Program: MBA(BA),4th Sem

Subject: DBMS
Sub Code: KMBA 406
UNIT 5

What is Centralized Database?

Centralized database management system is the system in which all the data is
stored and managed in a single unit. This is also known as central computer
database system. This system is mostly used in an organization, in any Business
Company or in institution to centralize the tasks.

Data can be accessed through a network Local Area Network (LAN) or Wide
Area Network (WAN). Mainframe computer is the example of centralized
database management system.

Functions of centralized database

Distributed query processing

The basic function of centralized database management system is to provide

facility and give access to all the connected computers which fulfill all
requirements requested by any single node.
Single central unit

All the data and information are stored in single centralized database
management system. The computer system which fulfills the requirements of all
the connected computers is known as server and other computers are known as
clients.

Transparency

All the queries are processed in a single computer system also known as server.
There is no duplication or irrelevant data stored in this management system. All
connected computer has the access to central computer for their query
processing and requirement.

Scalable

No of computers can be added in this centralized database management system.

These computers are connected to the system through a network.
What are centralized databases used for?

Centralized databases are often used by organizations to store data that is shared
by many users. These are used for storing customer information, inventory data,
financial records, and more.

They can be used by small businesses or large enterprises. When compared to

other databases, they offer a number of benefits over other types of databases.

Centralized database can be accessed by anyone with the proper permissions.

This means that multiple people can work on the same data at the same time,
which can be a huge time-saver.

It also allows for better collaboration, as people can easily share data and ideas
reliably.

This is because they are hosted on servers that are designed to be up and
running all the time. This means that if one server goes down, the others can
still be accessed.

Advantage of centralized database system:

Data integrity

Data is more unified as it stored in single computer system and managed. It is

easier to communicate and coordinate to get more reliable and meaningful data.

Data redundancy

Data is centralized and stored in one location only. There is no duplication of

data and irrelevancy in data.

Data security

Due to storage of data in centralized computer system, the security of data needs
to be stronger. Centralized database management system is more secure and
more efficient.
Scalability and localization

New computer systems can be added or removed in centralized database

management system more easily.

Data portability

Data can be easily transferred from one computer to another computer because
it is stored in centralized database management system.

Lesser cost and maintenance

The centralized database system is cheaper in installation and maintenance than

other database management systems and it required single storage system and
data can be accessed by all the connected computers.

Disadvantage of centralized database system

Slow processing

In centralized database management system, data is stored in one location and it

access and processing speed is lesser than other management system. It requires
more time to access the data from one location.

Less efficiency

If the multiple users try to access and process query toward server
simultaneously then it creates problem. The processing speed of the central
computer turns into low. These problems may reduce the efficiency.

Loss of data

In centralized database management system, if any system failure occurs or any

data is lost, then it is not recovered
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What Is Client-Server Architecture?

The client-server architecture refers to a system that hosts, delivers, and
manages most of the resources and services that the client requests. In this
model, all requests and services are delivered over a network, and it is also
referred to as the networking computing model or client server network.

The Characteristics of Client-Server Architecture

Client-server architecture typically features the following characteristics:

 Client and server machines typically require different hardware and software
resources and come from other vendors.
 The network has horizontal scalability, which increases the number of client
machines and vertical scalability, an then moves the entire process to more
powerful servers or a multi-server configuration.
 One computer server can provide multiple services simultaneously, although
each service requires a separate server program.
 Both client and server applications interact directly with a transport layer
protocol. This process establishes communication and enables the entities to
send and receive information.
 Both the client and server computers need a complete stack of protocols. The
transport protocol employs lower-layer protocols to send and receive
individual messages.

Examples of Client-Server Architecture?

You may wonder what constitutes a real-life application of client-server

architecture. Here are three examples of how you use client-server architecture,
probably more often than you think!

 Email servers: Thanks to ease and speed, e-mail has supplanted traditional
postal mail as the primary form of corporate communication. E-mail servers,
 aided by various brands of dedicated software, send and receive e-mails
between parties.
 File servers: If you store files on cloud-based services such as Google Docs
or Microsoft Office, you're using a file server. File servers are centralized
locations for file storage and are accessed by many clients.
 Web servers: These high-performance servers host many different websites,
and clients access them through the Internet. Here’s a step-by-step
breakdown:
 The client/user uses their web browser to enter the URL they want
 The browser asks the Domain Name System (DNS) for an IP address
 The DNS server finds the desired server’s IP address and sends it to the
web browser
 The browser creates either an HTTPS or HTTP request
 The server/producer sends the user the correct files
 The client/user receives the files sent by the server, and the process is
repeated as needed

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Client-Server Architecture

Client-server architecture brings its share of positives and negatives to today’s

digital consumers. We start with a list of advantages:

 It’s a centralized system that keeps all the data and its controls in one place
 It brings a high level of scalability, organization, and efficiency
 It allows the IT staff to change the Client and Server capacities separately
 It’s cost-efficient, especially in terms of maintenance
 It allows data recovery
 It allows load-balancing, which optimizes performance
 It allows different platforms to share resources
 Users don’t need to log into a terminal or another processor to access
corporate information or desktop tools like PowerPoint presenters or
spreadsheet utilities
 The setup reduces the incidence of data replication
Drawbacks:

 If the server has a worm, virus, or Trojan, the users will likely catch it since
the network consists of linked clients and servers
 The server is vulnerable to Denial of Service (DoS) attacks
 Data packets can be spoofed or modified during transmission
 It’s expensive to start up and initially implement
 If a critical server goes down, the clients are dead in the water
 The setup is prone to phishing and Man in the Middle (MITM) attacks

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What is a distributed database?

In the most basic terms, a distributed database is a database that stores data in
multiple locations instead of one location. This means that rather than putting
all data on one server or on one computer, data is placed on multiple servers or
in a cluster of computers consisting of individual nodes. These nodes are
oftentimes geographically separate and may be physical computers or virtual
machines within a cloud database.

Distributed database types

There are two distinct types of distributed databases: homogeneous databases

and heterogeneous databases.
Homogeneous distributed databases

In a homogeneous distributed database, the machines, nodes, servers, or sites

store the same data, use the same data model, work with the same operating
system, and share the same distributed database management system (DDBMS)
or occasionally multiple types of DDBMS from the same vendor.

Within homogenous distributed databases, there are two subsets: autonomous

and non-autonomous.

 Autonomous distributed databases: In an autonomous distributed

database, nodes work on their own with their own complete set of data,
only requiring an application to facilitate universal updates across all
nodes or messaging between nodes.
 Non-autonomous distributed databases: In non-autonomous distributed
databases, nodes rely on a centralized database management system
(DBMS) to coordinate data distribution, communications, and all updates.

As a rule, homogeneous distributed databases offer significant data protection

through redundancy and simplified management due to the similarity of all
nodes.

Heterogeneous distributed databases

In a heterogeneous distributed database, different machines or sites may house

different data sets, use different operating systems, contain different data
schemas, and require software to facilitate communication between machines.
Further, different sites may not even be aware of the existence of other sites.

Within heterogeneous distributed databases, there are two subsets: federated and
unfederated.

 Federated distributed databases: In a federated distributed database,

multiple nodes — which are able to function completely on their own and
may contain different data — can work together and function as one
entity. This means that when a query occurs, the system determines
which node is best equipped to respond and passes the query
appropriately. This process is sometimes referred to as data virtualization.
  Unfederated distributed databases: In an unfederated distributed database,
each node operates individually and there is a central application that
manages the access to each database in each node.

While more complex to manage, heterogeneous distributed databases offer more

flexibility in terms of data models, schema choices, and the types of data that
can be stored than homogeneous distributed databases

Benefits and challenges distributed databases offer

As with any type of database solution, there are both benefits and challenges.
Here is a brief summary to consider when researching distributed databases for
your organization.

Distributed database benefits

 Flexibility: Flexibility of data structures and schemas used within a

distributed database (e.g., heterogeneous) are a significant benefit for
organizations with a variety of data asset types and processing
requirements.

 Resiliency: Because distributed databases locate data across multiple

nodes in the distributed system, the risk of a single point of failure is
significantly reduced.

 Scalability: Distributed databases can easily scale up (or down) by simply

adjusting the number of nodes in the database, making them ideal for
growing organizations.

 Improved performance: Distributed databases are able to use load

balancing and query optimization to improve overall database
performance while reducing user wait times.

 High availability: Fault tolerance (e.g., data replication, continuous

failure detection) provide high system availability for users.
Distributed database challenges

 Complexity: Because there are more moving parts to distributed

databases vs. centralized databases, they can be more complex to both
design and manage. The Atlas developer data platform simplifies this
dramatically by providing a single UI/API to control and manage secure
MongoDB distributed systems at scale.

 Latency: If not managed properly, latency can occur when users query
data from multiple nodes.

 Data consistency: Since distributed databases are able to employ multiple

data schemas and structures, maintaining data consistency requires more
effort than traditional databases. In addition, if there is a hardware or
network failure, data restoration can be more complex.

 Cost: Distributed databases can be more expensive due to the added

complexity that their greater flexibility brings. In addition, there may be
additional networking costs since they tend to have more sites and
hardware than traditional databases.

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Object Oriented Databases:

The basics of object-oriented databases

An object-oriented database stores data as objects, similar to how certain

programming languages manage data. Instead of tables with rows and columns
like traditional databases, object databases use complex data structures to
represent data.

What are objects?

Objects in programming are like smart containers that hold the data, as well as
the actions that are performed on the data.

Here is a simple breakdown of an object:

 Data: This is the stored information. For example, a customer data

“object” would include details like the customer's name, address, phone
number, and email.

 Actions (methods): Actions are the things that can be done with the data.
For example, there may be specific actions needed to update the
customer's address or to retrieve their order history.

In an OODB, you would store the data associated with this object. By storing
data this way, it becomes more intuitive to manage and work with, especially
for applications that handle complex objects and interconnected data. This
structure aligns closely with object-oriented programming (OPP) languages,
which makes it more straightforward for developers to build and maintain
applications.

How object-oriented databases differ from relational databases

When comparing relational databases and object-oriented databases (OODBs), a

couple of key differences stand out: structure and flexibility.

Structure

 Relational databases: These databases use a structured format with tables,

rows, and columns. Each table represents a different entity (like
customers or products), and the rows in these tables are individual
records. Columns represent the attributes of these records.

 Object-oriented databases: In contrast, OODBs store data as objects. An

object can encapsulate complex data structures and their associated
actions.
Flexibility

 Relational databases: While these are very effective for structured data,
they can be less flexible when dealing with complex data types and
relationships. To manage such complexities, conventional databases often
require numerous tables and complex joins, which can become
cumbersome.

 Object-oriented databases: OODBs naturally handle complex data

structures and relationships. Because they hold data in objects, they can
easily represent intricate data models without requiring multiple tables
and joins. This makes them particularly well-suited for complex,
interrelated data applications, such as multimedia content, engineering
designs, and scientific simulations.

By understanding these differences, decision-makers can better appreciate the

unique advantages that object-oriented databases offer, especially in scenarios
that require handling complex data and relationships more intuitively and
efficiently.

Key features of object-oriented databases

Objects and classes

In an OODB, data is organized into objects and classes, mirroring the structure
of object-oriented programming languages. In programming, a class acts as a
blueprint for creating objects, specifying both the data structure and the
behaviors the objects will have.

Example: book class

Consider a "book" class in a library database. This class might include attributes
such as title, author, ISBN, and publication year, along with methods to manage
the book's data. Each book in the library is an instance of the "book" class,
containing actual data and the ability to perform actions related to data
management.

Attributes: Title, Author, ISBN, Publication Year

Actions:

 checkOut() updates the database status to "Checked Out."

 returnBook() updates the database status to "Available."
 updateStatus("Reserved") updates the database status to "Reserved.”

Advantages of object-oriented databases

Object-oriented databases offer advantages that make them well-suited for

various complex and dynamic applications.

Complex data handling

One of the primary advantages of object-oriented databases is their ability to

handle complex data. With their table-based structure, traditional databases can
struggle with complex data structures and relationships. OODBs, on the other
hand, are designed to manage such complexities efficiently.

Alignment with programming languages

Another significant advantage of OODBs is their alignment with object-oriented

programming (OOP) languages.

This alignment offers several benefits:

Ease of development: For developers familiar with object-oriented

programming, working with OODBs feels natural. Since the data modeling in
OODBs mirrors the principles of OOP, they can design and implement data
structures in the database that directly correspond to their programming
constructs. This similarity reduces the cognitive load and potential errors from
translating between different data models.

Reusability and extensibility: OODBs support key OOP concepts like

inheritance and polymorphism, which promote code reusability and system
extensibility. Developers can create reusable classes that serve as templates for
objects, allowing for consistent and maintainable data structures across
applications. Inheritance enables the extension of existing classes with new
attributes and methods, facilitating the evolution of the database schema without
disrupting existing functionality.

Seamless integration: Because OODBs integrate data and behavior within

objects, they provide a more holistic approach to data management. Methods
associated with objects enable encapsulated operations, streamlining data
manipulation and reducing the need for extensive procedural code. This
integration enhances the coherence of the application architecture and simplifies
maintenance and updates.

By leveraging the strengths of object-oriented programming languages, OODBs

provide a robust framework for managing complex data structures and
relationships. They offer a more intuitive and efficient way to model and
manipulate data, making them ideal for applications that require high flexibility
and sophisticated data handling capabilities.

Real-world applications of OODBs

In some industries and systems, object-oriented databases are particularly

beneficial because they can efficiently work with complex data structures and
relationships.

Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing

In computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing, OODBs excel in

managing intricate design models and manufacturing processes. They can store
detailed geometric and structural data as objects, making managing and
modifying complex designs easier.

Telecommunications

The telecommunications industry benefits from OODBs' ability to handle vast

amounts of interconnected data. They are ideal for managing network
configurations, call records, and customer information, where relationships
between data points are crucial.
Scientific research

In scientific research, particularly in fields like bioinformatics, physics, and

environmental science, OODBs can manage large datasets with complex
relationships. They allow researchers to model and analyze data more
effectively, facilitating discoveries and innovations.

Multimedia applications

OODBs are well-suited for multimedia applications that require storing and
retrieving images, videos, and audio files metadata. They can manage these data
types as objects, making organizing and accessing multimedia content easier.

Challenges to adoption and integration

Despite their advantages, businesses may face several challenges when

implementing OODBs:

Learning curve: Transitioning to OODBs can be challenging for organizations

accustomed to conventional databases. Training staff in object-oriented
concepts and the specific features of OODBs is essential.

Integration with existing systems: Integrating OODBs with existing relational

database systems can introduce initial complexity or require some changes to
the current infrastructure and data migration processes, which can be both time-
consuming and costly.

Cost considerations: Implementing OODBs can involve high initial costs.

These expenses include the database software itself, training, integration, and
potential downtime during the transition period. Ongoing maintenance and
support costs may also be higher compared to more established databases.

Object storage and NoSQL databases: In the modern data management

landscape, object storage and NoSQL databases have also emerged as important
technologies. Object storage is particularly useful for handling large amounts of
unstructured data, while NoSQL databases offer flexible schemas for storing
complex data types. Both of these technologies complement the use of object-
oriented databases by providing additional options for managing and retrieving
diverse data types.

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Spatial and Temporal Databases:

What is Spatial Data?

The data that provides information about a specific geographical area or

location is known as Spatial Data. It provides the information that helps identify
the location of the feature or the boundary of Earth. Moreover, spatial data can
be processed using GIS (Geographical Information System) or Image
processing packages.

Use cases of spatial data

Spatial data, also known asgeospatial data, refers to information about the
physical location and shape of objects on Earth. This type of data is becoming
increasingly important in a wide range of industries and applications. Here are
some key use cases of spatial data:

1. Urban planning and infrastructure development

2. Environmental management and conservation
3. Disaster management and response
4. Agriculture and land management
5. Transportation and logistics

Software tools used by spatial data

Various specialized software tools exist for working with spatial data in the
contexts of graphics and statistics:

1. GIS software
2. Statistical software
3. Data visualization tools
 4. Web-based platforms

Types of Spatial Data

` The different types of Spatial Data are as follows:

1) Feature Data

Feature data follows the vector data model. It represents the entity of the real
world, i.e., roads, trees, buildings, etc. This information can be visually
represented in the form of a point, line, or polygon.

2) Coverage Data

Coverage data follows the raster data model. Coverage Data contains the
mapping of continuous data in space and is represented as a range of values in a
satellite image, a digital surface model, aerial photographs, etc. The visual
representation of coverage data is in the form of a grid or triangulated irregular
network.

Managing spatial data

A spatial database is a data management system for the collection, storage,
manipulation, and output of spatially referenced information. Also known as a
geographic information system (GIS), it is an extended form of RDBMS.
Geospatial modeling is based on three key concepts: theme, geographic
object, and map.
A theme refers to data describing a particular topic (e.g., scenic lookouts,
rivers, cities) and is the spatial counterpart of an entity. When a theme is
presented on a screen or paper, it is commonly seen in conjunction with
a map. Color may be used to indicate different themes (e.g., blue for rivers
and black for roads). A map will usually have a scale, legend, and possibly
some explanatory text.
A geographic object is an instance of a theme (e.g., a river). Like an instance
of an entity, it has a set of attributes. In addition, it has spatial components
that can describe both geometry and topology. Geometry refers to the
location-based data, such as shape and length, and topology refers to spatial
relationships among objects, such as adjacency. Management of spatial data
requires some additional data types to represent a point, line, and region.
 Generic spatial data types

Data type Dimensions Example

Point 0 Scenic lookout

Line 1 River

Region 2 County

What is Temporal Data?

Temporal Data is the data that represent a state in time. It is basically a

temporary data that is valid for a prescribed period of time. Data is collected at a
particular time to analyze weather patterns, monitor traffics, study
demographics, etc.

Temporal data is useful for analyzing the change that is happening over a period
of time. This analysis is later used for identifying the potential cause of the
changes and thus come up with solutions.

Managing temporal data

With a temporal database, stored data have an associated time period indicating
when the item was valid or stored in the database. By attaching a timestamp to
data, it becomes possible to store and identify different database states and
support queries comparing these states. Thus, you might be able to determine
the number of seats booked on a flight by 3 p.m. on January 21, 2011, and
compare that to the number booked by 3 p.m. on January 22, 2011.
To appreciate the value of a temporal database, you need to know the difference
between transaction and valid time and that bitemporal data combines both
valid and transaction time.
 Transaction time is the timestamp applied by the system when data are entered
and cannot be changed by an application. It can be applied to a particular item
or row. For example, when changing the price of a product, one approach might
be to update the existing product row with the new price. The old price would
be lost unless it was stored explicitly. In contrast, with a temporal database, the
old and new prices would automatically have separate timestamps. In effect, an
additional row is inserted to store the new price and the time when the insert
 occurred. In a database, immmutable data cannot be (or shouldn’t be) deleted
or modified. Most traditional databases store data in a mutable format, meaning
the database overwrites the older data when new data is available.
 Valid time is the actual time at which an item was or will be a valid or true
value. Consider the case where a firm plans to increase its prices on a specified
date. It might post new prices some time before their effective date. Valid time
can be changed by an application.
 Bitemporal data records both the valid time and transaction time for a fact. It
usually requires four extra columns to record the upper and lower bounds for
valid time and transaction time.
Valid time records when the change will take effect, and transaction time
records when the change was entered. Storing transaction time is essential for
database recovery because the DMBS can roll back the database to a previous
state. Valid time provides a historical record of the state of the database. Both
forms of time are necessary for a temporal database.
As you might expect, a temporal database will be somewhat larger than a
traditional database because data are immmutable or never discarded, and new
timestamped values are inserted so that there is a complete history of the values
of an instance (e.g., the price of a product since it was first entered in the
database). Thus, you can think of most of the databases we have dealt with
previously as snapshots of a particular state of the database, whereas a temporal
database is a record of all states of the database. As disk storage becomes
increasingly cheaper and firms recognize the value of business intelligence, we
are likely to see more attention paid to temporal database technology.

Times remembered
SQL supports several different data types for storing numeric values (e.g.,
integer and float), and a temporal database also needs a variety of data types for
storing time values. The first level of distinction is to determine whether the
time value is anchored or unanchored. Anchored time has a defined starting
point (e.g., October 15, 1582), and unanchored time is a block of time with no
specified start (e.g., 45 minutes).
Types of temporal data

Anchored time is further split into an instant or interval. An instant is a moment

in time (e.g., a date and time). In SQL, an instant can be represented by a date,
time, or timestamp data type. An interval is the time between two specified
instants, and can be defined as a value or a range with an upper and lower
bound instant.
For example,
2011−01−01,2011−01−232011−01−01,2011−01−23
defines an interval in 2011 beginning January 1 and ending January 23

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What is a Decision Support System (DSS)?

A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that aids a business

in decision-making activities that require judgment, determination, and a
sequence of actions.

The information system assists the mid- and high-level management of an

organization by analyzing huge volumes of unstructured data and accumulating
information that can help solve problems and help in decision-making. A DSS
is either human-powered, automated, or a combination of both.
Purpose of a Decision Support System

A decision support system produces detailed information reports by gathering

and analyzing data. Hence, a DSS is different from a normal operations
application, whose goal is to collect data and not analyze it.

In an organization, a DSS is used by the planning departments – such as the

operations department – which collects data and creates a report that can be
used by managers for decision-making. Mainly, a DSS is used in sales
projection, for inventory and operations-related data, and to present information
to customers in an easy-to-understand manner.

Theoretically, a DSS can be employed in various knowledge domains from an

organization to forest management and the medical field. One of the main
applications of a DSS in an organization is real-time reporting. It can be very
helpful for organizations that take part in just-in-time (JIT) inventory
management.

In a JIT inventory system, the organization requires real-time data of their

inventory levels to place orders “just in time” to prevent delays in production
and cause a negative domino effect. Therefore, a DSS is more tailored to the
individual or organization making the decision than a traditional system.

Components of a Decision Support System

The three main components of a DSS framework are:

1. Model Management System

The model management system S=stores models that managers can use in their
decision-making. The models are used in decision-making regarding the
financial health of the organization and forecasting demand for a good or
service.

2. User Interface

The user interface includes tools that help the end-user of a DSS to navigate
through the system.

3. Knowledge Base

The knowledge base includes information from internal sources (information

collected in a transaction process system) and external sources (newspapers and
online databases).
Types of Decision Support Systems

 Communication-driven: Allows companies to support tasks that require

more than one person to work on the task. It includes integrated tools
such as Microsoft SharePoint Workspace and Google Docs.
 Model-driven: Allows access to and the management of financial,
organizational, and statistical models. Data is collected, and parameters
are determined using the information provided by users. The information
is created into a decision-making model to analyze situations. An
example of a model-driven DSS is Dicodess – an open-source model-
driven DSS.
 Knowledge-driven: Provides factual and specialized solutions to
situations using stored facts, procedures, rules, or interactive decision-
making structures like flowcharts.
 Document-driven: Manages unstructured information in different
electronic formats.
 Data-driven: Helps companies to store and analyze internal and external
data.

Advantages of a Decision Support System

 A decision support system increases the speed and efficiency of decision-

making activities. It is possible, as a DSS can collect and analyze real-
time data.
 It promotes training within the organization, as specific skills must be
developed to implement and run a DSS within an organization.
 It automates monotonous managerial processes, which means more of the
manager’s time can be spent on decision-making.
 It improves interpersonal communication within the organization.
Disadvantages of a Decision Support System


The cost to develop and implement a DSS is a huge capital investment,
which makes it less accessible to smaller organizations.
 A company can develop a dependence on a DSS, as it is integrated into
daily decision-making processes to improve efficiency and speed.
However, managers tend to rely on the system too much, which takes
away the subjectivity aspect of decision-making.
 A DSS may lead to information overload because an information system
tends to consider all aspects of a problem. It creates a dilemma for end-
users, as they are left with multiple choices.
 Implementation of a DSS can cause fear and backlash from lower-level
employees. Many of them are not comfortable with new technology and
are afraid of losing their jobs to technology.
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Mobile database:
A mobile database is a database that resides on a mobile device such as a PDA,
a smart phone, or a laptop. Such devices are often limited in resources such as
memory, computing power, and battery power.
The following list includes both SQL and NoSQL databases that are commonly
associated with the design and development of mobile applications and other
digital platforms.

1. MySQL
MySQL is one of the most well-known SQL databases on the market, so it is
also commonly used within the development of mobile applications. Offering
multiple web frameworks, MySQL is a popular choice for developers that are
working with structured datasets, so this database system is a great choice if you
are developing a simple application that won’t change much over time. This is
because MySQL is a vertically scalable relational database management system,
so it is not always suitable for applications that require flexibility and mobility
when it comes to the amount and type of data that is being stored.

2. PostgreSQL
PostgreSQL is also a SQL database, so it deals with the same rows and columns
model as other relational database management systems. Unlike other SQL
databases, PostgreSQL is also compatible with JSON, so it accommodates more
data types than just structured data. PostgreSQL is commonly used when
developing a database for mobile apps that are more simple and straightforward
in their design and data schema. This ensures that the application can continue
to run smoothly as the database grows.

3. MongoDB
Known as one of the most popular NoSQL databases on the market, MongoDB
offers many features geared towards the development of mobile applications.
As a document-based database, MongoDB is proficient with the JSON data-
interchange format, making the storage of web pages and other documents, like
chat logs and messages. Through MongoDB Atlas, developers can work in a
cloud-based system to build a highly complex and scalable database that has the
capacity to grow with the changing needs of the application and the different
types of user data that will be collected and stored.

4. Amazon Web Services DynamoDB

As part of the larger ecosystem of Amazon Web Services (AWS), Amazon’s
DynamoDB is a NoSQL database that is known for its speed and efficiency
when it comes to the retrieval of information and data from the system. In
contrast to MongoDB, Amazon DynamoDB is a key-value database, so there
are a variety of data types that can be stored within this system. Like other
NoSQL databases, DynamoDB is a highly scalable and complex database
system for developers that are working with applications that need to manage
big user data and constant engagement.

5. Couchbase
Another NoSQL database, Couchbase is also a cloud-based system that is
popular amongst technology companies that need to store large collections of
information and data from their users. Through a distributed processing model,
Couchbase is the go-to for the development of enterprise applications as it is a
document database with multiple resources for mobile developers and
engineers, such as the Couchbase Developer Portal. Couchbase is also an
excellent option for mobile apps that require a database that is horizontally
scalable and amenable to growth and change over time.

Mobile Database Consists of Three Parties Which are Described Below:

o FixedHosts:
With the aid of database servers, it handles transactions and manages data.
o MobileUnits:
These are mobile, transportable computers, and the cell tower they utilize
to connect to base stations is a part of that geographical area.
 o BaseStations:
These two-way radios, which are installed in fixed places, allow
communication between the stationary hosts and the mobile units.
In many instances, a user may utilize a mobile device to log in to any corporate
database server and deal with data there, depending on the specific requirements
of mobile applications. While in other cases, the user can upload data collected at
the remote location to the company database or download it and work with it on
a mobile device. The interaction between the corporate and mobile databases is
frequently intermittent and only occasionally establishes or establishes a link for
a brief period of time.

Mobile DBMS Consist of the Following Capabilities:

o It should communicate to the centralized and primary database through

different modes.
o On mobile devices and centralized DBMS servers, the data should be
repeated.
o From the internet, capture the data.
o Mobile devices should be capable of dealing with that data.
o Mobile devices must analyze the data.
o Must create a personalized and customized application.
Limitations:

There are a lot of limitations or drawbacks available, which are pointed out
o
below:
o Its wireless bandwidth is restricted.
o It is very difficult work to make this database theft-proof.
o To operate this, we need unlimited battery power.
o Wireless communication speed suffers in mobile databases.
o In terms of security, it is less secure.

………………………………………………
OODB & XML Databases

Object oriented databases are also called Object Database Management Systems
(ODBMS). Object databases store objects rather than data such as integers,
strings or real numbers. Objects are used in object oriented languages such as
Smalltalk, C++, Java, and others. Objects basically consist of the following:
 Attributes - Attributes are data which defines the characteristics of an
object. This data may be simple such as integers, strings, and real numbers or it
may be a reference to a complex object.
 Methods - Methods define the behavior of an object and are what was
formally called procedures or functions.
Therefore objects contain both executable code and data. There are other
characteristics of objects such as whether methods or data can be accessed from
outside the object. We don't consider this here, to keep the definition simple and
to apply it to what an object database is. One other term worth mentioning is
classes. Classes are used in object oriented programming to define the data and
methods the object will contain. The class is like a template to the object.
When to Use Object Databases
Object databases should be used when there is complex data and/or complex
data relationships. This includes a many to many object relationship. Object
databases should not be used when there would be few join tables and there
are large volumes of simple transactional data.
Object databases work well with:
 CAS Applications (CASE-computer aided software engineering, CAD-
computer aided design, CAM-computer aided manufacture)
 Multimedia Applications
 Object projects that change over time.
 Commerce
Object Database Advantages over RDBMS
 Objects don't require assembly and disassembly saving coding time and
execution time to assemble or disassemble objects.
 Reduced paging
 Easier navigation
 Better concurrency control - A hierarchy of objects may be locked.
 Data model is based on the real world.
 Works well for distributed architectures.
 Less code required when applications are object oriented.
Object Database Disadvantages compared to RDBMS
 Lower efficiency when data is simple and relationships are simple.
 Relational tables are simpler.
 Late binding may slow access speed.
 More user tools exist for RDBMS.
 Standards for RDBMS are more stable.
 Support for RDBMS is more certain and change is less likely to be
required.
XML Database
is used to store huge amount of information in the XML format. As the use of
XML is increasing in every field, it is required to have a secured place to store
the XML documents. The data stored in the database can be queried
using XQuery, serialized, and exported into a desired format.
Reasons to store data in XML format as an XML database include:

 An enterprise may have numerous XML documents with similar data, but
dispersed in different XML formats. Conglomerating this data into a
singular, standardized XML database structure will avoid compatibility
issues
 Data may need to be exposed or ingested as XML, so using another format
such as relational forces double-modeling of the data
 XML is very well suited to parse data, deeply nested data and mixed content
(such as text with embedded markup tags)
 XML is human readable whereas relational tables require expertise to access
 Metadata is often available as XML
 Semantic web data is available as RDF/XML
 Provides a solution for Object-relational impedance mismatch

XML Database Types

There are two major types of XML databases −
 XML- enabled
 Native XML (NXD)
XML - Enabled Database
XML enabled database is nothing but the extension provided for the conversion
of XML document. This is a relational database, where data is stored in tables
consisting of rows and columns. The tables contain set of records, which in turn
consist of fields.
Native XML Database
Native XML database is based on the container rather than table format. It can
store large amount of XML document and data. Native XML database is queried
by the XPath-expressions.
Native XML database has an advantage over the XML-enabled database. It is
highly capable to store, query and maintain the XML document than XML-
enabled database.
Example
Following example demonstrates XML database −
<?xml version = "1.0"?>
<contact-info>
<contact1>
<name>Tanmay Patil</name>
<company>TutorialsPoint</company>
<phone>(011) 123-4567</phone>
</contact1>

<contact2>
<name>Manisha Patil</name>
<company>TutorialsPoint</company>
<phone>(011) 789-4567</phone>
</contact2>
</contact-info>
Here, a table of contacts is created that holds the records of contacts (contact1
and contact2), which in turn consists of three entities − name,
company and phone
………………………………

Multimedia and Web Databases:

A Multimedia database is a special type of database that helps us to organize,

query, and store inter-related multimedia data. It facilitates the storage and
retrieval of multimedia data elements. In these databases, all the media files are
stored in the form of binary strings and are encoded according to their file types.
Types of Multimedia Database

Based on the type of multimedia data it stores, the multimedia database is

categorized into three types:

 Static media: These multimedia datasets are specifically used for static
media objects, i.e., those objects that are independent of time constraints,
such as images and graphic objects.
 Dynamic media: These datasets are used to store dynamic forms of
media content, i.e., multimedia data elements that are time-dependent,
like audio data, video data, and animations.
 Dimensional media: Dimensional multimedia datasets are typically used
in Computer-Aided Drafting programs. These operate on 3D multimedia
data and include various formats used by image and video editing
applications.

Content of Multimedia Database

To effectively manage and query a large collection of multimedia data,

multimedia databases also store additional information related to the data apart
from the primary multimedia data. The contents of a multimedia database are:

 Media data: It is the actual multimedia data or the primary data stored in
the multimedia database. It represents a multimedia object and can be an
image, audio, video, animation, graphic object, or text.
 Media format data: It is the information related to the format of the
multimedia data. It contains data such as frame rates, encoding schemes,
etc.
 Media keyword data: It is also knowns as content descriptive data and
contains information related to the generation of multimedia data like
date and time in the case of images and videos, etc.
 Media feature data: It is used to describe the features of multimedia
data, such as the distribution of colors, etc.

Types of Multimedia Applications Based on the Data Management

Characteristics

There are numerous applications of a multimedia database. The applications of

a multimedia database can be broadly categorized into three different types
which include:

 Repository Applications: In these cases, multimedia databases act as

storage and retrieval solution for large amounts of multimedia data such
as satellite images, radiology images, etc.
  Presentation Applications: These include applications in which
multimedia data is subject to temporal constraints, i.e., the multimedia
database is required to deliver multimedia data at a certain rate to
maintain the quality of the service. It mainly includes real-time image and
video editing software applications.
 Collaborative Work Using Multimedia Information: These
applications tackle and execute complex tasks using shared multimedia
data. It includes the merging of media in intelligent healthcare networks,
etc.

Challenges of Multimedia Database

To implement a multimedia database, we need to overcome some of the

commonly occurring challenges. These include:

 Storage: The large size of multimedia data affects its storage, retrieval,
and transmission. Hence, it requires special storage facilities, which are
bigger and faster than conventional disc storage.
 Modelling: Multimedia data exist in various formats, and it is difficult to
convert one form of media content into another. This hugely affects the
multimedia data retrieval process.
 Performance: Because of its huge size and storage requirements, it takes
a lot of time to process different kinds of multimedia data. Hence,
multimedia databases are slower than traditional databases and require
large bandwidth and high processing power.
 Querying: Content-based searching of multimedia content makes use of
computer vision techniques to retrieve digital multimedia data from a
large database. This is difficult to implement and is not conveniently
supported by traditional relational databases.

Applications of Multimedia Database

As discussed, there are many applications of a multimedia database. Some of

the main applications include:

 Documents and record management: Multimedia databases are used in

industries that require a large set of documentation and records, like the
insurance claim industry, etc.
 Education: As multimedia data provides an interactive way to represent
data, a multimedia database can act as an effective knowledge
dissemination tool. These applications include the use of multimedia
datasets in digital libraries and computer-aided learning software.
 Marketing and Entertainment: A Multimedia database can act as a data
provider for entertainment applications like video-on-demand apps, news-
 on-demand apps, etc. It can provide multimedia data for advertisements
and digital marketing processes.
 Real-time Monitoring: Combining various software tools with a
multimedia database can allow us to monitor and manage multimedia
data in real-time. For example, a geographic information system (GIS)
makes use of multimedia databases to analyze and visualize geographical
multimedia data in real-time.

What is website database ?

Every action you perform in the digital world and every piece of information you put
on the internet, public or private, is called data. Data can be stored by the browser
provider and the website’s owner. While the browser will save everything, the website
will only keep the data recorded within its domain.

This online database is not kept on a user’s local machine but rather on a server
accessible over a network, such as the internet.

Besides saving new data, what is a website database for web development? Simply
put, a website database means a collection of data tables. Each table has
specialized “fields” for storing various kinds of data. A primary key is a column in a
database table that identifies each record uniquely and enables straightforward data
retrieval.

A web database can also save everything you want the front-end to show your
users. For example, when you search for anything on the internet, like “used iPhone,”
the results will show up in your browser immediately since the phrases “used” and
“iPhone” are already in the database. You may join the tables as the website’s owner
to manipulate any data or answer.

How does a web database work?

When you use a website, every request and interaction on the site will be sent to a
server for analysis before replying with an answer to the request. These requests
can be clicking on a CTA or submitting a form. This is the two-tier web architecture
that many static and HTML sites are using.

Yet, as the web world advanced with dynamic, responsive, and web app technology,
the architecture couldn’t handle it. These modern web techs are much more complex.
Thus, it must be handled by a separate system, known as the three-tier architecture.

3-tier web architecture explained

The first layer is the client side (browser, web pages). Every action will be sent to the
middle-tier server and the third-layer database. The web database will generate the
answer within its logical structure (built by developers and businesses) and transfer it
back to the client side by the server.

By separating the database and the server, you can easily modify and adjust your data
without interfering with the server’s architecture. This makes it easier to scale and
update in the future. Even though the 3 layer works independently, they should still be
built on standard protocols to ensure usability, security and stability.
Types of web database

There are many types of databases to use. Yet for web development, the best two
kinds are relational databases and NoSQL databases.

Relational databases

The most prevalent database form is a Relational database management system

(RDBMS). They are what most people envision when they consider databases.

Because most relational databases employ Structured Query Language (SQL), they
are also known as SQL databases.

Relational database uses “keys” to connect information from various tables. This is
the one-of-a-kind identifier that can be allocated to a row of data in a database. When
a record in another table has a link to the primary one in the main table, this unique
identifier, known as a “primary key,” may be included in that record. When this
unique primary key is connected with a record in another table, it is referred to as a
“foreign key” in that table. The link between entries in different tables is then created
by connecting the primary and foreign keys.

Commonly used relational web database: MySQL, MSSQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite,

MariaDB.

examples of web database

There are many web databases examples to choose from, here are some of the top
ones:

 MySQL: A well-known database management system that is the backbone of

WordPress, Drupal, and numerous CMS. Excellent documentation, a vast user
 community, and many free tools for modeling and managing databases are all
advantages.

 PostgreSQL: A powerful and open-source RDBMS. It is perceived as superior

at sophisticated queries and operations.

 SQLite: A file-based database tool designed as a library that may be applied to

another program rather than as a standalone application. Ruby on Rails
includes SQLite (though other databases are supported).

 MariaDB: A drop-in replacement for MySQL that improves speed and adds
new functionality.

 MongoDB: The most well-known NoSQL database. Mongo is document-

oriented and saves data in JSON format, making it very compatible with
JavaScript-based frameworks such as Node.js.

 CouchDB: A document-oriented, JSON-based database that is comparable to

MongoDB. It is incredibly available and utilizes JavaScript as its query
language (unlike Mongo). Some of its benefits come at the expense of
consistent consistency: data propagates across the system in an “Eventual
Consistency” model, which implies that a query may sometimes return old
data.

………………………………………..
Active Database:

Active database: Active databases are a database management system mainly

created to support real-time data processing. These systems have the ability to
execute database operations automatically in response to events or changes in the
database. In active databases, we can set a Trigger for event-driven processing.

What is a trigger?

A trigger is a process that invokes automatically when some changes happen in

the database. In active databases, triggers can be executed in response to a much
wider range than traditional databases; it also includes external events such as
changes to a file or sensor readings. For example, on an E-commerce website
when a user places an order for an item automatically he/she gets a notification
for the same.

Figure 1. Triggering Event and its Action

Triggers have mainly three parts(ECA):

1. Event: A change to the database that activated the trigger

2. Condition: A query or test that is run when a trigger is activated
3. Action: The action that is executed when the trigger is activated and its
condition is true. If the condition evaluates to false, the trigger remains
unchecked.

Complexity in triggers: Triggers in active databases are harder to understand

than triggers in traditional databases because they add an additional layer of
complexity. In traditional databases, triggers are executed in response to changes
in data, such as inserting or updating a row in a table. In active databases,
triggers can be executed in response to a much wider range of events, including
external events such as changes to a file or sensor readings.
Furthermore, active databases often require more complex trigger logic than
traditional databases. For example, an active database trigger might need to
interact with external APIs or trigger a business process that involves multiple
steps and systems. Finally, active databases may require specialized technology
to implement triggers, such as message queues or event-driven architectures.

Active Database Features

1. Traditional database features such as data definition language (DDL), data

manipulation language (DML), and memory management are supported.
2. All ECA rules are properly defined and maintained
3. Events Events are accurately recognized.
4. You must be able to evaluate a condition and perform an action.
5. Implementation of rule execution is mandatory.
6. Consists of all the concepts of the traditional database i.e -data Modeling
Capabilities, Query Language, etc.

Active Database Benefits:

1. Powerful rule processing capabilities enhance traditional database capabilities

and make them more effective.
2. Avoid redundancy in the test and repair process.
3. It’s very flexible nature makes it suitable for building large and efficient
knowledge databases and expert systems.
4. Enable uniform and centralized description of business rules related to
information systems

Disadvantages of Active Databases:

1. Lack of Standardization:
Active Databases lack standardization and common data Various data sets in
formats

2. Active Database was implemented primarily for the centralized

DBMS. Distributed and parallel DBMS are not considered.