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 CS601 Notes by Zeeshan

T= Convert large amount of data into small amount is called segment

N= Assign soure and Destination IP is called packet
D= Covering a data in a sheet or (khol) is called frame header
P= Convert data into bit
Data link Layer:

Define :
The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the
physical layer.
OR
The layer which is responsible for node-to-node communication is called data link layer.

Note :
Data link layer is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking.
Node:
Any point on a network is called node .
Link:
A way of connecting two or more nodes in a network is called link .

Hosts:
Two end points in a network is called hosts.

A B C D

Connection two end points is called

Host
Data link layer provides the following services:

1. framing
2. flow control
3. error control
4. congestion control

framing
The main function of data link layer is framing.
Date link layer divides data packets into small frames. Framing is a primary service of data link
layer.
In case of framing we gone talk about two processes encapsulation and de capsulation, both
combined are call framing. We know that data travel in the form of packets. Data link layer
encapsulate this Packets into multiple frames. Encapsulation means breakdown of a packet into
multiple frames which is stream of bit for transmission. Data Link Layer is also add its own
header to each off frame .When data receive data link layer de-capsulate these frames. It Takes
multiple frames and combined it in form of packet.
Flow control
Flow control is the management of data flow between sender and receiver. Flow control tells the
sender how much data should be sent to the receiver so that it is not lost.
error control
Error control is the technique of detecting and correcting blocks of data during communication.

Congestion Control
Congestion Control is a mechanism that controls the entry of data packets into the network

There are two types of DLL:

1. Point-to-point link
2. Broadcast link
Point -to-point link:
A communication between two end points or nodes is called point to point link. n example is a
telephone call, in which one telephone is connected with one other, and what is said by one caller
can only be heard by the other.
Point-to-point is sometimes abbreviated as P2P.

Broadcast link:
Broadcast links connect two or more nodes and support broadcast transmission, where one node
can transmit so that all other nodes can receive the same transmission. Ethernet is an example.

Sub layers of DLL:

There are two sub layers of Data link layer:
Data link control (DLC): it deals with point-to-point link as well as broadcast link.
Media Access Control (MAC): it deals with only broadcast link.

Link layer addresses

1. IP addresses:
2. Link layer addresses / physical addresses / MAC addresses
IP Addresses:
IP addresses are the unique address of any node in the network . we can not transmit a packet
directly to its destination by using only an IP address.

Link layer addresses :

Source and destination IP addresses Define Two ends but cannot Define which links the packet
and path will take. Encapsulation and de capsulation processes are involved In these link layer
addresses. In process of encapsulation also involve header. This header contains the link layer
addresses of the source and destination.
 Topic 131 Types of address
Three types of address

i. Unicast
ii. Multicast
iii. Broadcast

Unicast

Unicast is a one-to-one transmission from one point to another point in the network.

Multicast

Multicast is a method of group communication where the sender sends data to multiple receivers
or nodes present in the network simultaneously. Multicasting is a type of one-to-many and many-
to-many communication as it allows sender or senders to send data packets to multiple receivers
at once across LANs or WANs.

OR

Multicast is the communication where one host sends data to multiple hosts at once.
Broadcast : (one sender multiple receiver )
In broadcast transmission, where one node can transmit so that all other nodes that are connected
in a network can receive the same transmission. Ethernet is an example.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

A communication protocol which is used for discovering the link layer address, such as a MAC
address, associated with a given internet layer address, typically an IPv4 address.

Note: ARP request is always broadcast. ARP reply is always Unicast.

ARP Operation:

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a procedure for mapping a dynamic IP address to a

permanent physical machine address in a local area network (LAN). The physical machine
address is also known as a media access control (MAC) address.

Caching:

The process of storing data in a cache is called caching.

Types of Error

1. Single bit error

2. Burst error

Single bit Error: means that only one bit of given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or 0 to 1.
Burst Error: means that two or more bits in data unit have change from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

Number of impacted bits actually depends on two things:

1. Data rate
2. Duration of rate

Note: higher data rate cause of more bits impacted. And more duration of noise is source of
higher number of bits going to be impacted. Because of these two things burst error is common
then single bit error.

Redundancy :

Central concept of detecting or correcting error is redundancy to be able to detect or correct error
we send some extra bits with our data. The presence of these redundant bits allowed the receiver
to detect or correct corrupted bits.

Error Detection:

Error detection is simple while error correction is complex. In error detection we are only looking
to see if error has occurred (yes or no). We are not interested in the number of corrupted bits. In
error detection single bit error is same as burst errors.

Error Correction:

In error correction we need to know:

1. The exact numbers of corrupted bits

2. The location of corrupted bits.
 Topic 138 – 139 Coding Schemes

Coding schemes can be derived into two broad categories:

 Block coding
 Convolution coding

Block coding:

In block coding we divide our message into blocks, each of them has ‘k’ bits, called as data word.
Here “k” means a certain number of bits. Then we add ‘r’ redundant bits to each block to make
the length n = k + r. The resulting ‘n’ bit blocks are called code word.

Note: sender sends code words to receiver and receiver checks code words.

Block coding in error detecting:

If the following two conditions are met, the receiver can detect a change in the original code
words:

1. The receiver has a list of valid code words

2. The original code word has changed to an invalid one.

Example:
Look at 2nd code word that is ‘011’:
Let suppose:

 If receiver get ‘011’ and this is valid code word, then ‘01’ is extracted and it is passed to
receiver.
 If we send ‘011’ and received as ‘000’ this is invalid code word. It is corrupted code word.
This will not be processed by the receiver, and this will be discarded.
 Topic 141 Hamming Distance

Hamming Distance

Hamming Distance between receiver code word and sent code word is actually number of bits
that are corrupted. If d (x,y) ≠ 0 → that means there is an error in our data.

Explanation:
Hamming distance is a metric for comparing two binary data strings. While comparing two binary
strings of equal length, Hamming distance is the number of bit positions in which the two bits are
different. The Hamming distance between two strings, x and y is denoted as d(x,y).

Example:
1. d (000, 011) ; 000 is x and 011 is y.
d (000, 011); 0 0 0 , 0 1 1
Here hamming distance is 2 because two bits are different.

2. d ( 10101, 11110) => ‘10101’ is x and ‘11110’ is

d(10101, 11110) => 1 0 1 0 1 , 1 1 1 1 0
Here hamming distance is 3 because 3 bits are corrupted.

Topic 142 Minimum Hamming Distance

Minimum Hamming Distance

Minimum Hamming distance is a smallest hamming distance between all possible pair of code
words.

Formula :

dmin = s + 1
Where s → no of detected error
dmin → minimum hamming distance
Example:
A code scheme has a hemming distance dmin=4. This code guarantees the detection. Up how to
many errors.

dmin = 4
dmin = s + 1
s = dmin - 1
s=4–1
s=3

Topic 143 Parity check code

Parity check code :

Parity check is a simple way to add redundancy bits to the packets such that the total number of
1's is even or odd.

1. Most common error detecting code.

2. Linear block code (n = k + 1).
3. The extra parity bits is selected to make total number of 1s code word even.

Important

If total number of 1s is odd then our extra parity bit is 1 to make our total number of 1 is even.
If the total number of 1s is already even then extract parity bit that we are adding to our code
word is 0.
Example :

no of code word is always greater than no of data word.

Cyclic code

A cyclic code is a block code where the circular shift of each code word gives another word that
belongs to the code
Just for remembered ( In simple words we say that the last value is replace with the first .)

Example:

CRC
CRC is an error-detecting code commonly used in digital networks and storage devices to detect
accidental changes to raw data.
CRC codes are also known as polynomial codes since it is possible to view the bit string to be
sent as a polynomial.

Cyclic Code Analysis using Polynomials

Advantages of Cyclic Codes

1. Good performance in detection:

 Single-bit errors
 Double errors
 Odd number of errors
 Burst errors
2. Easy Implementations
3. Fast Implementation
Checksum
A checksum is a small-sized block of data derived from another block of digital data for the
purpose of detecting errors that may have been introduced during its transmission or storage.
Error-detection technique that can be applied to a message of any length.
Checksum mostly used at the network and transport layer rather than the data-link layer

Example Checksum:
Suppose the message is a list of five 4-bit numbers that we want to send to a destination. In
addition to sending these numbers, we send the sum of the numbers.
Set of numbers is (7, 11, 12, 0, 6)
Example: 7 + 11 + 12 + 0 + 6 = 36
We should to send as follow (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 36) but here five 4–bit word that are (7, 11, 12, 0, 6)
and 36 is not 4 bit number. So for sending 36 with our data we shout convert it 4 bit number first
as following method:
In the previous example, the decimal number 36 in binary is (100100)2. To change it into a
4-bit number we add the extra leftmost bit to the right four bits as shown below
Adding first 2 and Last four

10 2   0100 2   0110 2

 6 10

Forward Error Correction (FEC)

 Retransmission of corrupted and lost packets is not useful for real-time multimedia
transmission
 We need to correct the error or reproduce the packet immediately
 Several techniques developed and are commonly called Forward Error Correction
techniques
Definition Forward error correction
Forward error correction (FEC) is a method of obtaining error control in data transmission in
which the source (transmitter) sends redundant data and the destination (receiver) recognizes
only the portion of the data that contains no apparent errors.

Forward Error Correction techniques

1. Using Hamming Distance

2. Using XOR
3. Chunk Interleaving

Using Hamming Distance

 For error detection, we definitely need more distance
 It can be shown that to correct ‘t’ errors, we need to have:
dmin = 2t +1
 If we want to correct 10 bits in a packet, we need to make the minimum hamming
distance 21 bits
 A lot of redundant bits need to be sent with the data

Example:
If we want to correct 10 bits in a packet, we need to make the minimum hamming distance
21 bits?
dmin = 2t + 1 dmin
= 2(10) + 1
dmin = 21 this is amount of redundant bits that you send with your data word.
Chunk Interleaving : ( Copy from net , Just read and explain in your wording )
In this technique, each data packet is divided into chunks. The data is then created chunk by
chunk(horizontally) but the chunks are combined into packets vertically. This is done because by
doing so, each packet sent carries a chunk from several original packets.
OR
Interleaving is a process or methodology to make a system more efficient, fast and reliable by
arranging data in a noncontiguous manner.

Combining Hamming Distance & Interleaving

 Hamming distance and interleaving can be combined

 We can first create n-bit packets that can correct t-bit errors
 Then we interleave m rows and send the bits column by column
 Possible to correct burst errors up to m × t bits of errors

Compounding High & Low Resolution Packets ( Not Important )

 Creation of a duplicate of each packet with a low-resolution redundancy and combine the
redundant version with the next packet.
 For example, we can create four low-resolution packets out of five high- resolution
packets and send them.
framing
The main function of data link layer is framing.
Date link layer divides data packets into small frames. Framing is a primary service of data link
layer.
In case of framing we gone talk about two processes encapsulation and de capsulation, both
combined are call framing. We know that data travel in the form of packets. Data link layer
encapsulate this Packets into multiple frames. Encapsulation means breakdown of a packet into
multiple frames which is stream of bit for transmission. Data Link Layer is also add its own
header to each off frame .When data receive data link layer de-capsulate these frames. It Takes
multiple frames and combined it in form of packet.

Frame Size

Why not one BIG Frame?

If we make one big size frame it creates a problem. In case of error if we have one big frame our
whole data will be lost. That is why we make number of small frames instead of one big frame.
Frames can be of:
i. fixed Size
ii. Variable Size

fixed Size
 Size acts as a boundary.
 In fix size every frame have same size
 The problem with fixed size framing is that, error detection, error correction, flow control
and all these kind of functions become very difficult.

Variable Size
How to define Beginning and End of a Frame?
In variable-size framing, we need a way to define the end of the frame and the beginning of the
next.
Two approaches were used for this purpose
i. Character-Oriented Protocols:
ii. ii. Bit-Oriented Protocols:
Character (Byte) or Oriented Protocols:

 In a character-oriented protocol, data to be carried are 8-bit characters from a coding

system such as ASCII.

 The header, which normally carries the source and destination addresses and other
control information. The trailer, which carries error detection or error correction
redundant bits, are also multiples of 8 bits.

 To separate one frame from the next, an 8-bit (1-byte) flag is added at the beginning and
the end of a frame. The flag, composed of protocol-dependent special characters, signals
the start or end of a frame.

 Character-oriented framing was popular when only text was exchanged by the data link
layers.
Byte stuffing (or character stuffing):

 In this sender's data link layer insert a special escape byte (ESC) just before each
''accidental'' flag byte in the data.
 The data link layer on the receiving end removes the escape byte before the data are
given to the network layer.
 This technique is called byte stuffing or character stuffing.

Major disadvantage of Character-oriented :

Major disadvantage of Character-oriented protocols is it use 8-bits characters. The universal
coding systems in use today, such as Unicode, have 16-bits and 32-bits characters that conflict
with 8-bits characters.
Bit-Oriented Protocols:

 In this data frames contains an arbitrary number of bits and allows character codes with
an arbitrary number of bits per character
 Each frame begins and ends with a special bit pattern, 01111110 (in fact, a flag byte).
 Whenever the sender's data link layer encounters five consecutive 1s in the data, it
automatically stuffs a 0 bit into the outgoing bitstream. This technique is known as
stuffing
 When the receiver sees five consecutive incoming 1 bits, followed by a 0 bit, it
automatically un stuffs (i.e., deletes) the 0 bit.
Flow control
Flow control is the management of data flow between sender and receiver. Flow control tells the
sender how much data should be sent to the receiver so that it is not lost.

Example Consumers need to communicate with the producers on two occasions:

• When the buffer is full;
• When there are vacancies
• If the two parties use a buffer with only one slot, the communication can be easier

Error Control Error Control at Data Link layer uses CRC in one of the two ways:

• If a frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded and if it is good, it is delivered to network layer.

• If frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded and if it is good, an acknowledgement is sent to
sender that the frame is received safely.

Connectionless

All frames are independent. Connectionless doesn't mean that no physical connection between
frames, but it means that you don't have any relationship between frames that you are sending so
you have one frame for one message and other frame for another message.

Connection-Oriented:
In this particular case as we discussed in data link layer connection oriented protocol as those
that actually establish a connection first, then they do the setup, then they do the data
transmission and then they have to do connection dare down.
DATA-LINK LAYER PROTOCOLS:

• Simple Protocol
• Stop-and-Wait Protocol
• Go-Back-N Protocol
• Selective-Repeat Protocol
• Last two protocols have almost disappeared completely

Finite State Machine (FSM)

• A machine with a finite number of states

• Machines stays in one of the states until an event occurs
• Each event is associated with 2 reactions:
List of actions to be performed
Determining the next state
Simple Protocol

• Simple protocol has neither flow nor error control.

• Assumption: The receiver can immediately handle any frame it receives.

Stop-and-Wait Protocol

• Stop-and-Wait protocol uses both flow and error control.

• The sender sends one frame at a time and waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next
one. • To detect corrupted frames, we add a CRC code.

Acknowledgement caring with two messages:

• I have received the previous frame please send next one.
• The frame that we have sent previously he has been received error free.
Normal Response Mode (NRM)

Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)

HDLC Framing HDLC defines three types of frames:

information frames (I-frames)

Information frames, or I-frames, transport user data from the network layer. They can also
include flow and error control information piggybacked on data.
Supervisory frames (S-frames)
Supervisory frames, or S-frames, are used for flow and error control whenever piggybacking is
impossible or inappropriate,
Unnumbered frames (U-frames)
Unnumbered frames, or U-frames, are used for link management. Some U-frames contain an
information field, depending on the type.

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

• Most common protocol for point-to-point access

• Millions of Internet users who need to connect their home computers to the server of an
Internet service provider use PPP
• To control and manage the transfer of data, there is a need for a PPP at the data-link layer
Random Access Protocol

• In random-access or contention no station is superior to the other and none is assigned control
over the other.
•This decision depends on the state of the medium (idle or busy).
• It has three types:

❖ Aloha

❖ CSMA/CD

❖ CSMS/CA

ALOHA
• ALOHA, the earliest random access method, was developed in early 1970s.
• Designed for a radio (wireless) LAN, but it can be used on any shared medium.
• Potential collisions in this arrangement as the medium is shared between the stations
• When a station sends data, another station may attempt to do so at the same time. The data from
the two stations collide and become garbled and we will lose that data.

Frames in a pure ALOHA Network:

In pure ALOHA, the time of transmission is continuous. Whenever a station hasn’t available
frame, it sends the frame. If there is collision and the frame is destroyed, the sender waits for a
random amount of time before retransmitting it.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA):

• To minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the performance, CSMA was
developed
• The chance of collision is reduced as the station is required to sense/listen to the medium before
sending data
• ‘sense before transmit’ or ‘listen before talk’.
Behavior of Three Persistence Methods:

I-persistence:
In this method after the station find link ideal it sends immediately without waiting. This method
has got highest chance of collision.

Non-persistence:
In this method the channel has time slots. A station that has frame to send, it sense the link. If
the link is Idle it send frame immediately. If links are not idle, it waits for a random amount of
time and the sense that link again. So Collision rate in this case goes down as compared to
persistence but the efficiency goes also down

P-persistence:

In this case we have got a slot duration which is equal to or greater than the maximum
propagation time. This approach combined the advantages of both I-persistence and Non
persistence.

CSMA/CA

• CSMA/CA was invented for Wireless Networks

• Collisions are avoided through the use of three strategies:

1. The Inter frame Space

2. The Contention Window
3. Acknowledgement
The algorithm of CSMA/CA is:
• When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is idle or busy.
• If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
• If the channel is idle, the station waits for an Inter-frame gap (IFG) amount of time and then
sends the frame.
• After sending the frame, it sets a timer.
• The station then waits for acknowledgement from the receiver. If it receives the
acknowledgement before expiry of timer, it marks a successful transmission.
• Otherwise, it waits for a back-off time period and restarts the algorithm.

CONTROLLED ACCESS

 Reservation
 Polling
 Token Passing

Polling
• Polling works with topologies in which one device is designated as a primary station and the
other devices are secondary stations.
• All data exchanges must be made through primary device even when the ultimate destination is
a secondary device.
• The primary device controls the link; the secondary devices follow its instructions.

Token Passing
• In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organized in a logical ring
• For each station, there is a predecessor and a successor
• The predecessor is the station which is logically before the station in the ring; the successor is
the station which is after the station in the ring
• Special packet called TOKEN circulates through the ring
• Possession of TOKEN gives the station the right to send the data
• TOKEN Management is required to manage possession time, token monitoring, priority
assignment etc.
CHANNELIZATION (Channel Partition)

 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 Time Division multiple Access (TDMA)
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

• In FDMA, the available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands.

• Each station is allocated a band to send its data i.e. each band is reserved for a specific station,
and it belongs to the station all the time.
FDMA allows multiple users to send data through a single communication channel
Time Division multiple Access (TDMA)

• Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data
• Each station transmits its data in its assigned time slot
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

• CDMA differs from FDMA in that only one channel occupies the entire bandwidth of the link.
• CDMA differs from TDMA in that all stations can send data simultaneously; there is no
timesharing.

Ethernet

Ethernet is a family of wired computer networking technologies commonly used in local area
networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area networks (WAN). It was
commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1983 as IEEE 802.3. Ethernet has
since been refined to support higher bit rates, a greater number of nodes, and longer link
distances.
IEEE 802 is a family of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Ethernet Evolution

• The Ethernet LAN was developed in the 1970s

• Since then, it has gone through four generations:
 Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)
 Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
 Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps)

Standard Ethernet
Standard Ethernet The original Ethernet technology with the data rate of 10 Mbps is called
Standard Ethernet. Most implementations have moved to later evolutions. Still some features of
the Standard Ethernet that has not changed during the evolution.

Connectionless & Unreliable Service

• Each frame is independent of other.

• No connection establishment or tear down process.
• Ethernet is unreliable like IP and UDP.
• If a frame is corrupted, receiver silently drops it.

Addressing in Standard Ethernet

• Each station on Ethernet has its own network interface card (NIC).
• Every NIC has got a unique link-layer address.
• The Ethernet address is 6 bytes (48 bits), normally written in hexadecimal notation, with a
colon between the bytes.
• For example, the following shows an Ethernet MAC address: 4A:30:10:21:10:1A.
Goals of Fast Ethernet:

• Upgrade data rate to 100Mbps

• Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet
• Keep same 48-bit address
• Keep same frame format

Other Wired Networks

• Access Networks o Networks that connect a small LAN to an ISP

• Wide Area Networks o Wired networks used to transfer data over long distances

Telephone Network
• The telephone network had its beginnings in the late 1800s.
• Plain Old Telephone System (POTS) was originally an analog system using analog signals to
transmit voice.
• With the advent of the computer era, the network, in the 1980s, began to carry data in addition
to voice.
• During the last decade, the telephone network has undergone many technical changes and the
network is now Digital as well as Analog.
Major Components
 The telephone network is made of three major components:
 Local Loops it is twisted pair cable (4 khz) (first 3 office last 4 exact local loop)
 Trunks they are optical fiber cables
 Switching offices

The telephone network has several levels of switching offices:

 End offices
 Tandem offices
 Regional offices

Local-Access Transport Areas (LATAs)

• A LATA can be a small or large metropolitan area.

• A small state may have a single LATA; a large state may have several LATAs.
• A LATA boundary may overlap with state boundary; part of a LATA can be in one state, part
in another state.
Signaling

• The telephone network in the beginning, used a circuit-switched network with dedicated links
to transfer voice communication.
• The operator connected the two parties by using a wire with two plugs inserted into the
corresponding two jacks.
• Later, the signaling system became automatic.

Data Transfer and Signaling Network

Cable TV
The Cable TV networks were initially created to provide remote subscribers access to TV
programs
Traditional Cable Networks
• Cable TV started to distribute broadcast video signals to locations with poor or no reception in
the late 1940s.
• It was called community antenna television (CATV) because an antenna at the top of a tall hill
or building received the signals from the TV stations.
• CATV is transmission is only unidirectional.
• There are 35 amplifiers are used between Head end and end user.

Hybrid Fiber Coaxial (HFC) Network

• Second generation of cable network is called a Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial (HFC) network
• The network uses a combination of fiber-optic and coaxial cable.
• One distribution hub can actually have up to 40,000 subscribers. • In this type of Cable network
we have multidirectional communication
SONET Layers / Connections
The SONET standard includes four functional layers:

• The Path Layer

• The Line Layer
• The Section Layer
• The Photonic Layer

Path Layer is responsible for the movement of a signal from source to the destination.
Line layer is a particular type of connection it is responsible for the movement of the signal
across a physical line.
Section layer is responsible for the movement of the same signal across the physical section.
Photonic layer is equivalent to physical layer of OSI model. In this case use and encoding and
encoding here presence of light is represent 1 in binary and absence of light is a represent 0.

2nd Type of SONET Networks is Ring Networks It has two types:

 UPSR
 BLSR

URSR stands for unidirectional path switching ring. We call it path switching ring because it has
two rings one is working ring which is clock wise and another is protection ring which is anti
clock wise. Both these Rings carry the exact same type of data. So each node which is connected
to this kind of ring receives two different data streams of same data.

BLSR stands for bi-directional line switching ring. In this case communication is bi- directional.
It means tha two rings for working line and also two rings for protection line as well. BLSR used
4 Rings totally, and as you can imagine the Rate of faliure is improve and efficiency more down.

ATM
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switched wide area network based on the cell relay
protocol designed by the ATM forum.
• The combination of ATM and SONET will allow high-speed interconnection of networks.

Introduction to Wireless
• Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies
• The demand for connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing everywhere.
• Wireless LANs can be found on college campuses, in office buildings, and in many public
areas
Architecture comparison of wired and wireless LANs

Medium in the case of wired Networks we need cables to connect our nodes. While on the
wireless network we don’t need cables.
Hosts as we know in wired network our nodes are connected with switch through a wire. So, we
can’t move easily our nodes. While in case of wireless we can easily move nodes.

Frame Types

• Management Frames
• Control Frames
• Data Frames

BLUETOOTH

• Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions

when they are at a short distance from each other.
• A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network.

Architecture Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

Piconet in this case we can have up 8 active devices in a single time one of them is primary and
other 7 is secondary.
Scatternet multiple piconet is connected with each other is called scatternet.

BLUETOOTH devises
A Bluetooth device has a built-in short-range radio transmitter. The current data rate is 1 Mbps
without 2.4 gigahertz bandwidth. This means there is a possibility of interference between the
IEEE 802. 11 Wireless LAN's and Bluetooth LAN's