Journal of Interactive Advertising

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Uses and Gratifications Theory and E-Consumer

Xueming Luo

To cite this article: Xueming Luo (2002) Uses and Gratifications Theory and
E-Consumer Behaviors, Journal of Interactive Advertising, 2:2, 34-41, DOI:
10.1080/15252019.2002.10722060

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15252019.2002.10722060

Published online: 01 Jul 2013.

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Xueming Luo

ABSTRACT: Drawing from uses and gratifications theory, this study explores influences of informativeness, entertainment, and
irritation on various online consumer behaviors such as attitude toward the Web, Web usage, and satisfaction. Particularly, web
usage and satisfaction are explored as the consequences of attitude toward the Web, while informativeness, entertainment, and
irritation are the antecedents of attitude toward the Web. This nomological model was tested with a structural equation modeling
(SEM) approach. SEM results indicated that the uses and gratifications theory explains well consumers' attitude toward the Web.
Internet users who perceive the Web as entertaining and informative generally show a positive attitude toward the Web. In
contrast, those who perceive the Web as irritating indicate a negative attitude toward the Web. Finally, this study found that web
users with a positive attitude toward the Web browse the Net more oftentimes and feel more satisfied.

Although it is widely acknowledged that the Web as a approach is adopted because this study is also intended to
marketing tool or medium offers great potentials and vigorously test the convergent, discriminant, and nomological
advantages (Cook and Coupey 1998), less is known about the validity of both U&G constructs and the recently developed
motivations for using the Web and associated online scale of the attitude toward the Web by Chen and Wells
consumer behaviors (Chen and Wells 1999; Korgaonkar and (1999). Consumers' attitude toward the Web has been
Wolin 1999). Uses and gratifications theory may provide novel considered as a key indicator of Web effectiveness and
insights into the meaning and determinants of consumer consumers' belief of Internet technology (Chen and Wells
online behaviors such as attitude to the Web, Web usage and 1999), just as attitude to advertising has been supported as a
satisfaction, and shopping online. key predictor of advertising effectiveness in the literature (e.g.
Aaker and Stayman 1990; Batra and Ray 1986; Haley and
The uses and gratifications research (Herzog 1944; McGuire
Baldinger 1991; MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch 1986; Shimp
1974) has been quite fruitful in understanding consumers'
1981).
motivations and concerns in the context of traditional media
such as radio and TV (see Eighmey and McCord (1998) for a Figure 1. A Model of Attitude toward the Web
review of uses and gratifications applications). However, only
several researchers have explored uses and gratifications
(U&G) applications in the Internet context (Chen and Wells
1999; Eighmey and McCord 1998; Korgaonkar and Wolin
1999). For example, Eighmey and McCord (1998) noted that
research participants who browsed five commercial websites
show uses and gratifications behaviors similar to those
reported in studies of traditional media such as TV.
This paper is intended to address this literature deficiency by
linking the well-grounded uses and gratifications framework
to online consumer behaviors. Specifically, variables based on LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES
U&G theory are considered the antecedents of attitude toward DEVELOPMENT
the web, while Web usage (e.g., the number of hours spent per Uses and Gratifications Theory and Attitude toward the
week on the Internet) and e-satisfaction are modeled as the Web
consequences of attitude toward the Web. This nomological
model (as shown in Figure 1) of the antecedents and The uses and gratifications (U&G) theory originated from the
consequences of attitude toward the Web is, then, tested by functionalist perspective on mass media communication. It
structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis. The SEM was first developed in research on the effectiveness of the radio
medium in the 1940s. Basically, it focuses on the explanations
Journal of Interactive Advertising, Vol 2 No 2 (Spring 2002), pp. 34‐41.
© 2010 American Academy of Advertising, All rights reserved
ISSN 1525‐2019
35 Journal of Interactive Advertising Spring 2002

for audience members' motivations and associated behaviors. capability of advertising to entertain determines the
Psychologist Herta Herzog (1944) coined the term experience of advertising exchanges for users. Similarly,
gratifications to depict the specific dimensions of usage Ducoffe (1995; 1996) evidences that entertainment is
satisfaction of radio audiences. Following this, mass positively related to ad value and attitude to advertising.
communication theorists applied the U&G perspective in the Finally, Chen and Wells' (1999) study found that
context of various mass media such as television and entertainment is positively associated with the attitude toward
electronic bulletins. For example, Rubin (1994) found that the site, although their study has not vigorously tested (e.g.,
certain kinds of television programs have been shown to be using the structural equation modeling approach) the scales of
related to various human needs, including information attitude toward the site and uses and gratifications underlying
acquisition, escape, emotional release, companionship, reality dimensions. Following this stream of research, the following
exploration, and value reinforcement. The U&G research has hypothesis is offered.
been quite fruitful in understanding consumers' motivations
H1: Entertainment of the Web is positively associated
and concerns for using various media such as radio, TV, and
with the attitude toward the Web.
electronic bulletins (Eighmey and McCord 1998). A basic
assumption of U&G theory is that users are actively involved Informativeness. Different from entertainment, the
in media usage and interact highly with the communication informativeness construct of uses and gratifications theory can
media. Since the interactive nature of the Web requires high be defined as the extent to which the Web provides users with
consumer involvement, the application of uses and resourceful and helpful information (Chen and Wells 1999;
gratification theory to improve our understanding of e- Ducoffe 1995). In an original study, Bauer and Greyser (1968)
consumer behavior seems legitimate (e.g. Eighmey and suggest that media users consider advertising's ability to
McCord 1998; Korgaonkar and Wolin 1999). As such, there is provide audience information the fundamental reason for
no wonder that this theory has been recently applied to accepting the ad itself. Similarly, Rotzoll, Haefner, and
examine consumer experience associated with Web sites Sandage (1989) hold that advertising's informational role is its
(Chen and Wells 1999; Eighmey and McCord 1998; major legitimizing function. Without the time and space
Korgaonkar and Wolin 1999; Mukherji, Mukherji, and barriers in the virtual world, the Web can offer consumers
Nicovich 1998). with instant and insightful content. Maddox (1998) reports
that the most important reason for people to use the Net is to
U&G theory has multiple underlying constructs. In the
gather various kinds of information. Again, Chen and Wells
literature, the most important and robust dimensions of U&G
(1999) find that informativeness and attitude to the site are
theory include entertainment, informativeness, and irritation
positively related. Finally, Ducoffe (1995; 1996) notices a
(Chen and Wells 1999; Eighmey and McCord 1998; Eighmey
substantial and positive correlation between informativeness
1997; Herzog 1944; Korgaonkar and Wolin 1999; Plummer
and advertising value, and attitude to advertising. Thus, based
1971; Rubin 1994). Each of these three factors is discussed in
on this body of research, it is hypothesized:
the following sections.
H2: Informativeness of the Web is positively associated
Entertainment. The entertainment construct refers to the
with attitude toward the Web.
extent to which the web media is fun and entertaining to
media users (Eighmey and McCord 1998; Eighmey 1997). Irritation. Irritation can be defined as the extent to which the
U&G research has demonstrated that the value of media Web is messy and irritating to surfers (e.g. Eighmey and
entertainment lies in its ability to fulfill users' needs for McCord 1998). In the e-advertising context, Ducoffe (1996)
escapism, hedonistic pleasure, aesthetic enjoyment, or notes that irritating banner ads may exploit human anxiety,
emotional release (McQuail 1983). Previous research suggests distract consumers' attentions, and dilute human experiences.
that providing higher entertainment value is likely to lead to Bauer and Greyser (1968) note that people criticize advertising
an advantage for media users and to motivate them to use the and marketing mostly due to the annoyance or irritation that
media more often. For example, it is found that that web users advertising causes. Irritation may even lead to a general
who perceive a banner ad on the Web as entertaining leads to reduction of ad effectiveness and perceived value to audience
more brand loyalty to the advertised products and higher (Aaker and Bruzzone 1985). When e-business employs
chance of purchasing the brand (Stem and Zaichowsky 1991). techniques that are too flashy with big-size graphics or abuses
In addition, Alwitt and Prabhaker (1992) report that the those techniques by tracking consumer information and
36 Journal of Interactive Advertising Spring 2002

behavior online, Web users may perceive this as an unwanted, distributed to marketing classes (e.g., consumer behavior,
offending, and negative influence. Empirically, data from principles of marketing, and marketing research). Of the 238
Ducoffe's (1995) mall-intercept study yielded a significant and surveys received, 205 were fully completed and useable for
negative influence of irritation on the attitude toward ad. In a purposes of the study. The 205 useable surveys lead to an
separate study, Ducoffe (1996) reported that there is a negative 86.13% useable response rate. The sampled subjects have
correlation between irritation and the ad value and attitude about 3.5 years of web experience in average. The mean of
toward Web advertising. As such, the following hypothesis is their ages is 21 years. Fifty-five percent of the students are
offered: male, and 45% of them are female. Most of the students
(74.5%) are connected to the Internet through university
H3: Irritation of the Web is negatively associated with
servers. A majority of the subjects (63.7%) have purchased at
attitude toward the Web.
least once via the Web.
Consequences of Attitude toward the Web
Measurements
Based upon studies of traditional mass media advertising
All measurement scales (except web usage) are Likert-type
literature, Chen and Wells (1999) are among the first to
with 7-point format, anchoring at "1"--strongly disagree and
propose a seminal scale - Web users' attitude toward the site.
"7"--strongly agree. As reported in Appendix A, the fifteen
Attitude toward the Web is considered as a key determinant of
items measuring the U&G three dimensions in this paper are
both consumer adoption and usage of the Web, and Web
derived from previous studies (Chen and Wells 1999; Ducoffe
marketing effectiveness (Chen and Wells 1999), just as attitude
1996; Korgaonkar and Wolin 1999). Particularly, each of the
toward ad is a key predictor of ad effectiveness in advertising
informativeness, entertainment, and irritation scales is
literature.
measured by five separate items.
Previous advertising research has shown that the attitude
Attitude toward the Web is measured by the scale suggested by
toward ad is the most noteworthy indicator of advertising
Chen and Wells (1999). This scale involves six items. The
effectiveness and outcomes (Aaker and Stayman 1990; Haley
reliability and validity of this scale were also achieved in their
and Baldinger 1991; MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch 1986). For
seminal study. Satisfaction of the Web is measured by five
example, MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch (1986) found support
Likert-type items used in the Harris Online Survey 2000.
that the attitude toward the ad influences brand attitudes and
Examples of the items include: "I feel satisfied with the easy of
purchase intentions. In addition, Haley and Baldinger (1991)
use of the Web", "I am satisfied with information on the Web",
found that the degree to which audiences like an
"I am satisfied with online products and services", "I feel
advertisement is the foremost predictor of sales. In the same
satisfied with the prices on the Web", and "Overall, I am
manner, it is believed that consumers who hold a positive
satisfied with the Web." Finally, Web usage is measured by one
attitude toward the Web would spend more time browsing the
item, the number of hours per week spent on the Web
web for fun or information, and feel satisfied with the
(Korgaonkar and Wolin 1999).
convenient and resourceful Web.
Evidence of the internal consistence of the constructs was
H4: Attitude toward the Web is positively associated with
found in this study. Cronbach's alpha was .91 for
consumers' web usage and satisfaction.
entertainment, .89 for informativeness, and .88 for irritation.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Attitude toward the Web and Satisfaction of the Web also
possessed sufficient reliability, as Cronbach's alphas were .82
Sample and Data Collection
and .84 for attitude toward the Web and satisfaction of the
Web surveys suggest that the web users population, for the Web, respectively.
first time, moved closer to the characteristics of the general
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
population in the late 1990s (Korgaonkar and Wolin 1999),
and that web users are generally college educated and young Measurements Validation
with median or high-income levels. Data in this study were
Since entertainment, informativeness, and irritation are three
collected from undergraduate business students in two major
dimensions of U&G theory, the items of these three constructs
universities, one in a Southern state and the other in a
are included in one measurement model to rigorously test the
Northern state in the U.S. A total of 268 surveys were
37 Journal of Interactive Advertising Spring 2002

validity. A separate measurement model includes the scales of Table .1 Results of Uses and Gratifications Measurement
attitude toward the Web and Web satisfaction. According to Model
Gerbing and Anderson (1988), it is more appropriate to adopt
the two-step procedure in structural equation modeling. That
is, one should separately estimate the measurement model
before a simultaneous estimation of measurement and
structural models. All measurement models were evaluated on
multiple criteria such as unidimensionality, reliability, and
convergent and discriminant validity (Gerbing and Anderson
1988).
Uses and gratifications theory measurement model. Before a
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the U&G measurement
model, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was executed by
maximum likelihood extraction method, with varimax
rotation. In order to decide the number of factors to be
extracted and rotated in the U&G model, three methods were
used: 1) a cut point of .4 and no significant cross loading
criteria, 2) scree plot tests, and 3) consideration of eigen value
magnitude and discontinuity (Hair et al. 1998). EFA results of Table 2. Summary Statistics and Correlation among
the U&G model suggest a clean three-factor solution Variables
corresponding to informativeness, entertainment, and
Me S INFO ENTE IRRI ATTI SAT WEB
irritation (with item loading > .40 and small cross loading).
an D RM RTA TA TUD ISF USE
The total variance explained by the three factors is 68.45%.
INFO 6.1 0.
Then, a three-factor model with all indicators of these three 1.00
RM 9 91
constructs of uses and gratifications theory was estimated
ENTE 5.4 1.
using confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). As Table 1 0.65** 1.00
RTA 6 20
indicates, all items' loadings on their corresponding construct IRRIT 2.6 1. -
were significant at p<.05 (i.e., t > 2.0), demonstrating adequate -0.46** 1.00
A 0 38 0.47**
convergent validity. Since the modification indices and -
ATTI 5.6 0.
estimated residuals of the U&G model were small, not 0.67** 0.78** 0.50* 1.00
TUD 0 99
significant, unidimensionality was also achieved (Sujan, Weitz, *
and Kumar 1994). In addition, discriminant validity of the -
SATIS 5.4 1.
U&G model was supported by checking the pairwise 0.58** 0.58** 0.44* 0.63** 1.00
F 0 08
correlations in Table 2. As expected, the factor correlations *
ranged from -.46 to .65 and significantly different from one, WEB 8.1 8. 0.17
0.15* 0.26** -0.11 0.23** 1.00
establishing discriminant validity. For this uses and USE? 2 07 *
gratifications measurement model, the goodness-of-fit (GFI), * p< .05
adjusted goodness-of-fit (AGFI), root-mean-square error of
approximation (RMSEA), and comparative fit index (CFI) ** p< .01
were .916, .903, .069, and .949 respectively, therefore Attitude toward the Web and satisfaction measurement
indicating an adequate model fit. model. Similar to the uses and gratifications measurement
model, both confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and
exploratory factor analyses (EFA) were employed to test this
two-factor model. First, exploratory factor analysis using
maximum likelihood with varimax rotation results clearly
show two factors of attitude toward the Web and satisfaction.
Similarly, CFA results support the convergent, discriminant
38 Journal of Interactive Advertising Spring 2002

validity of attitude toward the Web and satisfaction. Overall, attitude toward the Web. This finding lends strong support for
model goodness-of-fit indexes also support this measurement the nomological validity of U&G theory and attitude toward
model ( (43)=152.83; CFI = .919; GFI =.882; AGFI = .863; the Web scale. The final hypothesis states that attitude toward
RMSEA = .079). the Web is positively related to Web usage and consumer
satisfaction. The attitude toward the Web - Web usage path
It should be noted that although Chen and Wells (1999) loading was .79 (p< .01), while the attitude toward the Web -
developed the Attitude toward the Web scale, their study did user satisfaction path estimate was .25 (p<.01), supporting H4.
not test this scale by confirmatory factor analysis. Thus, the Users' attitude toward the Web explains 63% of the variance of
present study extends their research, and confirms that the Web satisfaction.
attitude toward the Web scale achieves convergent and
discriminant validity, besides the content validity as evidenced We also tested unhypothesized direct paths from
in their previous effort. entertainment, informativeness, and irritation to attitude
toward the Web by comparing different models. Following the
Structural Paths and Hypotheses Tests process suggested by Gerbing and Anderson (1988), models
To test the structural relationships, the hypothesized causal comparison results indicated only the model with the
paths were estimated and all hypotheses (H1, H2, H3, and H4) directions hypothesized fits the data the best. As such, it is
were supported. The results are reported in Table 3. The supported that attitude toward the Web mediates the effects of
overall fit of the model is acceptable because the goodness-of- U&G theory and Web usage and satisfaction. This mediating
fix statistics (CFI = .912, GFI =.876, AGFI = .847, and RMSEA effect is similar to the finding in Ducoffe's (1996) study.

= .074) are satisfactory, with the /df ratio close to 2.0. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Table 3. Parameter Estimates for Causal Paths This study, drawing from uses and gratifications theory
(Herzog 1944; McGuire 1974), attempted to explore the
influences of informativeness, entertainment, and irritation on
various online consumer behaviors such as attitude toward the
Web, Web usage, and Web satisfaction. Particularly, web
usage and satisfaction were explored as the consequences of
attitude toward the Web, while informativeness,
entertainment, and irritation are the antecedents of attitude
toward the Web. This nomological model was tested with a
more rigid theory testing methodology--structural equation
modeling (SEM) approach.

Hypothesis 1 states that entertainment is positively related to SEM results indicated that the U&G theory explains
attitude toward the Web. In Table 3, the entertainment - consumers' attitude toward the Web. Internet users who
attitude toward the Web path loading was .68 (p< .01), perceive the Web as entertaining and informative generally
supporting H1. In addition, the results provide support H2, as like the web and show a positive attitude toward the Web. On
informativeness is positively related to attitude toward the the other hand, those who perceive the Web as irritating are
Web (loading = .19, p<.05). As predicted, irritation leads to a more likely to report a negative attitude toward the Web. In
negative attitude toward the Web (loading = -.16, p<.05), addition, this study found that web users who have a positive
supporting hypothesis H3. Also a comparison of the estimated attitude toward the web are more likely to surf the Net and feel
coefficients of all independent variables shows that more satisfied.
entertainment is the most important determinant for Web The findings of this study offer several implications for e-
users' online behaviors. These empirical results support business. First, electronic marketers should not only provide
Eighmey and McCord's (1998, p.189) argument that "the useful information to Web users, but also go beyond this by
primary use of computer-mediated forms of communication entertaining them in cyberspace. This is because Web
and the Web involves entertainment." Overall, entertainment, entertainment value was found to be the most important
informativeness, and irritation explain 87% of the variance of determinant of users' attitude toward the Web, which may
39 Journal of Interactive Advertising Spring 2002

lead to more satisfied users and repeated use of the Web. Information on the Internet: An Exploratory Study,
Ultimately, repeated visits and click through, consumer International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 4 (October), 85-
satisfaction, and loyalty of the Web site are the key to success 102.
of e-business (Hoffman, Novak, and Peralta 1999; Fukuyama
Chenet, Pierre, Caroline Tynan, and Arthur Money (1999),
1995). Second, e-marketers should avoid confusing or
Service Performance Gap: Re-evaluation and Redevelopment,
irritating surfers by such practices as too flashy and big size
Journal of Business Research, 2, 133-147.
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businesses will find it is notoriously difficult to get consumers the Site, Journal of Advertising Research, (September/October),
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attitude toward the Web simultaneously. Second, by using the Donthu, Naveen and Adriana Garcia (1999), The Internet
structural equation modeling method, this study supports the
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41 Journal of Interactive Advertising Spring 2002

APPENDIX A. Measurement Items.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS