Module 1: Networking Today

A network is a group of connected devices that communicate with each other. The
Internet is the largest network, connecting billions of devices worldwide. Networks
enable communication, file sharing, entertainment, and cloud services.

There are two main types of networks:

*LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small area like a home or office.

*WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large distances, connecting multiple LANs (e.g.,
the Internet).

A network consists of end devices (PCs, phones, servers) and intermediary devices
(routers, switches). Routers direct traffic between networks, while switches
connect devices within a LAN.

For a network to be reliable, it must be:

1)Fault-tolerant – Can reroute traffic if a connection fails.

2)Scalable – Can grow without performance issues.

3)Quality of Service (QoS) – Prioritizes critical traffic (e.g., video calls over
downloads).

4)Secure – Protects against cyber threats like hacking and malware.

Modern networking trends include:

*BYOD (Bring Your Own Device): Employees use personal devices at work.

*Cloud Computing: Services run on remote servers instead of local computers.

*IoT (Internet of Things): Smart devices like sensors and cameras connecting to the
Internet.

Module 2: Basic Switch and End Device Configuration

Cisco devices use IOS (Internetwork Operating System), a command-line interface for
configuring routers and switches.

Basic device setup involves:

1)Entering privileged EXEC mode:

enable

2)Entering global configuration mode:

configure terminal

3)Setting a device name:

hostname Switch1

4)Setting passwords for security:

enable secret cisco

5)Adding a login banner:

banner motd #Unauthorized access prohibited#

6)Saving the configuration:

 copy running-config startup-config

To enable communication, devices need IP addresses. Assign an IP address to a PC

via the settings or CLI:
ip address 192.168.1.10 255.255.255.0

Verify network connectivity with:

*ping – Tests if a device can communicate with another device.

ping 192.168.1.1

*traceroute – Displays the path taken by packets to reach a destination.

traceroute 8.8.8.8

Module 3: Protocols and Models

A protocol is a set of rules for communication between devices. The TCP/IP model is
the foundation of the Internet and consists of four layers:

1)Application Layer: Handles user applications like web browsing and email.

2)Transport Layer: Manages data transfer using TCP (reliable, for web pages) or UDP
(faster, for video streaming).

3)Internet Layer: Provides logical addressing (IP addresses) and routing.

4)Network Access Layer: Converts data into electrical signals or wireless waves.

The OSI Model is another reference model with seven layers:

1)Physical – Cables, signals

2)Data Link – MAC addresses, switches

3)Network – IP addresses, routers

4)Transport – TCP, UDP

5)Session – Manages sessions between applications

6)Presentation – Formats and encrypts data

7)Application – User software like web browsers

When sending data, the message is encapsulated as it moves through these layers:

*Application adds headers (e.g., HTTP).

*Transport assigns port numbers (e.g., 80 for web browsing).

*Internet assigns an IP address.

*Network Access converts data into signals.

At the receiving end, the process is decapsulation – the headers are removed as
data moves up the layers.
Module 4: Physical Layer

The physical layer of a network deals with how data is transmitted over cables and
wireless signals.

Transmission characteristics:

*Bandwidth – Maximum data transfer rate (measured in Mbps or Gbps).

*Throughput – Actual data speed, often lower due to network congestion.

*Latency – Delay in transmission, affected by distance and network traffic.

Networking cables:

1)Copper cables:

*UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): Common in Ethernet networks, cheap but susceptible
to interference.

*Coaxial Cable: Used in TV and some Internet connections.

*STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): Reduces interference but more expensive than UTP.

2)Fiber-optic cables:

*Transmit data as light, immune to electromagnetic interference.

*Higher bandwidth and longer range than copper cables.

*Two types: Single-mode (long distance) and Multi-mode (short distance).

3)Wireless transmission:

*Uses radio waves (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular networks).

*Interference and obstacles (walls, other signals) can affect signal quality.

*Security risks require encryption (WPA2, WPA3).

Network interfaces include:

*NIC (Network Interface Card): Connects a device to a network.

*Switch ports: Enable multiple devices to communicate in a LAN.

Module 5: Number Systems

Computers and networks use binary (base-2) instead of decimal (base-10).

Binary to Decimal Conversion:

Each binary digit (bit) represents a power of 2:

Example: 1101 in binary
= (1×2³) + (1×2²) + (0×2¹) + (1×2⁰)
= 8 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 13 in decimal

Decimal to Binary Conversion:

*Divide the decimal number by 2, writing down the remainder.

*Continue dividing until the quotient is 0.

*Read the remainders from bottom to top.

Example: Convert 25 to binary

25 ÷ 2 = 12 remainder 1
12 ÷ 2 = 6 remainder 0
6 ÷ 2 = 3 remainder 0
3 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 1
1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1
Binary: **11001**

Hexadecimal (Base-16) System:

Used in MAC addresses and IPv6 addresses. It uses 0-9 and A-F (where A = 10, B =
11, …, F = 15).

Example: Convert 1010 1111 to hexadecimal

*Split into 4-bit groups: 1010 1111

*Convert each to decimal: 1010 = A, 1111 = F

*Hexadecimal: AF

Why Number Systems Matter in Networking

*IP addresses use binary (e.g., 192.168.1.1 in binary is

11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001).

*MAC addresses are written in hexadecimal (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).