UNIT-III Areas of Gender Discrimination

Gender discrimination persists in multiple spheres of society, ranging from

personal and family life to institutional structures such as politics and law. The
unequal treatment of individuals based on their gender, particularly women
and gender minorities, can have far-reaching consequences for individuals
and communities. Below are detailed notes on various key areas where
gender discrimination is prevalent, with examples to illustrate these issues.

1. Family

 Gender Discrimination in the Family: The family is often the first site where
gender roles are imposed and reinforced. In many societies, traditional
expectations dictate distinct roles for men and women within the
household. Women are typically responsible for domestic chores, child-
rearing, and caregiving, while men are expected to be the primary
breadwinners.
 Example: In some households, sons are preferred over daughters,
leading to practices like female infanticide or neglect of female
children. Sons are often given better education and opportunities, while
daughters may be married off at a young age, limiting their educational
and career prospects.
 Domestic Work: Women are disproportionately burdened with unpaid
domestic labor, which is not recognized or compensated. This division of
labor can limit women’s opportunities for personal and professional
growth.
2. Sex Ratio
 Imbalanced Sex Ratios: In many countries, the sex ratio at birth and in
the general population is skewed due to gender discrimination. A
preference for male children leads to practices like gender-based
selective abortions and infanticide, contributing to a disproportionate
number of males compared to females in the population.
 Example: In India and China, the male-to-female sex ratio has been
highly imbalanced, especially in rural areas, where there is a strong
preference for sons over daughters. The consequences of this include a
shortage of women in marriageable age and the increased vulnerability
of women and girls to violence and exploitation.
3. Literacy

 Gender Gaps in Education: In many parts of the world, girls face

significant barriers to accessing education due to cultural norms,
economic constraints, and gender-based violence. Gender disparities in
education not only affect literacy rates but also limit women’s ability to
contribute fully to the economy and society.
 Example: In certain regions of South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, girls
are less likely to attend school or finish their education compared to
boys. In some cultures, girls are expected to prioritize domestic
responsibilities over schooling, limiting their educational attainment.
 Consequences: Women who are less educated tend to have fewer job
opportunities, lower income, and are more dependent on male
relatives, reinforcing cycles of poverty and gender inequality.

4. Health

 Access to Healthcare: Gender discrimination in healthcare manifests in

limited access to necessary medical services, gender biases in medical
research, and the neglect of women’s health needs. Women may face
difficulties in accessing reproductive healthcare or may be dismissed by
healthcare providers when seeking care.
 Example: In many developing countries, women face significant barriers
to accessing maternal health services. High maternal mortality rates,
driven by a lack of proper medical care during childbirth, continue to
affect women, especially in rural and marginalized communities.
 Sexual and Reproductive Health: Gender discrimination also affects
access to contraceptives, family planning, and safe abortions, as well as
reproductive rights. In some societies, there is a lack of sexual education for
women, leading to early pregnancies and limited sexual autonomy.

5. Governance

 Underrepresentation in Leadership: Women are underrepresented in

positions of political power, decision-making, and governance. Societal
stereotypes about gender roles often discourage women from pursuing
leadership roles, while institutional barriers limit their access to power
structures.
 Example: Globally, women make up a significantly smaller proportion
of elected representatives compared to men. As of 2024, women hold
about 25% of the seats in parliaments worldwide. Countries like Rwanda
and Sweden have made progress in women’s political representation,
but gender disparities remain in many others.
  Consequences: The lack of women in governance limits the
development of policies that consider women's needs and perspectives,
particularly in areas like maternal health, child care, and gender-based
violence.
6. Religion

 Gender Roles in Religion: Religious institutions and doctrines can

often perpetuate gender inequality by prescribing different roles and
expectations for men and women. In many religions, men are typically
seen as the leaders or priests, while women are relegated to subordinate or
supportive roles.
 Example: In certain branches of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, women
may be excluded from leading prayers, religious services, or holding
positions of authority within religious institutions. Some religious practices
also limit women’s participation in sacred rites or spiritual leadership
roles.
 Consequences: The marginalization of women in religious practices
reinforces gender stereotypes and discourages women from
participating in public life and leadership, affecting their social and
political empowerment.

7. Work vs. Employment

 Workplace Gender Discrimination: Gender discrimination is often

visible in the workplace, where women may face barriers to
employment, unequal pay for equal work, and limited access to career
advancement opportunities.
 Example: The gender pay gap is a persistent issue, with women earning
less than men for the same work in many industries. In countries like the
United States and India, women in the same roles as men often receive
lower salaries. This gap is especially pronounced in leadership positions
and sectors dominated by men, such as technology and engineering.
 Glass Ceiling: Many women encounter a "glass ceiling," where they are
unable to rise to the top levels of management despite being equally
qualified as their male counterparts.

8. Market
 Economic Participation: Gender discrimination in the market often
manifests through unequal opportunities for men and women to access
resources such as credit, land ownership, and capital. Women are often
excluded from formal labor markets and are more likely to be employed
in low-wage, informal, or precarious jobs.
 Example: Women entrepreneurs may face more challenges than men
 in obtaining loans or financial support for starting businesses due to
traditional biases that assume men are better business leaders. This
creates a cycle of economic disadvantage for women.
 Consequences: Women’s lack of financial independence limits their
social mobility and economic security, keeping them in subordinate
positions in society.

9. Media

 Gender Representation in Media: Media often perpetuate

stereotypes about gender roles, with women frequently depicted as
passive, emotional, or focused on domestic duties, while men are
portrayed as strong, active, and rational. These representations
reinforce harmful societal norms and expectations.
 Example: In advertising, women are often depicted as homemakers,
caregivers, or objects of desire, while men are shown in powerful roles
like leaders or decision-makers. In film and television, female characters
are frequently sidelined or relegated to supporting roles, with male
characters taking center stage.
 Consequences: The way gender is portrayed in media affects public
perceptions of gender roles, influencing how individuals see themselves
and others in society. This contributes to the marginalization of women
and reinforces harmful gender stereotypes.

10. Politics

 Gender Inequality in Politics: Politics remains one of the most male-

dominated spheres, with women often facing discrimination in elections,
political campaigns, and governance. Gender biases affect how voters
perceive female candidates and the types of policies they prioritize.
 Example: In many countries, women face a "double bind" in politics,
where they are criticized for being either too assertive (which violates
gender norms) or too passive. Women in politics also face higher rates
of harassment and violence.
 Consequences: The underrepresentation of women in politics results in
policies that may not fully address the needs and issues faced by women
and marginalized genders. Women's voices and concerns are often
sidelined in decision-making processes.

11. Law
 Gender Bias in Legal Systems: Legal systems around the world have
historically been biased against women, with laws that restrict women's
rights in areas like property ownership, inheritance, marriage, and
 divorce. Women may also face unequal treatment in the justice system,
especially when it comes to crimes like domestic violence or sexual
assault.
 Example: In some countries, marital rape is not criminalized, or laws may
favor men in custody battles, with women having less legal protection
when it comes to inheritance or property rights. In many societies,
women who report sexual violence face societal stigma or disbelief,
leading to low conviction rates.
 Consequences: Gender bias in the legal system perpetuates inequality
and violence against women. It reinforces the idea that women’s rights
are secondary and impedes efforts to achieve gender justice.

12. Domestic Violence

 Gender-based Violence: Domestic violence disproportionately affects

women, with intimate partner violence being a significant global issue.
Women often face physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, and societal
norms may either justify or fail to prevent such violence.
 Example: In many societies, domestic violence is normalized, and
women are expected to tolerate it as part of their marital or family
duties. In some countries, laws may not adequately protect women from
domestic violence, and law enforcement may fail to take action against
abusers.
 Consequences: Domestic violence severely impacts women’s health,
well-being, and economic independence, creating cycles of trauma and
inequality. Women who experience abuse may also find it difficult to
escape due to financial dependency or societal stigma.

13. Sexual Harassment

 Harassment in Public and Private Spheres: Sexual harassment is a

pervasive issue that affects women in workplaces, public spaces, and
even at home. It involves unwanted sexual advances, comments, or
behaviors that create a hostile environment.
 Example: In the workplace, women may experience inappropriate
comments, physical advances, or unequal treatment based on their
gender. In public spaces, women may face street harassment, such as
catcalling or being followed.
 Consequences: Sexual harassment undermines women’s dignity,
creates unsafe environments, and limits their ability to participate freely
in public and professional life. It also leads to psychological and
emotional distress.
Conclusion
Gender discrimination is a complex and multifaceted issue that affects every
aspect of society. From family dynamics and education to the workplace and
politics, women and gender minorities face systemic barriers that prevent them
from achieving equality. Understanding and addressing these areas of
discrimination is crucial for creating a more just and equitable world for all
genders.
UNIT-IV Women Development and Gender Empowerment

Women’s development and gender empowerment have been critical areas of

focus for both national governments and international organizations, aiming to
improve the status, rights, and well-being of women and gender minorities.
Efforts to empower women are essential for achieving equality and sustainable
development, and these efforts are reflected in various global and national
initiatives, policies, and frameworks. Below are elaborate notes on the key
initiatives and policies related to women’s development and gender
empowerment.

1. International Women’s Decade (1976-1985)

 Overview: The International Women’s Decade was an initiative

proclaimed by the United Nations to highlight the need for gender
equality and to improve the status of women worldwide. It was a ten-
year period from 1976 to 1985 that focused on actions to enhance
women’s participation in all areas of society.
 Goals: The goals of the Women’s Decade were to advance women’s
rights, promote equality in social, economic, and political spheres, and
address the challenges faced by women across the world, especially in
developing countries.
 Key Areas of Focus:
o Education: Promoting access to education for girls and women.
o Employment: Ensuring women’s equal participation in
the workforce.
o Health: Improving maternal health and reducing infant mortality
rates.
o Legal Rights: Advocating for women’s legal equality
and protection from violence and discrimination.
 Examples: During this decade, various international organizations and
national governments initiated programs to improve women’s literacy,
healthcare access, and legal rights. Countries like Sweden and Norway
also worked toward enhancing women's political participation.

2. International Women’s Year (1975)

  Overview: International Women’s Year (IWY) was declared by the
United Nations in 1975, marking the beginning of the United Nations
Decade for Women. The primary goal of this year was to highlight issues
that directly impacted women and to mobilize governments,
organizations, and individuals to take action towards gender equality.

 Key Events and Impact:

o The Mexico City Conference (1975), held during the
International Women’s Year, was a significant milestone. It focused
on women’s rights, their participation in development, and the
need for social, political, and economic change to advance
gender equality.
o The year also aimed to emphasize the global dimension of
women’s struggles and to call attention to issues such as poverty,
education, and healthcare.
 Legacy: The declaration of International Women’s Year helped set the
stage for future global movements and programs, including the
Women’s Decade. It also led to the establishment of national
committees to address women's issues and created a platform for
international discussions on women's rights.

3. National Policy for Empowerment of Women (2001)

 Overview: The National Policy for Empowerment of Women,

formulated by the Government of India in 2001, sought to address the
multiple dimensions of gender inequality and provide a framework for
the empowerment of women in the country.
 Goals and Objectives:
o To eliminate discrimination against women and ensure their
equal participation in all aspects of life.
o To enhance women’s access to resources, including education,
healthcare, and employment.
o To ensure protection from violence and abuse, including
domestic violence, sexual harassment, and trafficking.
o To promote women’s participation in political and
decision- making processes.
 Key Features:
o Healthcare: Improved access to maternal and reproductive
healthcare services.
o Legal Reforms: Strengthening laws related to dowry, inheritance,
and sexual violence.
o Economic Empowerment: Promoting women’s access to
financial resources, land ownership, and employment
 opportunities.
 Example: The policy led to initiatives such as the Swadhar Scheme, which
provides relief and rehabilitation for women in difficult circumstances,
including victims of trafficking or domestic violence. Additionally, it
influenced the creation of the National Commission for Women,
which addresses gender-based discrimination and advocates for policy
changes.

4. Women Empowerment Year (2001)

 Overview: Women Empowerment Year (2001) was observed as part

of the Government of India’s initiative to highlight the importance of
women’s empowerment and to take concrete steps toward improving
the status of women in society.
 Goals:
o Increasing women’s autonomy in decision-making at home, in
the workplace, and in politics.
o Enhancing women’s access to economic resources such as
land, credit, and employment.
o Eliminating violence against women and strengthening legal
protections for them.
 Key Initiatives:
o The year emphasized the need for societal and institutional
changes to address gender discrimination.
o National and state-level programs focused on empowering
women in rural areas through skill development, education, and
self-help groups.
 Example: The Self-Help Group (SHG) model, which aims to provide
women in rural India with financial independence and decision-making
power, gained momentum during this time. These groups helped
women start small businesses, become financially independent, and
gain confidence in their abilities.

5. Mainstreaming Global Policies on Gender Empowerment

 Overview: Mainstreaming gender empowerment into global policies

refers to the integration of gender equality principles into all aspects of
policy-making, planning, and implementation at both the national and
international levels. This ensures that gender considerations are not seen as
separate from development but are an integral part of all policy
frameworks.
 Key Concepts:
o Gender Mainstreaming: A strategy to make gender equality a
 core dimension in policies and programs. It requires that gender
considerations are systematically integrated into all stages of
policy development and implementation.
o Global Frameworks: The Beijing Platform for Action (1995)
and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have been
instrumental in global gender empowerment efforts. The SDGs, for
example, have a specific goal (Goal 5) dedicated to gender
equality and empowerment.
 Global Actions and Policies:
o The United Nations and other international organizations have
prioritized gender empowerment through the creation of
frameworks like the CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination Against Women), which mandates
state parties to eliminate discrimination in all areas, including
education, employment, and political participation.
o Countries and organizations are also encouraged to adopt
gender-responsive budgeting, which ensures that financial
resources are allocated in a way that addresses gender
inequalities and promotes women’s economic and social
empowerment.
 Example: The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
works to mainstream gender by promoting gender equality in its
development programs, such as supporting women’s economic
participation in developing countries through training programs,
microfinance initiatives, and creating job opportunities in the green
economy.

Key Achievements and Challenges

 Achievements:
o Increased awareness of women’s rights and gender equality at
the global level.
o More countries have passed laws aimed at reducing gender-
based violence and increasing women's access to education and
healthcare.
o International frameworks such as the SDGs have provided a
global blueprint for integrating gender equality into national
development agendas.
 Challenges:
o Cultural and societal barriers: In many societies, deep-seated
cultural norms and patriarchal values continue to hinder the
progress of women’s empowerment.
o Economic barriers: Women still face significant disparities in
 employment opportunities, wages, and access to economic
resources, particularly in developing countries.
o Violence and discrimination: Despite legal advancements,
gender-based violence remains pervasive, and women’s
participation in decision-making remains low in many areas.

Conclusion

The empowerment of women is a crucial step toward creating a just,

equitable, and sustainable society. Global initiatives such as the International
Women’s Decade, International Women’s Year, and national policies like
India’s National Policy for Empowerment of Women have played
important roles in raising awareness and driving progress. However, the journey is
far from over. Achieving gender equality requires continued effort, policy
reforms, and societal transformation. By mainstreaming gender into all global
and national policies, societies can ensure that women and gender minorities
are not left behind in the pursuit of development and human rights.

UNIT-V-Women's Movements and Safeguarding Mechanisms

The protection and promotion of women’s rights have been central to various
movements and legislations across the world, particularly in India. These
movements, combined with the legal safeguards and mechanisms, aim to
address gender inequality and promote social, economic, and legal rights for
women. Below is an elaborate overview of the key national and state-level
initiatives, legislations, and mechanisms that safeguard women’s rights and
empowerment in India.

1. National/State Commission for Women (NCW)

 Overview: The National Commission for Women (NCW) is a

statutory body established in India in 1992 under the National
Commission for Women Act, 1990. Its primary role is to protect and
promote the rights of women in India, examine laws related to women,
and recommend reforms to ensure gender equality.
 Functions:
o Investigation and Monitoring: The NCW investigates complaints
of gender-based discrimination and violence against women,
including domestic violence, sexual harassment, and trafficking.
o Advocacy and Policy Reforms: It works towards advocating
for gender-sensitive policies and reforms in areas such as
education, healthcare, and labor laws.
o Public Awareness: The NCW conducts awareness programs
 and campaigns aimed at empowering women and highlighting
issues such as child marriage, female foeticide, and dowry.
 Example: The NCW played a significant role in pushing for stronger
laws against sexual harassment at the workplace, leading to the
enactment of the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace
(Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013.

2. All Women Police Stations

 Overview: In India, All Women Police Stations were introduced to

make the police more accessible and sensitive to women’s issues,
particularly in the context of crimes like domestic violence, sexual
harassment, and trafficking. These police stations are staffed by female
officers and designed to provide a safer and more supportive
environment for women to report crimes.
 Functions:
o Support for Women Victims: These stations cater specifically
to women, allowing victims to report incidents of domestic
violence, rape, and abuse in a less intimidating environment.
o Gender Sensitivity: Officers in these stations are trained to be
sensitive to the unique needs of women and children, ensuring
that complaints are taken seriously and with due respect for
privacy.
 Example: Cities like Delhi, Chennai, and Kolkata have established All
Women Police Stations, which have been instrumental in providing a
safe space for women to report crimes without fear of judgment or
harassment.

3. Family Court

 Overview: The Family Courts Act, 1984 in India established Family

Courts with the aim to provide a speedy, accessible, and gender-
sensitive resolution to family-related disputes, including matters
related to divorce, child custody, maintenance, and domestic violence.
 Functions:
o Dispute Resolution: Family courts focus on resolving conflicts within
families through mediation, counseling, and adjudication,
ensuring that women’s and children’s rights are safeguarded.
o Protection for Women: Family courts offer women a platform
to seek relief in matters such as divorce, alimony, and custody
without long delays or high costs.
 Example: In cases of domestic violence or dowry harassment, the Family
Courts provide women with a faster and more supportive environment
 to resolve their issues compared to regular courts.

4. Domestic Violence Act (2005)

 Overview: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act,

2005 (PWDVA) was enacted to provide a comprehensive framework
to protect women from domestic violence. It recognizes physical,
emotional, sexual, and economic abuse as forms of domestic violence
and ensures legal protection for women facing such abuse.
 Key Provisions:
o Right to Residence: Women who face domestic violence are
entitled to stay in a shared household, regardless of ownership.
o Protection Orders: The Act allows women to seek protection
orders from the court to prevent further violence or harassment.
o Monetary Relief: It provides for financial relief to women for
medical expenses, legal costs, and compensation for loss of
earnings due to abuse.
 Example: A woman facing emotional and physical abuse from her
spouse can file a complaint under this law and seek protection,
residence rights, and monetary relief without the need for a lengthy legal
battle.
5. Prevention of Sexual Harassment at Workplace - Supreme Court
Guidelines

 Overview: In 1997, the Supreme Court of India issued guidelines in

the case of Vishakha v. State of Rajasthan to address sexual
harassment of women in the workplace. These guidelines formed the
basis for the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention,
Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013.
 Key Provisions:
o Workplace Safety: Employers are mandated to create a safe work
environment and ensure that women employees are not
subjected to sexual harassment.
o Internal Complaints Committee (ICC): The Act requires
organizations with more than 10 employees to establish an ICC to
address complaints of sexual harassment.
o Redressal Mechanism: The Act provides a clear procedure for
filing complaints, investigations, and action to be taken against
the harasser.
 Example: In the case of an employee facing inappropriate comments
or physical advances from a colleague, the employee can file a
complaint with the ICC, which will investigate and resolve the issue
according to the law.
6. Maternity Benefit Act (1961)

 Overview: The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 provides for the payment
of maternity leave and benefits to women employees, ensuring that
women workers can take time off for childbirth and recovery without
losing their income.
 Key Provisions:
o Maternity Leave: The Act entitles women to 26 weeks of paid
maternity leave for the first two children and 12 weeks for
subsequent children.
o Wages During Leave: Women are entitled to receive their full
wages during the maternity leave period.
o Postnatal Care: The Act also includes provisions for postnatal
care, ensuring that women’s health is prioritized after childbirth.
 Example: A woman working in a corporate office can take 26 weeks
of maternity leave under this Act, receiving her full salary during the
period, thus providing financial security while recovering and caring
for her newborn.

7. Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PNDT) Act

(1994)
 Overview: The Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic
Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994 was enacted to
curb female foeticide and sex-selective abortion practices, which were
common in some parts of India due to a cultural preference for male
children.
 Key Provisions:
o Prohibition of Sex Determination: The Act prohibits the use of
diagnostic techniques for determining the sex of a fetus, except
for medical purposes.
o Regulation of Clinics: Clinics that perform ultrasound or other
diagnostic tests must be registered, and their operations must be
regulated to prevent misuse for sex determination.
 Example: In some regions where female foeticide was prevalent, the
PNDT Act has been used to crack down on illegal clinics that provide
sex determination services to clients seeking to abort female fetuses.

8. Hindu Succession Act (2005)

 Overview: The Hindu Succession Act, 1956, was amended in 2005 to

grant women equal rights in the inheritance of ancestral property.
Before the amendment, women did not have the same rights as men in
property inheritance, especially when it came to ancestral property.
  Key Provisions:
o Equal Inheritance Rights: The amendment granted daughters the
same rights as sons in inheriting ancestral property.
o Co-Parcenary Rights: Women were given the right to be a part
of the family business and decision-making concerning the
family estate.
 Example: After the 2005 amendment, a daughter can now inherit her
father’s ancestral property just as her brother would, and she can also
seek a share in the family’s joint property.

9. Eve Teasing Prevention Act

 Overview: While not a standalone law, eve-teasing refers to the public

sexual harassment or teasing of women, and several legal provisions
have been introduced to combat it, including provisions under the
Indian Penal Code (IPC) and the Sexual Harassment at the
Workplace Act.
 Key Provisions:
o Punishment for Harassment: The IPC includes sections related
to sexual harassment (Section 354, 509), which deal with
assault, stalking, and eve-teasing.
o Police Action: The police are empowered to act on eve-teasing
complaints, including arresting offenders.
 Example: A woman who faces unwanted attention or harassment on
public transport can lodge a complaint with the police under IPC
provisions, which criminalize eve-teasing.

10. Self Help Groups (SHGs)

 Overview: Self-Help Groups (SHGs) are small groups of women,
primarily in rural areas, who come together to address common issues
such as poverty, financial independence, and community development.
SHGs are a key component of women’s empowerment, especially in
the context of economic independence.
 Functions:
o Financial Inclusion: SHGs provide a platform for women to
save money collectively and access microfinance for small-scale
businesses or personal loans.
o Empowerment: Women in SHGs gain confidence, improve
their leadership skills, and actively participate in decision-making
within their families and communities.
 Example: SHGs in rural India, supported by organizations like
NRLM (National Rural Livelihood Mission), have helped women start
their own businesses, become financially independent, and address
 issues like dowry and domestic violence.

11. 73rd and 74th Amendments for Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)

 Overview: The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments of 1992

were pivotal in decentralizing political power in India. These
amendments mandated the reservation of seats for women in
Panchayats (village councils) and Municipalities, empowering women
to actively participate in local governance.
 Key Provisions:
o 33% Reservation for Women: The amendments ensure that one-
third of the seats in Panchayats and Municipalities are reserved for
women, giving them a direct role in local governance.
o Leadership Roles: Women can hold positions of power within
these institutions, such as Sarpanch (village head) or Ward
Member, and influence local policy decisions.
 Example: In the state of Kerala, women’s participation in local
governance has increased significantly due to the implementation of
this reservation system, with many women taking on leadership roles and
making decisions about local infrastructure, education, and health
services.

Conclusion

Women’s movements and safeguarding mechanisms in India have been

essential in securing women’s rights, ensuring protection from violence and
discrimination, and empowering them economically and socially. While
progress has been made through laws and initiatives like the National
Commission for Women, the Domestic Violence Act, Family Courts, and
Self- Help Groups, there is still a long way to go in achieving full gender
equality. These efforts provide a foundation for continued advocacy and
action toward women’s empowerment in India.