 kg K per hectare are
sufficient to obtain good yields.
Irrigation :- Potatoes need frequent irrigation. The first irrigation should be given immediately after
sowing and thereafter at one week intervals. After tuber formation the frequency of irrigation is
decreased.
Pests :-
1) Potato Tuber Moth – 0.05 % Quinalphos or 0.1 % Carbaryl
2) Aphids – Confidor 70 WG @ 125 g / ha
Diseases :-
1) Bacterial leaf spot – Copper Oxychloride 0.3 %
2) Blight – Spray of Bordeaux mixture
Harvesting :- The size of the tuber increases until the vines becomes dry. In developed countries ,
potatoes are harvested by mechanical harvesters. After harvesting , the crop should be kept in the
shade or cold places.
Yield :- The average yield of potato is 20-25 tonnes / ha however it depends upon the variety , cultural
practices and location.
 5) ONION

Botanical Name :- Allum cepa L.

Family :- Amaryllidaceae
Soil :- Onion can be grown on various soils. But sandy loam , silly loam and deep friable soils are best
suited for onion crop. The optimum pH range is between 5.8 to 6.5 .
Climate :- Onion is cool season crop. It is grown during winter and harvested before the real hot season
begins. Onion can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. But it succeed best in mild season
without extremes of heat and cold. It can be grown as a rainfed crop even at elevation of 1500 to 2500m
Onion produce bulbs more rapidly at warm (21oC to 26oC) that at cool (15oC to 21oC) temperature.
Seed and Sowing :- In onion 10 to 12 kg seeds require / ha. For Kharif it is sown in June and for Rabi
sown in October – November. Ridges and furrow type of layout is follow 15 × 10 cm spacing is given.
Improved Varieties :- Pusa red , Niphad-404 , Ni-207-1 , Ni-2-4-1 (Red) , Ni-5-7-1 (White) , Pusa Ratnar ,
Early Guano . MPKV Rahuri - N-53 , Baswant-780 , N-2-4-1 , N-257-9-1 , Phule Safed , Phule Survarna.
Manures and Fertilizers :- 25 to 30 cartoads of well rotten FYM or compost applied at the time soil
preparation per hectare. For onion 50 kg N , 25 kg P and 25 kg K should be applied.
Irrigation :- Water requirements of the crop at the initial growth period is less. Irrigation should be
stopped 15-20 days before attaining maturity for improving the keeping quality of bulbs. Proquent
irrigation delays maturity.
Pests :-
1) Onion Thrips – Dimethoate or Methyl Parathion @ 1 ml / litre of water
2) Leaf eating caterpillar – Spraying the Lindane 20 EC or Methyl Parathion @ 1 ml / lit of water
Diseases :-
1) Blight – Spraying with Bordeaux mixture
2) Onion smut – Seed Treatment with Thiram @ 45 gm for 0.45 kg of seeds
3) Basel rot – Spraying with Mancozeb @ 2.5 gm / lit of water
Harvesting :- In onion , neck fall is the indication of maturity. Time of harvesting depends on several
factors like planting season , cultivar , market price and condition of the crop. In general , when about
50 % neck fall is seen crop is harvested.
Yield :- In onion we get 150 to 250 quintals of yield per hectare.
 6) OKRA (BHINDI)

Botanical Name :- Abelmoschus esculentus L , Syn. Hibiscus esculentus

Family :- Malvaceae
Soil :- Bhindi can do well in all kinds of soil. But sandy loam and clay loam soils are best for its cultivation.
The optimum pH range is between 6 to 6.8 .
Climate :- Bhindi is a warm season vegetable crop and requires a long warm growing season. It is highly
sensitive to frost. Seeds germinate poorly at ground temperature of 20oC or less.
Seed and Sowing :- For Kharif season seeds are sown in the month of June-July. The seed rate for rainy
season is 8 to 10 kg . For Summer season it is sown in the month of January-February . The seed rate for
Summer season is 12 to 15 kg / ha . For winter it is sown in August-September. For Summer crop spacing
is 45 × 30 cm and rainy season crop spacing is 60 × 45 cm.
Improved Varieties :- Pusa Makhamali , Pusa Sawani , Vaisali , Vangu , Padmini . Pusa Sawani is fairly
mosaic tolerant. Parabhani Kranti (MAU Parabhani) , Phule Kirti (MPKV Rahuri) .
Manures and Fertilizers :- 20 to 25 tonnes well rotten FYM mixed with soil during field preparation. For
rainy season crop apply 50 kg N , 50 kg P per ha. For Summer season 45 kg N , 40 kg P should be applied
Irrigation :- Pre-Sowing irrigation should be given in the soils having no sufficient moisture. First
irrigation is given just after sowing and then the field is irrigated after 4 to 5 days in summer and 10 to
12 days in winter season.
Pests :-
1) Stem and Fruit borer – Spraying with Carbaryl 0.1 %
2) Jassids – Spraying with Dichlorvas or Malathion @ 1 ml / litre of water
Diseases :-
1) Yellow vein mosaic or vein clearing disease – The disease tolerant variety like Pusa Sawani
should be cultivated. Spraying with Dimethoate or Monocrotophos @ 1 ml / lit of water.
2) Powder mildew – Spraying with wetable sulphur or Dinocarp @ 0.1-0.2 %
3) Die back – Seed treatment with mercuric chloride
Harvesting :- Flowering begins from 35 to 40 days after sowing and fruits are ready for harvest four to
five days after flowering bhindi. Bhindi pods may be harvested continuously at some intervals. Delay in
harvesting may make the fruits fibrous and they loose their tenderness and taste.
Yield :- Rainy season crop gives 7500 kg / ha . Summer crop gives 5000 kg / ha . Duration is 100 and 50
days respectively.
 7) CABBAGE

Botanical Name :- Brassica oleracea

Family :- Cruciferae
Soil :- It can be grown almost in all types of soil ranging from sandy to heavy soils. But small quick
growing cabbage varieties do well in sandy soils , while large and late maturing varieties in heavy soils.
The best pH range for cabbage is between 5.5 to 6.5 .
Climate :- It grows best in cool moist climate and is very hardy to frost. Its germination is best at a soil
temperature of about 55oC to 60oC . Temperature below this and above this are not suited for it. Well
hardened seedlings can tolerate temperature of 20oC to 25oC . It is grown mainly as Rabi crop during
winter.
Seed and Sowing :- Cabbage is grown mainly as Rabi crop during winter (September-October) . But
around Nasik it is grown as Kharif crop also. In cabbage for early crop (September) . 500 gm and for late
crop 373 gm seed is required. Spacing for early crop is 45 × 45 cm and late crop it is 60 × 60 cm.
Varieties :- A) Early Varieties – Golden acre , Pride of India , Copenhagen market , Early Drumhead , Pusa
Mukta . B) Late Varieties – Pusa Drumhead , Danish Ballhead , Late flat Dutch.
Manures and Fertilizers :- For Cabbage , 150 kg N , 50 kg P should be applied per hectare.
Irrigation :- Irrigation at the time of transplanting is essential steady supply of moisture is necessary for
good growth and development . Interval between two irrigations depends upon climate , soil and plant
growth. In winter season irrigation at an interval of 8-10 days is sufficient.
Pests :-
1) Cabbage borer – Spraying Malathion (0.1 %) or Carbaryl (4 %)
2) Cabbage Diamondback Moth (DBM) – Spraying Malathion (0.1 %)
3) Leaf Webber – Carbaryl (4 %) or Malathion (0.05 %)
4) Aphid – Monocrotophos (0.05 %) or Malathion (0.1 %)
Diseases :-
1) Black rot – Seed treatment with Agrimycin-100 (100 ppm)
2) Downy Mildew – Copper Oxychloride (0.3 %)
3) Wire Stem – Diathane M-45 (0.2 %) or Bavistin (0.1 %)
4) Leaf spot and Blight – Captain (0.2 %) or Copper Oxychloride (0.5 %)
Harvesting :- In Cabbage harvesting is done depending on the maturity of the head and demand in
market. Normally harvesting is done when heads are firm.
Yield :- The yield of Cabbage variety from 15 to 25 tonnes per hectare. Hybrid cabbage yields upto 50
tonnes per hectare. Early Varieties – 12-15 tonnes / ha , Late Varieties – 20 to 25 tonnes / ha.
 8) CAULIFLOWER

Botanical Name :- Brassica oleracea

Family :- Cruciferae
Soil :- Sandy loam soils are preferred for early crops , while loam and clay loams are for late crops.
Cauliflower grows best on a neutral to slightly acid soils i.e. at pH 6 to 7 .
Climate :- Cauliflower thrives best in a cool and moist climate. Dry weather and low humidity are not
suited for it. For good seed germination , temperature of 50 to 70oC is required.
Seed and Sowing :- The seed are sown in nursery bed in May-June for early , July-August for mid season
and September-October for late varieties. In Cauliflower seed rate for rainy crop is 600 to 750 gm and
for late crop 400 to 500 gm / ha. Spacing for early crop is 45 × 45 cm and late crop it is 60 × 60 cm.
Varieties :- Early Season – Early Kunwar , Early synthetic , Pusa katki . Mid Season – Pusa synthetic , Pant
Shubhra , Punjab Giant-26 . Late Season – Pusa Snowball-1 , Pusa Snowball-2 , Snowball-16 .
Manures and Fertilizers :- For best result about 15 to 20 tonnes of FYM or Compost should be
incorporated into the soil about 4 weeks before transplanting . In Cauliflower 100 kg N , 50 kg P / ha
should be given.
Irrigation :- It may be given to the crop every 5-6 days to the early plantings and 10-15 days for late
crop. At the time of head formation , there should be enough moisture in the field , so irrigate at this
time and when Cauliflower is raised late in the season , it should be watered closely.
Pests :-
1) Diamondback Moth (DBM) – Spraying Malathion (0.1 %)
2) Leaf Webber – Carbaryl (4 %) or Malathion (0.05 %)
3) Aphid – Monocrotophos (0.05 %) or Malathion (0.1 %)
Diseases :-
1) Black rot – Seed treatment with Agrimycin-100 (100 ppm)
2) Downy Mildew – Copper Oxychloride (0.3 %)
3) Leaf spot and Blight – Captan (0.2 %) or Copper Oxychloride (0.5 %)
Harvesting :- Cauliflower should be harvested when the head has developed the proper size and is at
the right stage of maturity. The head should be compact but it should not be broken into segments.
Yield :- In case of early Cauliflower crop 200 to 250 quintals / ha yield is obtained. While in case of late
crop it is 250 to 300 quintals / ha.
 9) MUSKMELON

Botanical Name :- Cucumis melo

Family :- Cucurbitaceae
Soil :- Muskmelons are mainly grown on sand and sans-loam soils on river bed. But other types of soil is
also favourable for its cultivation. The optimum soil pH is 6.0 to 6.7.
Climate :- The Muskmelons thrives best and develops the highest flavour in a hot dry climate. High
temperature and sunshine produce melons high in sugar contents. It is highly susceptible to frost , it is
grown as summer crop.
Seed and Sowing :- The seeds may be sown from November to March in the plains and April-May in the
hills. November-December in West Bengal and South India. The seed rate is 2 to 3 kg / ha.
Varieties :- Arka Rajhans , Hara Madhu , Pusa Sharbati , Durgapura Madhu , Punjab Sunahari , Lacknow
Safed , Annamalai , Haribhari.
Manures and Fertilizers :- Apply 30-50 cartoads FYM at the time of soil preparation. 80 kg N , 40 kg P
and 40 kg K is recommended by PDKV Akola. ½ dose N full dose of P and K should be applied at the time
of sowing. Remaining half dose of N applied one month after transplanting.
Irrigation :- Irrigation is given as and when it is necessary crops sown or river beds or seeds and
irrigation.
Pests :-
1) Red pumpkin beetle – Malathion 50 EC or Dichlorvas @ 2 ml per lit of water
2) Fruit fly – Dusting the crop with Malathion or Dipterex powder
Diseases :-
1) Powdery Mildew – Karathane or Morestan @ 2 ml / lit of water
2) Downy Mildew – Spray of Dithane Z-78 , Dithane M-45 once a week
3) Anthracnose – Crop rotation with non-cucurbit crop , use of disease free seeds
Harvesting :- Muskmelon fruits will be ready for pickling in about 110 days depending up variety and
agro-climate. The stage of maturity is generally judged by the change is the external colour of fruit ,
softening of the rind and development of abscission layer. In Muskmelon when fruits are mature slips
out easily from vine. The stage at which the fruits are picked , also affects the quality of fruits , hence
they should be picked in time.
Yield :- The average yield of Muskmelons is 100 to 150 q / ha.
 10) WATERMELON

Botanical Name :- Citrulium vulgaris

Family :- Cucurbitaceae
Soil :- Deep sandy loam soil is best suited for water melon crop. It is generally cultivated on river beds.
The optimum soil pH is 5.5 to 7.0 . The land is throughly prepared by giving 5 to 6 ploughings.
Climate :- Watermelon needs a long growing season with relatively high temperature. It cannot
withstand forest. The seeds does not germinate satisfactorily below 21oC . Dry weather during ripening
with high temperature enough sunshine and dry winds favour the development of flavour and high
sugar content.
Seed and Sowing :- The seed is generally sown from November to March in the plains and from middle
of February to end or March in the hills. The seed is soaked overnight before sowing . The seed rate is 3
to 4 kg / ha.
Varieties :- Asahi Yamalo , Sugar baby , Arka Manik , Arka Jyoti , Durgapur Meths , Nem Hamshire
Midget , Pusa Rasaal , Durgapura Kesar , Early Kansas.
Manures and Fertilizers :- Apply 30-50 cartoads FYM at the time of soil preparation. 80 kg N , 40 kg P
and K is recommended by PDKV Akola. ½ dose of N , full dose of N and K should be applied at the time of
sowing . Remaining half nitrogen applied one month after transplantation.
Irrigation :- The crop is watered by pitcher or water can after sowing . The crop is watered springly once
every even to ten days.
Pests :-
1) Red Pumpkin beetle – Malathion 50 EC or Dichlorvas @ 2 ml per lit of water
2) Fruit fly – Dusting the crop with Malathion or Dipterex powder
Diseases :-
1) Powdery Mildew – Karathane or Morestan @ 2 ml / lit of water
2) Downy Mildew – Spray of Dithane Z-78 , Dithane M-45 once a week
3) Anthracnose – Crop rotation with non-cucurbit crop , use of disease free seeds
Harvesting :- The plant bears fruits in 4 to 5 moths after sowing . Watermelon should be harvested at
the proper stage of maturity. The following points give an indication or ripeness –
• Withering of tendrils
• Thumping
• Colour of the ground spot
• Preserve on the fruit
Yield :- The average yield is 200 to 300 quintals / ha.
 11) CUCUMBER

Botanical Name :- Cucumis sativus L

Family :- Cucurbitaceae
Soil :- Cucumber can be grown in all types of soil from sandy to heavy soils , loam , slit loam and clay
loams soils are considered best for getting higher yield. Soil pH between 5.5 and 6.7 is favourable for its
cultivation. The land should be prepared thoroughly.
Climate :- The Cucumber is a warm season crop and grows best at a temperature between 18oC and
24oC . It does not withstand even light frost.
Seed and Sowing :- The seeds of Cucumber are sown in January to February as summer crop , June-July
as the rainy crop , and it is sown in April in the hills. The seed rate is 2.5 to 4 kg / ha. Dibbling method at
a distance of 1.5 to 2.5 m (row to row) × 60 to 90 cm (plant to plant).
Varieties :- Japanese long green , Balam Khira Poons , Priya , Pusa Snajog. MPKV Rahuri – Himangi ,
Phule Shubhangi , Phule Prachi , Phule Champa. BSKKV Dapoli – Sheetal
Manures and Fertilizers :- Apply 30-50 cartoads of FYM at the time of soil preparation. 80 kg N , 40 kg P
and 40 kg K is recommended by PDKV Akola. ½ dose N , full dose of P and K should be applied at the
time of sowing. Remaining half nitrogen applied one month after transplanting.
Irrigation :- The summer crop as an irrigated crop requires enough soil moisture during its growth and
development. So irrigation should be given as and when needed. No irrigation is given in rainy season
crop.
Pests :-
1) Red Pumpkin beetle – Malathion 50 EC or Dichlorvas @ 2 ml per lit of water
2) Fruit fly – Dusting the crop with Malathion or Dipterex powder
Diseases :-
1) Powdery Mildew – Karathane or Morestan @ 2 ml / lit of water
2) Downy Mildew – Spray of Dithane Z-78 , Dithane M-45 once a week
3) Anthracnose – Crop rotation with non-cucurbit crop , use of disease free seeds
Harvesting :- The full grown tender fruits be harvested at an interval of two to four days. Timely pickling
is more important in regard to quality.
Yield :- The average yield is 60 to 70 quintals / ha.
 12) LEAFY VEGETABLES

A) FENUGREEK OR METHI :-

Botanical Name :- Trigonella foenumgracum

Family :- Leguminaceae
Soil :- Fenugreek can be grown on any type of soil , but the loamy soils are best suited for its cultivation.
The soil should be free from bad drainage.
Climate :- Fenugreek is cool season crop. It is fairly tolerant to frost. Common methi is growing and
produces upright shoots whereas kasurimethi is slow growing initially and remains in a rosette condition
during most of its vegetative period.
Seed and Sowing :- For leafy vegetables methi is sown from middle of September to middle of March .
The seed rate is 25 kg / ha . Seeds are sown by broadcasting but line sowing at a distance of 25 cm
facilitates weeding and interculture operations.
Varieties :- Kasuri , Pusa Early , Punching type , Methi No-47 , No-14 , EC-4911 are important varieties of
Fenugreek or Methi.
Manures and Fertilizers :- 30 to 50 Cartoads of FYM should be applied at the time of soil preparation. 50
kg N / ha should be applied . ½ dose of N should be given at the time of sowing. Remaining ½ dose is
again divided into two equal doses which are given at the time of first and second harvesting.
Pests :-
1) Aphids – Spray 40 % Nicotine Sulphate or spray Pyrethrum 80-100 gallons per hectare
2) The Painted bug – Spray 5 % Rotenone dust or Spray of Lead Arsenate 0.25 %
3) Leaf eating caterpillar – Spray Malathion (0.1 %)
Diseases :-
1) Leaf Spot disease – Dithane M-45 or Dithane M-45 F
2) Downy Mildew – Spraying 1.0 % Bordeaux mixture
3) White rust – Application of Fungicides
Harvesting :- Normally common Methi leaves are nipped 2 cm above ground after 3-4 weeks of sowing .
In general 2-3 cuttings are taken. When plant is uprooted , crop is boundled and marketed.
Yield :- Yield varies from 60-80 quintals / ha.
B) CORIANDER :-

Botanical Name :- Corandrum sativum

Family :- Umbelliferae
Soil :- It grows well on all type of soil . But sandy loam and clay loam soils are best suited for its the land
should be prepared throughly.
Climate :- It is a cool season crop . Cool weather is favourable for its cultivation. It is susceptible to mild
frost.
Seed and Sowing :- Seeds of Coriander care crashed and then. It is generally broadcast. Seeds are
soaked in water for overnight to remove inhibitor and thereby enhance germination. About 40 kg seeds
is sufficient for sowing an area of one hectare if grown for its leaves.
Varieties :- T-NP(D)-92 , NP(D)-95 , NP(J)-16 , NP(J)-21 4M , NP(K)-45 , Delhi Local , Strain-85
Manures and Fertilizers :- Besides FYM , apply 90 kg N , 80 kg P and 50 kg K per hectare. Adopt weeding
is required.
Pests :-
1) Aphids – Spray 40 % Nicotine Sulphate or Spray Pyrethrum 80-100 gallons per hectare
2) The Painted bug – Spray 5 % Rotenone dust or Spray of Lead Arsenate 0.25 %
3) Leaf eating caterpillar – Spray Malathion (0.1 %)
Diseases :-
1) Leaf Spot disease – Dithane M-45 or Dithane M-45 F
2) Downy Mildew – Spraying 1.0 % Bordeaux mixture
3) White rust – Application of Fungicides
Harvesting :- When grown for seed purpose , it is harvested. After full development of grain. If grown for
its tender flesh leaves , it is harvested before flowering. Harvest , when it attains a height of about 20
cm. Uproot the plants and the bundles of convenient size for marketing.
Yield :- Coriander gives 10 tonnes of from the one hectare.
C) AMARANTHUS :-

Botanical Name :- Amaranthus tricolour L

Family :- Amaranthaceae
Soil :- It can be grown on all types of soil but loam soil is most suitable for its cultivation. Fine seed bed
in necessary for this crop and this can be done by repeated ploughings.
Climate :- It is a warm season leafy vegetable grown in Kharif and summer season. It is short duration
crop. Leafy types are grown in kitchen and market garden. Recently grain types have grained some
importance in protein , minerals and vitamin A and C .
Seed and Sowing :- The crop is suitable for growing in summer as well as rainy season. The seed is sown
in December-January for Summer crop and April-May for rainy season crop. Seeds of this crop are very
small. The seeds of Amaranthus are sown by broadcasting. During rainy season spacing is 45 cm from
row to row and 30 cm from plant to plant. About one kilogram seed is required for sowing one acre.
Varieties :- The recommended Varieties are Badi Chauli , Chhoti Chauli , and Co-1. Konkan Durangi
(BSKKV Dapoli).
Manures and Fertilizers :- The plants are top – dressed with urea @ 25 kg / ha. After 15-20 days of
sowing and subsequent top dressings are done after each cutting.
Pests :-
1) Aphids – Spray 40 % Nicotine Sulphate or Spray Pyrethrum 80-100 gallons per hectare
2) The Painted bug – Spray 5 % Rotenone dust or Spray of Lead Arsenate 0.25 %
3) Leaf eating caterpillar – Spray Malathion (0.1 %)
Diseases :-
1) Leaf Spot disease – Dithane M-45 or Dithane M-45 F
2) Downy Mildew – Spraying 1.0 % Bordeaux mixture
3) White rust – Application of Fungicides
Harvesting :- Same as other leafy vegetables.
Yield :- The yield of green leaves is 90 to 100 quintals / ha and seed is 200 kg / ha.
D) SPINACH OR PALAK :-

Botanical Name :- Beta vulgaris L

Family :- Chenopodiaceae
Soil :- Though it can be grown on any kind of soil that is free from bad drainage yet sandy loam and
alluvial soils best suited for them. Their growth is checked in acidic soil. The need pH between 6 to 7 for
optimum growth.
Climate :- Spinach beet is a hot weather crop but can also be grown during moderate winter season. It
can also tolerate frost to some extent. Spinach do well during winter season. It is extremely susceptible
to water the logging and bad drainage. It can be grown successfully in planes and on hills.
Seed and Sowing :- It is sown from October as main crop and in January-February as summer crop in this
region. It requires 30-40 kg seed per hectare. Seeds are soaked in water before sowing. Seeds are
generally broadcast in flat beds.
Varieties :- Pusa all green , Pusa Jyoti , Pusa Harit , Jobner Green.
Manures and Fertilizers :- 30 to 50 Cartoads of FYM should be applied at the time of soil preparation. 50
kg N / ha should be applied. ½ dose of N should be given at the time of sowing. Remaining half dose of N
again divided into two equal doses which are given at the time of first and second harvesting.
Irrigation :- Winter crop needs irrigation 10-15 days interval depending on soil type. January planted
crop needs irrigation at 6-7 days interval in summer months.
Pests :-
1) Aphids – Spray 40 % Nicotine Sulphate or Spray Pyrethrum 80-100 gallons per hectare
2) The Painted bug – Spray 5 % Rotenone dust or Spray of Lead Arsenate 0.25 %
3) Leaf eating caterpillar – Spray Malathion (0.1 %)
Diseases :-
1) Leaf Spot disease – Dithane M-45 or Dithane M-45 F
2) Downy Mildew – Spraying 1.0 % Bordeaux mixture
3) White rust – Application of Fungicides
Harvesting :- The crop becomes ready for first cutting after 35-40 days of sowing. Only well green
succulent and tender leaves be trimmed. Winter crop gives more cuttings. On an average palak crop
gives 4-6 cuttings.
Yield :- The total yield of green leaves is 80-100 quintals per hectare. After harvesting , leaves are tried
in bundles and sent for marketing.
 UNIT : 3 – FLORICULTURE

STATUS AND SCOPE OF FLORICULTURE IN INDIA AND ABROAD :-

Meaning of Floriculture :
Floriculture is the aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals not only with cultivation of ornamentals,
annuals, biennials, and perennial plants including potted ones but also their marketing. This also
includes marketing for local, distant markets and export of cut flowers, live plants and their economic
products like scents, oils and medicines, etc.
Present Status of Floriculture in India :
Besides beauty and aesthetic values of flowers, they are important for their economic value as sale of
flowers (loose as well as cut blooms), extraction of essential oils and making of economic products like
gulkand. The present position of floriculture in India is not as bright and lucrative as it is in European
countries and the U.S.A.
Sale of Flowers, Live Plants, Bulbs, Seeds, etc. :
It is an organized business in metropolitan towns of India but in small towns it is handled by a fewer
merchants. Flowers, live plants, bulbs, seeds, etc. are sold in local market, produced locally or at distant
places and are exported.
Flowers like rose, gladiolus and tuberose as cut flowers are flown to distant markets from their
production centres. For example, gladiolus and roses from Kashmir to Delhi, tuberose from Kolkata to
Delhi or Mumbai.
Loose flowers like marigold, jasmine, aster, gaillardia, kaner, malti, etc. are frequently taken to big cities
from distant places. Jasmine flowers are regularly exported from South India to gulf countries. Similarly
live plants, bulbs and seeds are regularly exported.
From India, export of flowers, bulbs and live plants was as follows :
Year Value (Rs. in crores)
1994- 95 30.16
1995- 96 57.80
2000 (expected) 200.00

International Scenario of Floriculture :

There is a great increase in demand of floricultural products with increasing income and globalization of
economy. Netherlands, Italy, Germany and Japan have strong tradition for growing and consumption of
flowers.
However new production centers are developing in Latin America-Columbia, Costa Rica, Chile; Africa-
Kenya, Rhodesia Morocco, South Africa etc. Asia-Israel, India, Sri Lanka, etc. to meet the internal
demand as well as export. These countries produce quality product at low cost, off course, with high
cost of investment.
Total world export of floriculture products in 2000 was reported to be of US $ 7,662,924,000 (Table 1.2).
The Netherlands remained world’s largest exporter of floricultural products with a share of 50% of the
total export; other major exporters of floricultural products are Columbia, Italy, Belgium, and Denmark
etc.
Latin America and Africa are top ten exporters of floricultural products; in Western Europe, the
Netherlands, Italy, Germany, UK and France have been major production centers of flowers.
Netherlands is the leading country with an area of 8004 hectare under flower production, more than
50% of which is under green-houses/plastics.
Consumption of flowers is rising both in developed and developing countries. Consumption of cut
flowers in Western Europe was 11 billion US dollar in 1990, and 14 billion US dollar in 1995 which
reached to 20 billion US $ in 2001.
Germany was the largest importing country for floricultural products. During 2000 year it imported
floriculture products of worth US $ 1,457,696,000. Second largest importing country was USA which
imported floricultural products worth of US $ 1,361,972 followed by UK (8,45,149,US $) and France
(8,34,980 US $).

SCOPE OF FLORICULTURE :-
In India, floricultural industry is not so developed as it should have been. Therefore, there is immense
scope for its expansion. If floriculture is developed on industry pattern scientifically, it will flourish and
generate tremendous money and employment.
1. Increasing Demand of Cut Blooms, Live Plants :
The demand of cut flowers and live plants is increasing day by day with the increasing standard of living,
aesthetic sense and awareness in the people. Although it is possible to grow flowers round the year in
one part or the other of the country depending upon season, yet the production of quality bloom under
controlled environment is essential which will fetch high price. It has been experienced that in North
India during end of November to end of February, quality cut blooms are produced under unheated
plastic houses than in open.
2. Quality Seed Production :
There is always a good demand for high quality seed. Open pollinated seed of many winter, summer and
rainy season annual is being produced in about 600-800 ha for export to different countries. Now a day,
F1 hybrids due to uniformity, earliness, bigger flowers and profuse flowering, are becoming popular.
In many flowers like petunia, pansy, marigold, antirrhinum, nicotiana, carnation etc. F1 hybrids are
common. The production cost of these F1 hybrids is a little more but they fetch good price. Bulbs, corms
and tubers can also be produced and exported from India to Denmark, Sweden, France, West Germany,
gulf countries, etc.
3. Perfumeries :
Most of the fragrant flowers like rose, tuberose, jasmine etc. can be grown easily, so extraction plants
can be set up to meet the increasing demand of cosmetic and soap industry. Flower growers and
industry will get benefit.
The percent oil content in different flowers is as follows :

4. Bonsai Development :
Bonsai are mini plants which have great importance in modern landscaping of homes, restaurants,
hotels etc. Plants like bougainvillea, rubber tree, quamquats, pomegranate, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus
infectoria, Ficus religiosa, Pinus longifolia etc. can be used for making bonsai and sold in local as well as
in foreign markets.

Favourable Factors for Floricultural Industry in India :

1. Climate :
The varied climate of India makes it most suitable for growing flowers in one part or the other so that
flowers can be produced the year round. For example, roses, gladiolus, carnation, chrysanthemum, etc.
are successfully grown in northern plains during winter months, whereas during summer months these
can be grown in the hills.
The flowering period can be extended by controlling environment through economical modified
structures. Growing of wide range of flowers is also possible in different parts of India. India being native
of many flowers opens up new vistas for exploiting the commercial growing of rare flowers for export.
2. Soil :
Like climate, the soil of different climatic zones is very favourable for growing different types of flowers.
Suitable soil pockets can also be selected for growing of flowers.
3. Labour :
Comparatively cheap and easily available labour in India is another favourable factor for growing flowers
at cheaper rate. The labourers are employed for plucking flowers, emasculation, pollination, seed
collection and cleaning operations. Other facilities like transport and storage are also adequately
available.
 1) ROSE

Classification of Roses :-
Roses are broadly classified under two groups :
• Old garden roses or wild roses
• Modern garden roses
1. Old Garden Roses :
Old garden roses includes the crosses between :
a) European Roses × Wild roses , and
b) Asian or China roses × Wild roses
2. Modern Garden Roses :-
Modern Garden Roses are developed as a result between the crosses of European Roses × Asian roses
(China roses). Modern garden roses includes :
a) Hybrid Tea :- Results from hybrid perpetuals × Tea roses of china. It has attractive colours ,
numerous varieties and fragrance. It has occupied the important and prestigens position in the
rose garden.
b) Floribunda :- Hybrid Tea × Polyantha . It produces flowers in cluster , better shape and bigger
size but the flowers are smaller than Hybrid Tea. In Floribunda also different colours , shapes
and sizes of flowers are available.
c) Polyantha :- Results from Rosa multiflore × Dwarf pink china . They are dwarf type with small
flowers in large clusters , free flowering and perpetual bearing habit.
d) Miniature :- These are also called as ' baby roses '. They are neat and compact but dwarf plants
reaching to a height less than 12 inches and producing small or miniature flowers.
e) Ramblerm :- They are vigorous growing with small flowers in cluster. The flowers produced only
in one flush during the year but it lasts for several weeks.
f) Climbers :- They are stiffer stem and generally have bigger size flowers. They produce the multi-
petaled flowers in single on a stem like Hybrid Tea or cluster as floribunda.
g) Shrub :- These are perpetual flowering roses taller than bush type but shorter than climbers and
provide continuous flowering.
Forms of Rose Flowers :-
• Single - Having less than 8 petals
• Semi double – Having 8-20 petals
• Double – More than 20 petals
Flower Colour Type :-
1) Single :- Petals similarly coloured throughout.
2) Bi-Colour :- Colour of outside of each petals differ from inside
3) Multicolour – Colour of the petals changes distinctly with age flower trusses have several
colours at same time.
4) Blend :- Two or more colours merge on the inside of each petals
 5) Stripped :- Two or more different colours on each petals , one of which is in the form of distinct
bonds.

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES OF ROSE :-

Botanical Name :- Rosa indica

Genus :- Rose / Rosa
Family :- Rosaceae
Soil :- Rose require fertile loamy soil. Soil should be deep having good moisture holding capacity with
proper drainage. Roses are susceptible to water logging.
Climate :- Plenty of sunshine is required to produce top quality roses and it does not stand well in deep
and continuous shade. Roses suffer heavily due to frost hence frost proned area should be avoided. It
grown in shade the occurence of disease and pests will be more.
Varieties :- 1) Hybrid Tea – Gladiator , Papa meilland , Landora , First prize , Superstar. 2) Floribunda –
Banjaran , Iceberg , Angelface , Queen Elizabeth , Sea pearl.
Propagation :- Most of the modern roses are propagated by shield budding , hence raising of root stock
is an important step. Most of the root stocks are propagated by cutting while modern roses by shield
budding. The methods used for propagation are – Cutting , and By Budding.
Plantation :- The land is ploughed and harrowed properly in summer season. Then the pits of 45 cm
width and 60 cm depth are prepared at the required distance. During rainy season bud grafts are
planted in the pig keeping and bud joint 2 to 3 inches above ground level. Spacing required for hybrid
tea is 120 × 120 cm , for floribunda : 60 × 90 cm , for miniatures : 30 × 60 cm , for climbers : 90 × 120 cm.
Manures and Fertilizers :- 10 tons / ha FYM + 100 kg N + 50 kg P + 50 kg K per hectare. N in 4 split doses
1st after Pruning , 2nd , 3rd , and 4th at monthly interval. P and K in 2 splits : 1st after Pruning and 2nd in
3rd month.
Irrigation :- Water requirement of roses depends upon the soil type and seasons. Therefore , irrigation
be adjusted in such a way that soil will remain moist but not wet.
Pruning :- Pruning is a regular operation followed in roses for (i) development of frame work of plant
and (ii) for maximum number of flowers. In our agro-climate roses are pruned twice in a year. (i) June to
September , (ii) November-December to March. Hence pruning time should be matched with the time of
flowering. Adult plants are pruned May-June and 2nd week of October respectively for 2 bahars. Pruning
in May-June is desirable only after the weather becomes cloudy indicating the onset of monsoon.
Harvesting :- For local market flowers are harvested when one or two petals are open up partially or
fully and for distant market flowers are harvested in tight bud stage having 2-3 sepals fully separated
from flower bud.
Yield :- In the second year , per plant 30-40 flowers are obtained , while from 3rd year onwards , about
50-65 flowers are obtained. The economic life of the plants is 8-10 years.
Varieties :- The following list gives some of the Varieties of roses classified according to colour of the
flowers.
Sr. No. Colour of flowers Varieties of Hybrid Tea Varieties of Floribunda
1. Red Christian doir , Gladiator , Papa Devdasi , Valentine , Zizi
meilland , Superstar.
2. Pink First prize , Mischief , Sonia Delhi princess , Dearest , Queen
Elizabeth , Sea Pearl
3. White John F. Kennedy , Dr. Homibhaba , Iceberg , Himangini
Tushar
4. Yellow Landora , Summer Sunshine , Ganga All gold , Honeymoon
5. Orange Super star , Montezuma , Summer Flemenco shoa , Zorina
Holiday
6. Blue Blue moon , Lady X ------
7. Fragrant Double delight , Papa meilland , Scentendair , Megenta
My Choice Blue moon

Pests :-
1) Aphids – Spraying 1 % Malathion
2) Chaffer beetles – Dusting 5 % BHC
3) Powdery Mildew – Spraying 0.1 % Karathana
Diseases :-
1) Dieback – The pruned cut end should be painted with Fungicide paint
2) Black spot – Spraying 0.2 % Captan

2) JASMINE

Botanical Name :-
• Jasminum sambac (Mogra) – Shrub
• Jasminum pubescene (Kunda) – Shrub
• Jasminum multiflorum (Kunda) – Shrub
• Jasminum auriculatum (Jui) – Climber
• Jasminum grandiflorum (Jai) – Climber
• Jasminum officinalae (Chameli) – Climber
Family :- Oleaceae
Soil :- It requires well drained , porous and fertile soils. It clay soil through the vegetative growth is
vigorous , flowering is poor. Jasmines can not tolerate water logged soil.
Climate :- It requires hot and dry climate for higher yield. Yield of the flowers is directly related with
temperature and dry condition. Under high temperature and high humidity plant grows vigorously and
bushes are less productive.
Varieties :- 1) Mogra – Motia , Madanban , Ramban , Ramnathpurum , Gundumuli , Bela , Virupakshi ,
Rai. 2) Jui - Co-1 , Mullai , Parimulli , Large round , Short point. 3) Chameli or Jai - Co-1 , Thimmapurum ,
Coimbatore , Pink pin , 4) Kunda – Kakada.
Propagation :- Jasmines are generally propagated by cutting of almost mature wood and also by layers.
The best time for propagation is rainy season.
Planting :- A Jasmine plantation remain productive for 10-15 years. So land should be prepared
thoroughly by addition of manures. The planting is usually done in rainy season. Mogra : 75 cm × 1 m or
1.2 × 1.2 m , Jai : 2 × 2 m , Jui : 1.8 × 1.8 m , Kunda : 1.8 × 1.8 m
Manures and Fertilizers :- 75-100 cartoads of FYM + 100 kg N : 50 kg P : 50 kg K per hectare. This dose
may be split up in two doses and accordingly first half dose of NPK be given at the time of pruning
bushes during January-February and second at the time of flower bud formation ie. during March. FYM
is added at the time of preparation of land.
Irrigation :- Irrigation should be given at an interval of 3-4 days till the establishment of sampling if no
rains in rainy season. Afterwards , the Jasmines may be irrigated at the interval of 15 days.
Pruning :- Pruning is a regular practice of inducing flowering in mogra. In Mogra flowers are borne only
on new growth and thus , pruning stimulates the new growth secondly is keeps the bushes in
manageable size.
Pests and Diseases :-
1) Thrips / Leaf Webber – Nuvacron 0.1 %
2) Wilt / Leaf spot – Bavistin 0.1 %
Harvesting :- Jasminum species starts flowering from first year of planting but commercially yields starts
after second year. Jui and Mogra flowers are harvested from March to June while Jai flowers almost
throughout year.
Mogra is having a very short post harvest life. The unopened fully developed flowers buds are picked
very early in the morning and transported within 2 to 3 hours , to the market. The flowers are sold by
retailers in the evening of the same day. It is perhaps mainly due to the short post harvest life of the
flowers.
Yield :-
1) Mogra – 8000-10,000 kg flowers per hectare. 50 to 80 quintals / ha
2) Chameli – 11,000 kg flowers / ha
3) Jui – 10,000 kg flowers / ha
 3) CHRYSANTHEMUM (SHEWANTI)

Botanical Name :- Chrysanthemum spp.

Family :- Compositae
Soil :- Chrysanthemum is herbaceous perennial plant having soft and succulent stem. It produces fibrous
root system hence it requires well drained soil. Water logged or ill drained soil may cause adverse effect
on plant growth. pH of soil should be between 6.5 to 7.0 .
Climate :- Chrysanthemum is a short day plant. For its vegetative growth it requires long day with bright
sunlight and high temperature ranging from 20 to 27oC . For bud formation and flowering it requires
short day and low temperature ranging from 10 to 27oC . During growing period if the atmospheric
humidity remains 70 to 90 % , it helps in vigorous growth of plant.
Varieties :- Chrysanthemum are classified into two main categories according to size : 1) Large flowered
and 2) Small flowered .
1) Large Flowered :-
a) Incurved – Snow ball , Sonar Bangla , Chandrama , etc.
b) Reflexed – Creota , Dorothan , City beauty , Sweet heart.
c) Spider – Rupali , Bangla , Bidhan's best , Mahatma Gandhi.
2. Small Flowered :-
a) Korean (Single) – Cardinal , Chairman.
b) Korean (Double) – Junta wells , Flirt , Manbhawan.
c) Decorative – Aretic , Blue chip , Jubilee , Alankar.
d) Anemone – Caleb cox
e) Pompon – Camoo , Dandy , Eve , Nanako
Propagation :- Chrysanthemum is propagated by two methods :
1) By Root suckers :- When root suckers are 10-15 cm high they are separated in February-March
and planted in small pots and later on planted in bigger pots.
2) By terminal cutting :- 5 to 7 cm long cutting are taken from healthy plant from middle to end of
June , it is treated with copper fungicide to check the fungus and later on treated with plant
growth regulators like NAA 25 ppm or Seradex. Then these cuttings are planted in sand in pots
or beds and kept in partial shade.
Planting :- In Maharashtra State , generally the planting of Chrysanthemum is done during April-May
and some varieties are planted during August also. April-May plantings start flowers in the month of
September-October. While August planted in the month of December.
Manures and Fertilizers :- It needs 200 kg N , 200 kg K , and 200 kg P . ½ dose of N and full dose of P and
K is given at the time of planting while ½ dose of N is given 1 to 1 ½ months after planting.
Irrigation :- As the planting is done Summer, it is essential to have an adequate irrigation facilities.
Water stress during bud formation , flower opening till harvesting will cause adverse effects on the
quality of flowers. Excess irrigation results in decaying of root system.
Pests and Diseases :-
1) Aphids – Spray Rogar 30 EC or Metasystox 25 EC @ 250 ml in 250 lit of water
2) Powdery Mildew – Spraying with 0.5 % Karathane (40 EC)
Harvesting :- Usually Chrysanthemum takes 5 to 6 months from planting to flowering and thus flowers
are available from October to December. Fully opened flowers are harvested without their stalk
preferably in the morning. Harvested are packed in bamboo basket and then send to market.
Yield :- 10 to 12 tonnes flowers / ha , 40 to 120 quintals flowers / ha.

4) GLADIOLUS

Botanical Name :- Gladiolus tritis

Family :- Iridaceae
Soil :- Well drained fertile loamy soil is preferred for Gladiolus cultivation. Water logged , heavy sticky
soil will result in decaying of corms as well as delay in growth of plants.
Climate :- Site selected for Gladiolus Planting should have a sunny situation protected from stormy
winds , by wind breaks or hedge. It produces bigger size flowers in areas with moderate humidity.
Varieties :- Gladiolus varieties are grouped under two groups –
a) Big flowered varieties – Patrica , Melody , Mayur , Apsara , Arti , Shobha , Sapna , Poonam.
b) Small flowered varieties – Butterfly , Canberra , Royal Jubilee , Red canna.
c) MPKV , Rahuri – Shree Ganesh , Phule Prerna.
Propagation :- Gladiolus is propagated by corms of at least 4-5 cm diameter. It should be healthy and
disease free. Conical shaped corms preferred over flat one as it better flowers.
Planting :- Gladiolus which are healthy , disease free with diameter of 4 to 5 cm are selected and
planted at the spacing of 20 × 20 cm or 20 × 30 cm on ridges and furrows during September. Shallow
Planting of corms i.e. at the depth of 5 to 10 cm is essential. Deep planting will result into poor
production of cormels and also cause decaying of corms i.e.
Size of Corm Spacing Planting Time Shallow Planting
4.5 cm diameter of corms 20 × 30 cm September 5-10 cm depth

Seed Rate :- A corm weighing 20-30 gm is usually preferred for plantation this 1 kg = 1,60,000 corms per
hectare or 3200 kg per hectare.
Manures and Fertilizers :- 20 tonnes of FYM + 100 kg N + 50 kg P + 50 kg K applied for one hectare. FYM
+ P + K is applied at the time of field preparation while N is splits in 2 doses i.e. First dose at 4-6 leaf
stage and second at earthing up stage i.e. 6-8 weeks after planting.
Irrigation :- A Gladiolus crop must not be allowed to suffer from water stress especially when spiles are
emerging. Regular irrigation at the intervals of 7 to 10 days depending upon weather is necessary. Over
watering should be avoided .
Pests and Diseases :-
1) Thrips and Aphids – Spray 0.2 % Malathion
2) Fusarium wilt – Spray 0.2 % Bavistin
Harvesting :- Early flowering varieties starts flowering within 80-90 days , while late varieties starts
flowering within 100-145 days after planting. That means September planted corms will start flowering
during November-December (January). The flower spike should be cut as close to the base as possible
with sharp knife or scissor leaving 4 to 6 leaves on plant after the first floret on the spike has opened.
Yield :- 2-3 lakh spikes per hectare. 20,000 kg corms per hectare.

5) MARIGOLD

Botanical Name :-
• Tagets erects (African Marigold)
• Targets palula (French Marigold)
Family :- Compositae
Soil and Climate :- It requires well drained loamy soil. It can be grown in hot and dry as well as humid
climate. It can not stant severe cold.
Varieties :- A) African Marigold – Cracker jack , Climar , Yellow Supreme , Hawai , New Alaska , Apricot.
B) French Marigold – Rusty red , Star of India , Red Bokardo , Flash , Petit spray , Harmony.
Propagation :- By Seed.
Seed Rate :- 1 to ½ kg per hectare.
Manures and Fertilizers :- 20 to 25 tonnes FYM + 25 kg N + 25 kg P + 25 kg K per hectare .
Irrigation :- Constant moisture supply be maintained from bud formation to harvesting of flowers.
Pests and Diseases :-
1) Thrips and Caterpillar – 0.1 % Nuvacron Spray
2) Black spot , Leaf spot – 0.2 % Dithane M-45
Harvesting :- French Marigold starts flowering 1 to 1 ½ months after transplanting while African
Marigold 1 ½ to 2 months after transplanting of seedlings. For Gurband stalkless fully opened flowers
are picked. While for decoration also fully opened flowers with stalk are plucked.
Yield :- 6000 to 8000 kg flowers per hectare , 100 to 150 quintals flowers per hectare.
SPECIAL HORTICULTURAL PRACTICES :-
1) GIRDLING :
Girdling, or removing a thin strip of bark tissue from the trunk or branches, helps certain types of fruit
trees increase fruit size or yield. It can also promote an earlier harvest, reduce the number of required
pickings and increase red skin color. Correct girdling techniques are extremely important, as improper
girdling can kill limbs and seriously affect tree health. Time the girdling about four weeks after bloom,
perform the girdling precisely and provide the tree with excellent care to achieve the desired effects.
Girdling is commonly used on grape, avocado, apple, litchi, mango, citrus and other trees. Girdling is
normally only done to healthy trees that did not yield well the previous year.
Steps of Girdling :-
1) Inspect trees carefully to make sure they are vigorous, healthy and old enough to qualify for
girdling. Avoid girdling weak or stressed trees, including trees suffering from a severe insect
infestation, patches of gum on the bark or overall poor health. Only girdle trees in at least their
fourth leaf with full fruit crops.
2) Cut a thin strip of bark the width of the girdling knife around a scaffold branch 2 inches in
diameter or larger. Do not make a complete circle, but instead cut at an angle so that the end of
the cut is 1 to 2 inches above or below the beginning of the cut. This type of girdle, referred to
as an “S” or spiral girdle, promotes better recovery than a complete girdle with connected ends.
Only remove the bark and the underlying layer; avoid cutting into the wood.
3) Spray a pesticide on the trunk of the fruit trees to prevent infestation if pests could prove
problematic. The open wounds on the scaffold branches make the tree particularly susceptible
to borers such as the Pacific flatheaded borer, peach tree borer and others.
4) Provide the girdled trees with ample irrigation if rainfall is inadequate. Ample water is necessary
to maximize the intended effects of the girdling.
5) Fertilize the girdled fruit trees following harvest, if the site fertilizer regimen allows it, and again
in winter, to ensure that the tree recovers well and will produce ample, quality fruit the next
season.

2) PINCHING :
The removal of the terminal shoots of plants. In fruit cultivation (apple, peach, pear, and apricot),
pinching is used to form the crowns of the plants and to regulate shoot growth or the tree’s fruit-
bearing capacity. Pinching is done manually or with pruning shears, leaving each pinched branch with
seven to ten leaves. Growth of the pinched shoots is retarded, and growth of the remaining shoots is
intensified. Compacting of the crown is prevented, shoot lignification is accelerated, and the
transformation of growing shoots into fruiting ones occurs. Trees that have been pinched require less
pruning in the following spring. In vegetable cultivation, pinching is used for cucumbers in greenhouses
and hothouses and for eggplants, brussels sprouts, and sugar beet and carrot seedlings in the open
ground.
Pinching will do two things : weaken the growth of the developing shoot so it is not as likely to compete
with the leader; and promote the development of a fruit bud in the vicinity of the pinch if done now into
early July. This technique will also prevent the tree from becoming top-heavy, which would eventually
mandate a less desirable dormant pruning cut.
3) NOTCHING :
Notching is a technique to stimulate shoot growth from paradormant buds with the long-term objective
of increasing the cropping potential of fruit trees by developing new fruiting scaffolds.
Using a hacksaw blade or file to cut the phloem just below the bark surface making a 1” wide (or 1/3 rd
way around the branch) notch below or above a bud. When applied above a bud it can encourage a
shoot to form by cutting off the flow of growth regulator hormones. When applied below a bud it can
encourage the production of a flower by sending the flow of carbohydrates from the leaves to the bud
instead of the rest of the tree. Once the wound callouses the effect is gone.

4) SCORING :
Scoring, very simply, is the process of making a single cut with a knife (a linoleum knife works very well)
completely around the trunk of the tree somewhere between the soil and the lowest scaffold branches.
This process is done when new growth is approximately 4 to 6 inches in length, usually about 10 days
after petal fall. More than one time around the tree provides no additional benefit. Scoring later in the
season reduces the effectiveness, and likely will provide no benefit if done after June drop. Caution is
advised when selecting trees to score. Weak or moderately vigorous trees may be overly devigorated by
the scoring treatment, and this effect may last for several years. On vigorous trees, scoring may be
performed in successive years, but careful assessment of the previous season’s growth should be made
each year prior to treatment.
Scoring breaks the flow of nutrients, photosynthates, and growth regulators between the tree canopy
and its roots. The score will heal, but prior to healing it will reduce both the length and diameter of the
new growth. Additionally, it will enhance fruit set and increase flower bud formation for the next
season. Enhanced fruit set will also help reduce growth. In some parts of the country a sensitivity to
winter injury of the wood in the scored area has been noted; however, we have never seen this injury in
a number of years of using scoring.

5) RINGING :
Ringing is very similar to scoring, except more severe; a ring of bark is actually removed rather than just
cut. Various tools can be used to perform the ringing operation: a pruning saw, a ringing knife, or a chain
saw. Which technique you use depends upon the size of the ring that you wish to generate. The mildest
treatment would be with a pruning saw; the Wheeler or Orchard saw generates a ring approximately
1/32 to 3/64 inch wide, and the “Turbo-cut” saws generate a ring approximately 1/16 inch wide. Using
these saws, the ring should be a complete circle around the trunk. Ringing knives come in various
widths, producing rings from 1/8 to ¼ inch wide. A chain saw will generate a cut approximately ¼ inch
wide. With a ringing knife or a chain saw cut, a complete circle may girdle the tree. A more appropriate
method would be to make two opposing cuts about half-way around the tree and 10 inches apart. The
ends of the cuts should overlap by about 2 inches. As with scoring, ringing should be done when the new
growth is approximately 4 to 6 inches long.
Ringing functions similarly to scoring to slow growth, enhance fruit set, and increase flower bud
initiation; however, it is much more potent than scoring. Ringing should be used sparingly and only in
situations when you need to have a dramatic reduction in growth.
6) BENDING :
In addition to the basic technique of young limb spreading to get a good crotch angle, there is the
advanced technique of bending the limb so it’s growing tip is at or below horizontal reducing its apical
dominance and growth rate and possibly encouraging earlier fruiting (depending on the time of the year
the limb bending was done (more info needed)). Could be a good alternative to completely pruning out
a competing central leader or as a way to slow growth of specific branches during summer time without
having to remove them completely. It could be used to “turn” the direction of branches; e.g. curving a
young scaffold branch pointing in the north direction into a west / north-west direction. Limb bending to
encourage fruiting should be done around the summer solstice

7) SMUDGING :
Smudging is done with smudge pot. A smudge pot (also known as a choofa or orchard heater) is an oil-
burning device used to prevent frost on fruit trees. Usually a smudge pot has a large round base with a
chimney coming out of the middle of the base. The smudge pot is placed between trees in an orchard.
The burning oil creates heat, smoke, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. It was believed that this oil
burning heater would help keep the orchard from cooling too much during the cold snaps.

8) BAHAR TREATMENT :
• If left to nature the trees may bloom and fruit irregularly through-out the year.
• In order to overcome this problem and to force a full crop in any of the three seasons, as
required by the grower and the traders, Bahar treatment is practised in citrus orchards.
• In Andhra Pradesh, the citrus trees generally bloom three times a year, i.e., in January-February
(Ambe bahar or Angam), June (Mrig bahar or Edagam) and October (Hastha bahar or
Gairangam).
• Trees are treated for Ambe bahar (January-February), in November or December.
• In this method, from November onwards the amount of water is gradually reduced in successive
irrigations and completely stopped in December.
• About the middle of December, the land is ploughed.
• When the trees start showing wilting symptoms (3-4 weeks), the soil around the tree to a
distance of 120 cm is dug a depth of 10 cm and the recommended manure is added to the soil
and the trees are irrigated.
• The first irrigation that follows is sparing while the subsequent ones are more plentiful.
• Flowers appear about a month after the first irrigation.
• In Maharashatra, the roots are also exposed for about 10 days as part of the bahar treatment.
• This method is occasionally practised in a few places in Andhra Pradesh.
• However, this treatment is considered to be harmful in the long run and not encouraged as a
routine practice.
Use of growth regulators :-
• After conducting large-scale pilot trials at the Fruit Research Station, Anantharajupet, a schedule
of three sprays of 2, 4-D at 10 ppm, during flowering, 15 days after fruit set and two months
before harvest was recommended to increase the fruit set, to reduce the fruit drop and to
improve the yields by 35% to 50% in sweet orange.
• Fruit retention for three weeks beyond the normal harvest period was possible with the same
spray when done one month before harvest.

SPECIAL HORTICULTURAL PRACTICES IN FLOWER CROPS :-

1) STOPPING AND PINCHING :
The operation of pinching or stopping involves the removal of the growing-point of a shoot along with a
few leaves. The main purposes of pinching are :-
• To encourage branching to produce a bushy growth.
• To increase the production of flower-buds on the branch which is pinched.
• Pinching is done at a stage when the plants are young and between 7 and 15 cm in height,
depending on their habits of growth.
• The plants which need pinching include dahlia, chrysanthemum, marigold, carnation, rose.

2) DESHOOTING :
• Deshooting involves the removal of shoots that are not wanted.
• Some flowering annuals and herbaceous perennials produce numerous side shoots and if all of
them are allowed to lower, the size and quality of the flowers will be greatly reduced.
• Only a specific number of side shoots are allowed to flower and the others are removed at an
early stage.

3) DISBUDDING :
• To produce large specimen bloom, the flower buds per stem must be restricted to one.
• For this, the central or crown bud is retained and the buds or side shoots clustered around the
central bud are removed.
• Flowers become small if all the buds are allowed to open.
• In many plants several superfluous bud, flowers, and shoots develop in the axils of the main
stems and branches.

4) DESUCKERING IN CHRYSANTHEMUM :
• During the vegetative growth phase, plant grows upward and new suckers continue to develop
from the base of the plants
• For preventing improper and vigorous growth of plant, suckers are removed from time to time.
• Without Desuckering, the plant will loose vigour and becomes week.
5) DEFOLIATION :
• The removal of foliage is known as defoliation.
• This is done mainly with a view to inducing flowering in certain plant.
• This can also be done to reduce transpiration loss during periods of stress and strain and also
during transportation of certain plants such as roses.
• Defoliation can be achieved by the removal of leaves by hand or by the use chemical and
withholding water.

6) WINTERING IN ROSE :
• This may be considered as an alternative to root pruning. In the hotter parts of India it may not
be wise to resort to root pruning.
• In such places ornamental plants are “wintered” . Flowering shrubs such as rose and jasmine can
be wintered in northern and eastern India.
• During resting period the water supply to the plant to be wintered is stopped for a few days and
the roots are exposed to the sun by removing the surface soil around the trunk.
• The duration of exposure varies from three to fifteen days depending upon the age, the nature,
and the hardiness of the plant.
• After this the roots are covered with the same soil enriched with farm yard manure and
copiously watered.

7) BENDING IN ROSE :
• Leaf is a source of food for every plant.
• There should be balance between Source (Assimilation) and sink (Dissimilation).
• After planting, 2 to 3 eye buds will sprout on main branch.
• These sprouts will grow as branches and these branches in turn form buds.
• The mother shoot is bend on 2nd leaf or nearer to the crown region.
• The first bottom break or ground shoot will start coming from the base.
• These ground shoots form the basic framework for production and there on the ground shoots
should be cut at 5th five pair of leaves and medium ground shoots should be cut at 2nd or 3rd five
pair of leaves.

8) STAKING :
• Plants in the garden, either in pots or on ground, need support at least for a parts of, or
throughout, its life.
• Selecting the proper stakes and fixing them aesthetically as well as purposefully is an art.
• Stakes may be of various type.
• The herbaceous plants do not require very strong stakes.
• The most common stakes used in India are made of either whole bamboo or split bamboo of
various sizes depending upon the type of plants to be stakes.
9) MULCHING :
• The purposes of mulching are varied.
• The intention is to regulate soil temperature, to conserve moisture, and to control weed.
• There are several kinds of mulch such as straw, leaves, pulverized corn cobs, peanut hulls,
cottonseed hulls, stable manure.
• Polythene sheet and aluminum foils are also used as mulch.

10) PRUNING :
• Pruning : The planned removal of branches, twigs, limbs, shoot, or root is termed as pruning.
• Principle of pruning : The main principle of pruning is to reduce the apical dominant &
encourage the lateral branches to grow.
• Objectives of pruning :
1) A definite direction and shape to the plant.
2) Develop a strong framework
3) The aim of utilizing the available space effectively.
4) Pruning also influences productiveness and improves the quality of the product.
• Root pruning :
a) Root pruning is done to a limited extent in ornamental horticulture, as in the case of
rose and jasmine.
b) The main effects of root pruning are (1) reduced absorption, (2) reduced top growth,
and (3) more branching in the root system.

11) REPOTTING IN ANTHURIUM :

• It is done when the growing medium has deteriorated & when the plants have outgrown the
pot.
• The side suckers may be planted separately & the mother plant should be planted with the fresh
growing medium.

12) FORCING IN LILY :

• Forcing lily flower for normal durations, the bulbs require cold treatment at 2-40C for 6 weeks in
case of Asiatic hybrids and 8 weeks for the Oriental ones.
• It is possible to use “frozen-in” bulbs which are kept at 10C after pre-cooling treatment for off-
season flowering.
• A night temperature of 160C with a day temperature below 210C inside the greenhouse is
recommended for forcing.