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THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS • Intricate trains of waves march

across the oceans; very similar trains
We live in a universe of patterns. of sand dunes march across the
• Every night the stars move in desert.
circles across the sky.

• The seasons cycle at yearly

intervals. • Colored arcs of light adorn the sky
in the form of rainbows,

• No two snowflakes are ever

exactly the same, but they all have • A bright circular halo some times
six fold symmetry. surrounds the moon on winter
nights.

• Tigers and zebras are covered in

patterns of stripes, leopards and
• Spherical drops of water fall from
hyenas are covered in patterns of
clouds.
spots.
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 Mathematics is the
, and the nature  Human mind and culture have
exploits just about every developed a formal system of
pattern that there is. thought for recognizing,
 It provides tools that let classifying, and exploiting
scientists calculate what nature patterns now known as
is doing, and providing new Mathematics.
questions for the
mathematicians to sort out to
their own satisfaction.
 Patterns is a
in the world or in a
manmade design.  Using mathematics in
 We are still learning to organizing and systematizing
recognize new kinds of pattern. ideas about patterns, we’ve
Only within the last thirty years discovered a great secret:
has humanity become explicitly “nature's patterns are not just
aware of the two types of there to be admired, they are
pattern now known as fractals vital clues to the rules that
and chaos. govern natural processes.
 are geometric shapes
that repeat their structure on Cool Math Facts about Snowflakes
ever-finer scales, is a • Snowflakes have six points and
kind of apparent randomness are hexagonal.
whose origins are entirely • Snowflakes have from 180 billion
deterministic, and Nature to 10
"knew about“ these patterns quintillion (10^19) molecules of
billions of years ago, for clouds water.
are fractal and weather is • They fall at a rate of 3.1 miles per
chaotic. It took humanity a hour or 4.96 kilometers per hour.
while to catch up. • There are 6 basic types of
- in mathematics, a snowflakes based on their 3
geometric shape that is complex dimensional shape: flat, column,
and detailed in structure at any stars, dendrite, lacy, needle, and
level of magnification. capped column.
ex. Snowflake • The temperature of the air and
- theory describing the the humidity where the snowflake
complex and unpredictable motion forms determines the type of
or dynamics of systems that are snowflake that will form.
sensitive to their initial conditions. • Dendrites form when the air
ex. Electric circuit, electrical brain temperature is between -8 degrees
activity
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TIGER STRIPES
• Tigers are the only cat species
that are completely striped. They o A key element to an organism’s
even have stripes on their skin. survival is efficiency.
• Stripe density varies by o Increased efficiency allows an
subspecies. The stripes on a organism to spend as little energy
Sumatran tiger are closer as possible, which is an important
together than those on any other factor for survival. When food
subspecies. becomes scarce, energy must be
• No two tigers have the same conserved.
stripes. Like human fingerprints, their o Efficiency is key.
stripe patterns are unique to each
individual.
• Stripes range in color from light
brown to black and are not
symmetrical on both

 For one, hexagons are known

to be one of the strongest
Stripes are surprisingly simple geometric shapes.
to model mathematically,  More important to bees,
researchers say. The back of a tiger however, is the fact that these
could have been a blank shapes fit together perfectly
canvas.Instead, nature painted the with the most area of open
big cat with parallel stripes, evenly space. This results in the least
spaced and perpendicular to the amount of wax used for the
spine. Scientists don't know exactly highest volume of storage.
how stripes develop, but since the
1950s, mathematicians have been
modeling possible scenarios. In Cell
Systems on December 23, Harvard
researchers assemble a range of
these models into a single equation
to identify what variables control
stripe formation in living things.
The Weather
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A sequence of numbers in which

each member is the sum of the two
preceding numbers. For example
0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21 and so forth.

The fibonacci sequence was

invented by Leonardo Fibonacci

Leonardo da Vinci Painted “

” During renaissance With divine
The Golden Ratio
proportion.
 The golden ratio is (phi) =
1.61803.....
 Taking the ratio of two
successive numbers in the
sequence will approach the
golden ratio as you move
deeper into the sequence
0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55.....

5/3= 1.67 8/5=1.6 13/8=1.625 34/21=

1.619
The Fibonacci Spiral

Fibonacci in nature
The Sunflower, shell, Flower petals ,
Ocean wave, Galaxy
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MATHEMATICAL vv LANGUAGE AND So, for example, if we see the +

SYMBOLS symbol written in the sum
Mathematics has its own language, 2+3
much of which we are already
familiar with. For example the digits we understand that the context is
one of adding the two numbers,
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 2and 3, to give 5. So here, the
symbol + is an instruction to add
are part of our everyday lives. two numbers together.
Whether we refer to 0 as ‘zero’, Let us look at another context in
‘nothing’, ‘nought’. which we see the + symbol.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE If you study telephone numbers on
LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS business cards you will often see
The language of mathematics them given, for example, as
makes it easy to express the kinds of
thoughts that mathematicians like +44 191 123 4567
to express. It is:
Precise (able to make very fine In this context, the + symbol means
distinctions); that, in addition to the usual
Concise (able to say things briefly); telephone number, a person
Powerful (able to express complex dialing that number from overseas
thoughts with relative ease) will need to include the country
Context – this is the context in which code (in this case 44).
we are working, or the particular So we see that the + symbol can
topics being studied, have completely different
Convention – where meanings in different contexts, and
mathematicians and scientists have it is important to be clear about the
decided that particular symbols will context.
have particular meaning.
SOME COMMON MATHEMATICAL The symbol ( − )
SYMBOLS Words associated with this symbol
Let us look at some symbols are ‘minus’, ‘subtract’, ‘take away’,
commonly associated with ‘negative’ and ‘decrease’.
mathematical operations. Again, to understand the symbol
we need a context.
The symbol ( + ) Words associated So, if we see the − symbol written in
with this symbol are ‘plus’, ‘add’, the sum
‘increase’ and ‘positive’.
As it stands, ‘+’ clearly has some sort 6–4
of meaning, but we really need to
understand it within
a context.
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we know this means 6 subtract 4, The ( = ) sign and its variants

and we know the answer is 2. Another symbol used frequently is
In a different context, we might see the equals sign =
−5◦ The = sign does not mean anything
on its own - we need a context.
C, meaning a temperature of minus
five degrees Celsius, that is five For example, in the sum 1+2= 3,
degrees below zero. what we are saying is that whatever
we have on the left-hand
The symbol ( x ) side is exactly equal to whatever
Words associated with this symbol we have on the right-hand side.
are ‘multiply’, ‘lots of’, and ‘times’.
This is really just a shorthand for Variations on the equals sign are
adding. For example, if we see
6+6+6+6+6
we have five lots of six, or five sixes,
and in our shorthand we can write
this as 5 × 6.
Suppose we have The Greek Alphabet

a+a+a+a+a

We might write this expression as 5 ×

a. However, in this context,
especially in hand-written work, we
may confuse the × symbol with the
letter x, and so we would often
write simply 5a. We see that our
shorthand has become even
shorter. Multiplication is one of those
rare occasions when we can omit a
symbol altogether.

The division symbols

Division is symbolised in several
different ways. For example
10
10 ÷ 5, 5 ,10/5

are three equivalent ways of writing

ten divided by 5.
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Variables These are small numbers or symbols

Variables are another form of written at the top right of another,
mathematical symbol. These are as in 42 . In this context 42 is a
used when quantities take different shorthand for ‘four squared’ or 4 ×
values. Imagine taking a car 4. Similarly 43 is shorthand for ‘four
journey and think about the speed cubed’ or 4 × 4× 4.
at which you are travelling. As you
travel along your speed may What about 6,3 ? This could mean
change. So, speed is a variable - several things. But with brackets
that is, a quantity which can around, (6, 3) can mean a pair of
change. We will be using letters to coordinates used to plot a point on
stand for quantities like this. For a graph.
example, we might use the letter v
for speed. To a large extent we can
use any letter we choose, although
there are conventions.

We might choose to use d for

distance and t for time.

By convention, we use u to be an
initial speed, and v to be a final
speed.

In a different context, v might refer

to volume. We need to check the
context to fully understand
the meaning. If we see v = d/t
where d = distance, and t = time,
then we would know that v is a
speed.

Some more symbols

The positioning of numbers and
symbols in relation to each other
also gives meaning. For example,
you will come across use of
superscripts.
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EXPRESSION, EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

Variable: an unknown quantity or expression whose value can

change.

Term: parts of an expression separated by + or – signs.

Constant: the part of math sentence whose value is always the

same, represented by a numeral.

Coefficient: A numerical or constant quantity placed

before and multiplying the variable in an
algebraic expression.

Expression: a combination of variables, numbers, and/or

operations that represents a mathematical relationship,
but no statement of equality or inequality.

Equation: a mathematical statement that two or more expressions

are equal.

Inequality: An algebraic relation showing that a quantity

is greater than or less than another quantity. (>, <, ≥, ≤)
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MEASURES OF POSITION
Measures of position, also known as measures of location, describe the
relative standing of a data point within a dataset. These statistical tools
help us understand where specific values lie in relation to the entire
distribution.
are statistical measures that divide a dataset into equal parts,
similar to percentiles, quartiles, and deciles. They are generalized terms for
measures that split the data into any number of equal-sized parts. The
divisions are typically made into equal intervals of frequency or rank,
allowing us to understand the distribution of values.
Quartiles are specific types of fractiles that divide a dataset into four equal
parts, each representing 25% of the data. They help in understanding the
spread and distribution of data by identifying the values below which
certain percentages of the data fall. There are three quartiles in a dataset:
:The 25th percentile. It is the value below which 25% of
the data points fall. It marks the boundary for the lowest 25% of the data.
Example: If you have a dataset of exam scores, and Q1 is 60, then
25% of the students scored below 60.
: The 50th percentile, also known as the median. It
divides the dataset into two equal halves. 50% of the data points fall
below this value, and 50% fall above it.
Example: In the same dataset, if Q2 is 75, then half of the students
scored below 75 and the other half scored above it.
3. : The 75th percentile. It is the value below which 75%
of the data points fall. It marks the boundary for the lowest 75% of the
data.
Example: If Q3 is 85, then 75% of the students scored below 85.
How to Calculate Quartiles?
1. Arrange the Data: Sort the data in ascending order.

2. Find the Median (Q2): This is the middle value of the dataset. If the
number of data points (n) is odd, the median is the middle value. If n is
even, the median is the average of the two middle values.

4. Calculate Q1 and Q3:

Q1: Find the median of the lower half of the data (excluding Q2 if n
is odd).
Q3: Find the median of the upper half of the data (excluding Q2 if
n is odd).
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Example Calculation

Consider the dataset: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100.

Arrange the Data: Already sorted.

Find the Median (Q2): The median is (50 + 60) / 2 = 55.

Calculate Q1 and Q3:

 Lower Half: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50

 Median of lower half (Q1) is 30.
 Upper Half: 60, 70, 80, 90, 100
 Median of upper half (Q3) is 80.

So, in this dataset:

 Q1 = 30
 Q2 = 55
 Q3 = 80

The Interquartile Range (IQR) is a measure of statistical

dispersion that represents the range within which the central
50% of the data values lie. It is calculated as the difference
between the third quartile (Q3) and the first quartile (Q1). The
IQR is useful for understanding the spread of the middle half of
a dataset and is less affected by outliers and extreme values
than the range.

Formula

IQR=Q3−Q1
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Example Calculation

Consider the dataset: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100.

Arrange the Data: Already sorted.

Find Quartiles:

 Median (Q2): The middle value is (50 + 60) / 2 = 55.

 Lower Half: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50

 Q1: The median of the lower half is 30.

 Upper Half: 60, 70, 80, 90, 100

 Q3: The median of the upper half is 80.

Calculate IQR:

IQR=Q3−Q1=80−30=50

So, the IQR for this dataset is 50.

Interpretation

 Small IQR: Indicates that the middle 50% of the data points are
close to each other, suggesting less variability within this central
portion.
 Large IQR: Indicates that the middle 50% of the data points are
spread out, suggesting more variability.

The IQR is often used in box plots to visualize the spread of the data and to
identify outliers, which are typically defined as values that fall outside 1.5
times the IQR above Q3 or below Q1.
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BOX-&-WHISKERS PLOT

 Explanatory data analysis tool

 Highlights Important Features of a data set.
 Requires
 Minimum Entry
 First Quartile Q1
 Median Q2
 Third Quartile Q3
 Maximum Entry
1. Find the 5 no. Summary set
2. Construct a horizontal scale that spams the range of the data
3. Plot the numbers above the horizontal line.

4. Draw a box above the horizontal scale from Q1 to Q2 and draw a

vertical line in the box at Q2.
5. Draw whiskers from the box to the minimum and maximum entries.
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Z-Scores (Standard Scores)

Definition: A z-score tells you how many standard

deviations a data point is from the mean. Positive z-
scores indicate values above the mean, while negative
z-scores indicate values below the mean.

Formula:

Where:

o X = the value,
o μ= the mean of the dataset,
o σ= the standard deviation of the dataset.

Example: Suppose the average height of a population

is 170 cm with a standard deviation of 10 cm. If
someone is 180 cm tall, their z-score is:

This means the person is 1 standard deviation above the

mean height.
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Sets, Functions,
Sets, Functions,Relations, and Binary
Relations, Operation
and Binary Operations

- in mathematics, any group or collection of objects is called a set. A

simple application of sets occurs when you use a search engine (such as
Google or Bing) to find a topic on the Internet. You enter a few words
describing what you are searching for and click the Search button. The
search engine then creates a list (set) of websites that contain a match for
the words you submitted.
- The objects that belong in a set are the elements, or members, of the set.
For example, the set consisting of the four seasons has spring, summer, fall,
and winter as its elements.
The following two methods are often used to designate a set.
 Describe the set using words.
 List the elements of the set inside a pair of braces, { }. This method is
called the roster method. Commas are used to separate the
elements.
For instance, let’s use S to represent the set consisting of the four seasons.
Using the roster method, we
would write.
S = { spring , summer ,fall , winter }
The following sets of numbers are used extensively in many areas of
mathematics

The set of natural numbers is also called the set of counting numbers.

Rational numbers can also be written in the form where p and q are

integers and for example,

Note : integers Z = { …., -4, -3, -2, -1 ,0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ….}

( Z is for Zahl, german word for number)
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Example:
a. the set of natural numbers less than 5 ; { 1, 2, 3, 4 }

A set is well defined. if it is possible to determine whether any given item is

an element of the set. For instance, the set of letters of the English
alphabet is well defined. The set of great songs is not a well-defined set. It
is not possible to determine whether any given song is an element of the
set or is not an element of the set because there is no standard method
for making such a judgment.

Example : determine whether each statement is true or false.

a. 4 ∈ { 2, 3, 4, 7} ; since 4 is an element of the given set, the statement is
true
b. the set of nice cars is a well-defined set. ; the word nice is not precise ,
so the statement is false

Example: use set builder notation

1. the set of integers greater than -3 ; { x | x ∈ I and x > -3 }
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Example : find the cardinality of each of the following sets

a. J = { 2, 5 } ; J contains exactly two elements so it has cardinality of 2 , we
state that n(J) = 2
b. T = { 3, 3, 5, 7} ; elements are listed more than once are counted only
once. Thus n(T) = 3

instance { d ,e, f } = { e, f, d}

State whether each of the following pairs of sets are equal, equivalent,
both, or neither.
a. { a, e, i, o, u} , {3,7, 11, 15, 19} ; the sets are not equal but has exactly
five elements, so the sets are equivalent
b. { 4, -2, 7} , { 3, 4, 7, 9 } ; the first set has three elements and the second
sets has four elements, so the are not equal and are not equivalent

For example, if B = { 1,2,3,….,10} and A = {3,4,5} then A B.

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RELATIONS AND FUNCTION

A is a rule that relates values from a set of values (called the
domain) to a second set of values (called the range)

The elements of the domain can be imagined as input to a machine that

applies a rule to these inputs to generate one or more outputs.

A relation is also a set of ordered pairs (x,y).

A function is a relation where each element in the domain is related to

only one value in the range by some rule.

The elements of the domain can be imagined as input to a machine that

applies a rule so that each input corresponds to only one output.

A function is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) such that no two ordered pairs
have the same x-value but different y values.
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Determine if the given set ordered pairs are function or relation.

1. f = {(1,2), (2,2), (3,5), (4,5)} ; function , because no two ordered pairs
have the same x-value but different y-values

2. g = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,7)} ; relation , because (1,3) , (1,4), (2,5)
and (2,6) are ordered pairs with the same x-value but different y-values

The most numeration system used by people today is the Hindu-Arabic

numeration system. It is called the Hindu-Arabic system because it was first
developed in India (around 800 AD) and then refined by the Arabs. It
makes use of the 10 symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. The reason for the
10 symbols, called digits is related to the fact that we have 10 fingers. The
Hindu-Arabic numeration system is also called the decimal system, where
the word decimal is a derivation of the Latin word decem, which means
“ten.”
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REASONING, LOGIC, AND PROBLEM SOLVING

– the use of logical thinking in order to find result or draw a
conclusion.
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination
of specific examples is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed
by using inductive reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it may or
may not be correct.
Inductive reasoning - is the process of reaching a general conclusion by
examining specific examples.
For example, When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next
number in the list according to some pattern you have observed, you are
using inductive reasoning.
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the
following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus
we predict that the next number in the list is 3
larger than 15, which is 18.
c. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers
differ by 3. It appears that the difference between any two numbers is
always 1 more than the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5,
we predict that the next number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is
21.
Example 1
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the
following lists.

a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ? b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?

Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list. In
Example 2 we use inductive reasoning to makea conjecture about an
arithmetic procedure.
Example 2 ( use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture )
Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by
8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2,
and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the
relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the
original number.
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Solution
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would
produce the following results:
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2: 46 / 2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 - 3 = 20

We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20

Starting with 6 as our original number produces a final result of 24. Starting
with 10 produces a final result of 40. Starting with 100 produces a final
result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting number is four times the
original number. We conjecture that following the given procedure
produces a number that is four times the original number.

Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564–
1642) used inductive reasoning to discover that the time required for a
pendulum to complete one swing, called the period of the pendulum,
depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so
he measured the periods of pendulums in “heartbeats”. The following
table shows some results obtained for pendulums of various lengths. For
the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches has been designated as 1
unit.
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Example 3 ( use inductive reasoning to solve an application )

Use the data in the table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the
following questions.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?

Solution
a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its
length. Thus we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will
have a period of 7 heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is
twice that of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a
length of 16 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a
length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the length of a pendulum
doubles its period.

DEDUCTIVE REASONING - Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a

conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces
a number that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Solution
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2:
Subtract 3: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example
produces a number that is four times the
original number.
INDUCTIVE vs. DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Example 4: Determine whether each of the following arguments is an
example of inductive reasoning or deductive
reasoning.
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year.
Last year the tree did not produce plums, so this
year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor
estimated that my home improvement will cost
$35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost more than $35,000.
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LOGIC
In today’s complex world, it is not easy to summarize in a few paragraphs
the subject matter known as logic. For lawyers and judges, logic is the
science of correct reasoning. They often use logic to communicate more
effectively, construct valid arguments, analyze legal contracts, and make
decisions.

Many other professions also make extensive use of logic. For instance,
programmers use logic to design computer software, electrical engineers
use logic to design circuits for smart phones, and mathematicians use
logic to solve problems and construct mathematical proofs.

One of the first mathematicians to make a serious study of symbolic logic

was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716). Leibniz tried to advance the
study of logic from a merely philosophical subject to a formal
mathematical subject. Leibniz never completely achieved this goal;
however, several mathematicians, such as Augustus De Morgan (1806–
1871) and George Boole (1815–1864), contributed to the advancement of
symbolic logic as a mathematical discipline.

Boole published The Mathematical Analysis of Logic in 1848. In 1854 he

published the more extensive work, An Investigation of the Laws of
Thought. Concerning this document, the mathematician Bertrand Russell
stated, “Pure mathematics was discovered by Boole in a work which is
called The Laws of Thought.”
LOGIC STATEMENT
Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements,
questions, and commands. For instance,
“Is the test today?” is a question.
“Go get the newspaper” is a command.
“This is a nice car” is an opinion.
“Denver is the capital of Colorado” is a statement of fact.
The symbolic logic that Boole was instrumental in creating applies only to
sentences that are statements as defined below.
A STATEMENT is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both true and false.
It may not be necessary to determine whether a sentence is true to
determine whether it is a statement. For instance, consider the
following sentence.
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American Shaun White won an Olympic gold medal in speed skating.

You may not know if the sentence is true, but you do know that the
sentence is either true or it is false, and that it is not both true and false.
Thus, you know that the sentence is a statement.

Simple Statements and Compound Statements

-A Simple statements is a statement that conveys a single idea. A
compound statement is a statement that conveys two
or more ideas.

Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or,
if ... then, and if and only if creates a compound
statement. For instance, “I will attend the meeting or I will go to school.” is
a compound statement. It is composed of the
two simple statements, “I will attend the meeting.” and “I will go to
school.” The word or is a connective for the two
simple statements.

George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple

statements and the symbols ˄ , ˅ , ~, →, and ↔ to
represent connectives. See table 3.1
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PROBLEM SOLVING

Ancient mathematicians such as Euclid and Pappus were interested in

solving mathematical problems, but they were also interested in heuristics,
the study of the methods and rules of discovery and invention. In the
seventeenth century, the mathematician and philosopher René Descartes
(1596–1650) contributed to the field of heuristics. He tried to develop a
universal problem-solving method. Although he did not achieve this goal,
he did publish some of his ideas in Rules for the Direction of the Mind and
his better-known work Discourse de la Methode.

Another mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646–

1716), planned to write a book on heuristics titled Art of Invention. Of the
problem-solving process, Leibnitz wrote, “Nothing is more important than
to see the sources of invention which are, in my opinion, more interesting
than the inventions themselves.”
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Polya’s Four- Step Problem-Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.
Understand the problem : This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often
overlooked. You must have a clearunderstanding of the problem. To help you
focus on understanding the problem, consider the following questions.
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?
 Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
 Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the
problem?
 Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
 What is the goal?
Devise a plan : Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when
they attempt to solve a problem. Here are
some frequently used procedures.
■ Make a list of the known information.
■ Make a list of information that is needed.
■ Draw a diagram.
■ Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
■ Make a table or a chart.
■ Work backwards.
■ Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
■ Look for a pattern.
■ Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
■ Perform an experiment.
■ Guess at a solution and then check your result.
Carry out the plan : Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
■ Work carefully.
■ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
■ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to
devise another plan or modify your
existing plan.
Review the solution : Once you have found a solution, check the solution.
■ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
■ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
■ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply
toother problems.
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BINARY SOLUTION
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LOGIC-REASONING PROBLEM SOLVING SOLUTION

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